ABSTRACT 
Title of Dissertation: MOTIVATION FOR AND SOURCES OF ENJOYMENT FROM 
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ACROSS THE ADULT LIFESPAN 
Dorothy C. Hyman, Doctor of Philosophy, 1996 
Dissertation directed by: Professor Donald H. Steel 
Department of Kinesiology 
This research describes the development and validation of measures 
designed to assess physical activity motivation and physical activity 
enjoyment across the adult lifespan. Two stages were used with samples 
of 259 and 275 adults respectively counterbalanced for age and sex. All 
respondents were currently engaged in a variety of sport and exercise 
activities and settings appropriate for all age groups. 
Stage one respondents completed an initial 50 - item physical 
activity motivation inventory and an initial 39-item physical activity 
enjoyment inventory. Results were used to identify factors and items 
for physical activity motivation and enjoyment that appeared consistent 
and stable across the adult lifespan in order to develop the Physical 
Activity Motivation Scale (PAMS} and the Physical Activity Enjoyment 
Scale {PAES). Alpha reliabilities were calculated for each sub -scale of 
the PAMS and PAES, and a convenience sample (n=40} completed the PAMS 
and PAES two weeks apart to determine test~retest reliabilities. 
Stage two respondents completed the PAMS, PAES, the short form of 
the Leisure Motivation Scale, the short form of the Leisure Satisfaction 
Scale, and the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale in 
order to confirm PAMS and PAES stage one factor structures, determine 
the convergent and divergent validity of the PAMS and PAES, and describe 
adult patterns of physical activity motivation and enjoyment across the 
lifespan. Additionally, results from stage two were used to distinguish 
between motivation for and enjoyment from physical activity. 
The Physical Activity Motivation Scale (PAMS) consists of 22 items 
and five sub-scales: Mastery and Autonomy, Social Recognition and 
Rewards, Affiliation, Family, and Self-Control. The Physical Activity 
Enjoyment Scale (PAES) consists of 14 items and sub-scales: Self 
Rewards, Social Recognition and Rewards, and Responsibility/Family. The 
PAMS and PAES sub-scales have acceptable internal consistency and test-
retest reliability, share expected variance with related constructs, and 
appear relatively stable and consistent across the adult lifespan. 
In stage two, the relationship between motivation and enjoyment in 
the physical activity setting was explored and p~eliminary support found 
for their cyclic, yet distinguishable natures. Directions for further 
research are proposed. 
MOTIVATION FOR AND SOURCES OF ENJOYMENT FROM PHYSICAL ACTIVITY 
ACROSS THE ADULT LIFESPAN 
By 
Dorothy C. Hyman 
Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the 
University of Maryland at College Park in partial fulfillment 
of the requirements for the degree of 
Doctor of Philosophy 
1996 
C \ 
fir 
Advisory Committee: 
Professor Donald H. Steel, Chair/Advisor 
Professor John Burt 
Dr. Laurence Chalip 
Dr. Bradley Hatfield 
Professor Seppa Iso-Ahola 
u f I 
., 
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. J ) 
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i i 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
I would like to thank my husband, Rick, without whose support my 
PhD. would have remained a dream. I would also like to thank Dr . 
Laurence Chalip for his professional and personal support. Finally, I 
would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Donald Steel, who continuously 
reminded me of the real reason I was taking this degree - to be the very 
best teacher I can be. 
1 
i i i 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
List of Tables ........... . . . 
Chapter 
I: Introduction ........ . Vi 
Purpose of Study and Hypotheses . 
Implications for Future Research . . . . . . I 
Definition of Terms ..... . 6 
. . . 8 
Chapter II: Review of Literature . . 9 
Trait Theory ......... . 
Self-Motivation . . . . II 
Sport Confidence . 11 
Achievement Motivation 12 
Competence Motivation 13 13 
Social Learning Theory ..........???...... 
The Health Belief Model 15 16 
Theories of Reasoned Action and Planned Behavior 17 
Model of Interpersonal Behavior 
Self -Efficacy 18 
Self-Determination Theory ......... . 20 
Motivational Control Theory ...... . 22 
Sport and Exercise Motivation Inventories . 25 
Leisure Motivation ..?........ . 31 
Sport and Exercise Enjoyment ...... . . . . . 35 
leisure Satisfaction ..... . ... . . 40 
Developmental Perspective for Leisure .... . . 42 48 
DevePloaprmtiecniptaal tiPoenr spective for Sport and Exercise 53 
Summary ? . . . . . . . . . . . ? . . . . 55 
? ? . . . 59 
Chapter Ill: Stage One Methods and Procedures ...... . 
Development and Content Validity for the PAMS and PAES .. 62 
Initial Physical Activity Motivation Inventory 62 
Subjects I.n.it.ia.l .P h.y sical Activity Enjoyment Inventory 62 
Sampling . ? . . . . .. 63 
Testing Procedures. . ..... . . 64 
Data Analysis ..... . ...... . . 64 
. . . ? . 65 Chapter . . 67 
IV: Stage One Results .......... . 
Physical Activity Motivation Principal Components . . 69 
PAMS Sub-Scale Reliabilities ........... . 
PAMS Sub-Scale Intercorrelations . ? ....... . 69 . 74 
Physical Activity Enjoyment Principal Components. 
PAES Sub-Scale Reliabilities ........ . . 76 . 77 
PAES Sub-Scale Intercorrelations ......... . 80 
. 81 
iv 
Chapter V: Stage Two Methods and Procedures. 84 
Subjects . . . . . . . . . ? . 84 
Sampling . . . . ? . . . ? . ? . . . . . . . . . . ? . 84 
Testing Procedure. ? . ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? . 85 
Analy~is of Factor Structures for the PAMS and PAES . 87 
Concurrent Validity for the PAMS and PAES . . . 88 
PAMS Description 88 
Leisure Motivation Scale Description 89 
PAMS Scale and Sub-Scale Hypothesized 
Relationships to the LMS 90 
PAES Description 92 
Short Form of the Leisure Satisfaction Scale 93 
PAES Scale and Sub-Scale Hypothesized 
Relationships to the LSS 94 
Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression 
Scale 96 
Hypothesized Relationships Between the PAMS, 
PAES, and CES-0 98 
Predictive and Discriminant Validity for the PAMS and PAES. 99 
Motivation for and Sources of Enjoyment from Physical 
Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? 100 
Chapter VI: Stage Two Results 102 
PAMS Factor Structure .. . 102 
PAES Factor Structure . . . 106 
Concurrent Validity for the PAMS .. . 109 
Concurrent Validity for the PAES ......... . 112 
Predicitive and Discriminant Validity for the PAMS. 114 
Predicitive and Discriminant Validity for the PAES .. 115 
Motivation for and Sources of Enjoyment from Physical 
Activity ......... . 117 
Chapter VII: Summary and Discussion ......... . 120 
The PAMS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ? . . . . . . . 120 
The PAES. . . . . . . . . ? . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 
Motivational Patterns for Physical Activity Across 
the Adult Lifespan .............. . 127 
Patterns of Enjoyment from Physical Activity Across 
the Adult Lifespan ?...?.......... 129 
Physical Activity Participation Motivation and 
Enjoyment Distinctions ............ . 131 
Concluding Thoughts ................ . 132 
Appendix A: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 
Initial Motivation and Enjoyment Sub-Scales and Items 135 
Stage One Questionnaire .............. . 139 
Item Means and Standard Deviations for the Initial 
Motivation Inventory .......?...... 143 
Item Means and Standard Deviations for the Initial 
Enjoyment Inventory . . ..?..?..... 147 
V 
Appendix B: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 
PAMS and PAES Sub-Scales and Items . . 151 
The Leisure Motivation Scale . . ... .. . . .. 153 
Short Form of the Leisure Satisfaction Scale . . .. . 155 
Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale . ? 157 
Stage Two Questionnaire. . . . . ?. 158 
Appendix C: ....... . . .. . . 165 
Final PAMS and PAES Sub-Scales and Items ... 166 
Stage Two PAMS, PAES, LMS , LSS, and CES-D Scale 
and Sub -Sea le Means. . . . . . 168 
Bib l iography . . ......... . 171 
vi 
LIST OF TABLES 
1. Demographic Information for Stage One Respondents 66 
2. Stage One PAMS Factor Loadings 70 
3. PAMS Sub-Scale Reliabilities 75 
4. PAMS Sub-Scale Intercorrelations 76 
5. Stage One PAES Factor Loadings 78 
6. PAES Sub-Scale Reliabilities 81 
7. PAES Sub-Scale Intercorrelations 82 
8. Demographic Information for Stage Two Respondents 86 
9. Hypothesized Relationships Between the PAMS and LMS Sub-Scales 90 
10. Hypothesized Relationships Between the PAES and the LSS 96 
Sub-Scales 
11. Revised PAMS Factor Loadings 103 
12. Stage Two PAES Factor Loadings 107 
13. PAMS and LmS Sub-Scale Correlations 109 
14. PAMS and CES-0 Sub-Scale Correlations 111 
15. PAES and LSS Sub-Scale Correlations 112 
16. PAES and CES-0 Sub-Scale Correlations 113 
17. PAMS and PAES Sub-Scale Factor Score Correlations 118 
1 
CHAPTER I 
INTRODUCTION 
Motivation is a complex phenomenon generally defined as arousal to 
action and considered a driving force for the initiation and maintenance 
of an individual's behavior (Franken, 1982). Although the above 
definition is often used, motivation should not be confused with 
arousal, "activation of the various organs of the body that are under 
control of the autonomic nervous system" (Cox, 1994, p.134) . The 
distinction between motivation and arousal is that motivation provides 
the cognitive energization for human behavior, while arousal provides 
the physiological energization necessary for human action and behavior 
performance. 
Motivation provides the underlying energy for human behavior by 
determining the selection, intensity or vigor, and persistence of an 
individual's activities. Although there is no universally accepted, 
systematic approach to motivational theory at the present time, Cattell 
and Kline (1977) suggested there is a consensus among psychologists 
concerning three recognizable aspects for motivated behavior: the 
tendency to attend spontaneously to some things rather than others, a 
course of action with a specific goal as its end, and a characteristic 
emotion specfic to the action . Accordingly, motivated behavior is 
goal -directed activity accompanied by an affective response . 
What goals and affective responses are associated with exercise 
and sport participation? Willis and Campbell (1992) identified the 
following recurring primary motives for exercise from their review of 
2 
research on exercise and fitness motives : increased health and fitness 
and psychological benefits. Weiss and Chaumeton (1992) identified the 
following fairly consistent set of sport-general and sport - specific 
motivational factors from their review of descriptive studies on 
participation motivation in young athletes: competence (learn and 
improve skills, achieve goals), fitness (get in shape or get stronger), 
affiliation (be with friends or make new ones), team aspects (be part of 
a group or team), competition (win, be successful), and fun (excitement, 
challenge, action). Both reviews identified fun and enjoyment as 
exercise and sport participation motives rather than positive affective 
responses associated with physical activity involvement and outcome 
evaluation by the individual and others. Additionally, although two 
positive affective components of motivation, fun and enjoyment, were 
identified; other positive feeling states such as revitalization and 
tranquility associated with exercise involvement during and after 
participation (Gauvin & Rejeski, 1993) were absent. Also absent was 
satisfaction, defined by Ragheb and Beard (1980, p.330) as "positive 
perceptions or feelings which an individual forms, elicits, or gains as 
a result of engaging in leisure activities and choices." Because sport 
and exercise are leisure activities, it would be useful to explore the 
relationships between sources of enjoyment from participation in these 
physical activities and the more general construct of leisure 
satisfaction. 
People across the age spectrum from childhood to later adulthood 
frequently cite fun and enjoyment as their primary reasons for engaging 
in sport and exercise activities (Broer & Holland, 1954; Clough, Sheperd 
3 
& Maughan, 1989; Ewing & Seefeldt, 1990; Gill, Gross & Huddleston, 1983; 
Gould, Feltz & Weiss, 1985; Raugh & Wall, 1987; Weick, 1975; Youngblood 
& Suinn, 1978). The robustness of this finding clearly suggests that 
the role of positive affect is a key to understanding and explaining the 
physical activity experience and motivation for participation in sport 
and exercise. Fun and enjoyment can occur during and after physical 
activity as the individual's response to the activity itself and to the 
outcome evaluation of the activity by self and others. Unfortunately, 
few existing measurement tools enable researchers to fully explore 
enjoyment from participation in physical activity as an integrated, 
multi-factor, social-psychological construct because they do not 
differentiate between motivation and enjoyment. Most current physical 
activity, sport, or exercise inventories and questionnaires include fun 
and enjoyment as reasons for participation in physical activities rather 
than positive feelings generated during those movement experiences and 
resulting from sport and exercise participation. 
The more fundamental question raised by reviews of sport and 
exercise motivation is the relationship between motivation and 
enjoyment. Because motivation and enjoyment are latent factors, 
determining their relationship to one another is somewhat problematic. 
One of the purposes of this research was to develop assessment tools 
through which sport and exercise motivation and enjoyment could be 
differentiated and reliably, validly measured for individals 
participating in physical activities across the adult lifespan. 
One rationale for a distinction between motivation and enjoyment 
is based on the definition of motivation as an individual's cognitive 
4 
energization for behavior and enjoyment as the positive global affective 
response associated by the individual with the experience itself . 
Accordingly, in relation to actual behavior, motivation occurs a priori, 
enjoyment occurs post hoc, and motivation and enjoyment both occur 
during the activity. Motivation sparks the initiation of behavior, 
motivation and enjoyment both impact on the maintenance of behavior, and 
enjoyment plays a key role in the continuation or adherence to activity. 
According to Wankel (1993, p.151), "enjoyment may facilitate continued 
involvement in activity and in turn afford attainment of health benefits 
to more participants." For this reason, it is necessary to examine both 
motivation and enjoyment to develop a more comprehensive answer to the 
question of why people play sports and exercise across the adult 
lifespan. 
This still leaves the question of what specific motives and 
sources of enjoyment are relevant to and impact upon adult participation 
in sports and exercise. While there is a great deal of literature and 
previous research in the area of sport and exercise motivation, there is 
very little separate research and literature concerning sport and 
exercise enjoyment. The initial motivation inventory developed for this 
research was grounded in previous sport, exercise, and physical activity 
instruments and distinguished not by its content but by its population 
sample from across the adult lifespan. The initial enjoyment inventory 
was based on a conceptual link between Denzin's (1984) levels of human 
emotions and the subsequent possible sources of enjoyment from 
participation in physical activity defined within his fourth level of 
emotion, feelings of the self and moral person. These sources of 
5 
enjoyment look somewhat suspiciously similar to participation motives. 
This is because the enjoyment derived from sport and exercise 
participation is a consequence of the experience itself and thus 
incontrovertibly linked to reasons for sport and exercise participation. 
Any participation motive is a possible source of enjoyment from sport 
and exercise participation. A graduate-level seminar class in Sport 
Psychology during the Spring 1993 semester at the University of 
Maryland, College Park confirmed this when they evaluated a list of 52 
items previously used to assess sport participation motivation for their 
appropriateness as sources of enjoyment from sport and exercise 
participation. All agreed that the items suggested represented both 
motives and sources of enjoyment for physical activity. No additional 
items were suggested by the focus group. 
The relationship between habitual exercise and both individual and 
public health is well~doumented and includes a broad spectrum of 
conditions upon which habitual exercise has an allegedly favorable 
influence (Dishman, 1988). Empirical evidence has linked physically 
active lifestyles to improved mental (Seraganian, 1993) and physical 
(Brill, Kohl, & Blair, 1992) well-being. However, epidemiologists 
report that less than 20% of the 18-to-65-year-old population in the 
United States exercises at sufficient levels of intensity, duration, and 
frequency to achieve positive health and fitness benefits (Powell, 
Spain, Christenson, & Mollenkamp, 1986). In addition, although there 
are relatively few descriptive studies of sport or exercise motivation 
from a developmental perspective (Brodkin & Weiss, 1990; Cousins & 
Burgess, 1992; Duncan & McAuley, 1993; Heitman, 1986; McPherson, 1984; 
'' .... l """" ' .,., ~ ..-..1 
6 
Rudman, 1986), the values and beliefs held by exercise participants may 
be subject to significant modification as a function of age, sex, 
activity history, and differences in objective/subjective responses to 
exercise (Rejeski, 1992). 
Well-documented statistics also indicate that approximately 50% of 
those who begin organized fitness and exercise programs withdraw before 
any health benefits have been realized (Dishman, 1982; Morgan, 1977; 
Oldridge, 1982). A better understanding of why individuals choose to 
participate in exercise activities and why they continue such 
participation throughout the adult lifecycle could provide a means for 
decreasing this drop-out rate (Herbert & Teague, 1988-89). An emphasis 
on enjoyment of physical activity may have significant positive outcomes 
by facilitating continued involvement in activity, countering stress, 
and facilitating positive psychological health (Wankel, 1993). Thus, it 
seems valuable to determine the preferred sport and exercise 
activities, perceived participation motives, specific affective 
responses to physical activity participation, and physical activity 
involvement history for individuals across the lifespan? from early to 
late adulthood. This information should provide insights not only into 
why individuals play sports and exercise, but also into how to plan and 
implement physical activity programs that attract and retain more adults 
of varying ages. 
Purpose of Study and Hypotheses 
The purpose of this research was to design valid, reliable, 
objective inventories to measure motivation and sources of enjoyment 
from physical activity across the adult lifespan from early to late 
7 
adulthood within an inclusive, integrated theoretical framework . For 
this reason, items and sub -scales for each inventory were grounded in 
the literatures from exercise motivation, sport participation 
motivation, leisure motivation, leisure satisfaction, and sport 
enjoyment. The selection of items for the preliminary inventories 
attempted to include all primary physical activity participation motives 
for the motivation inventory and all possible positive affective 
responses logically associated with each primary motive for the 
enjoyment inventory. Sub -scales were chosen to reflect motivation 
factors identified from previous research and universal social needs 
identified by Mannell (1989) and Oeci and Ryan (1991). 
The hypotheses tested were: 
1. Motivation for and sources of enjoyment from physical activity are 
multi-factor social-psychological constructs that are positively 
and highly associated, but distinguishable. 
2. The motivation scale is positively and significantly related to 
individual self -reports of time actually spent participating in 
physical activity. 
3. The enjoyment scale is positively and significantly related to 
individual self-reports of the amount of time preferred spent 
participating in physical activity if there were no participation 
barriers or constraints. 
4. The level of motivation and sources of enjoyment from physical 
activity in each scale and sub- scale vary across the adult 
lifespan. 
5. The level of motivation and sources of enjoyment from physical 
8 
activity in each scale and sub - scale vary according to sex. 
6. The motivation scale is positively and significantly correlated 
with the short form of the Leisure Motivation Scale, and all 
sub-scales are positively correlated (Beard & Ragheb , 1983). 
7. The enjoyment scale is positively and significantly correlated 
with the short form of the Leisure Satisfaction Scale, and all 
sub-scales are positively correlated (Ragheb & Beard, 1980). 
8. The motivation scale and sub -scales and the enjoyment scale and 
sub-scales are negatively correlated with the Depressed Affect, 
Somatic and Retarded Activity, and Interpersonal Affect sub-scales 
of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale 
(Radloff, 1977) and negatively and significantly correlated with 
the Positive Affect sub-scale of the Center for Epidemiological 
Studies Depression Scale. 
Implications for Future Research 
The motivation and enjoyment inventories developed from this 
research should provide valuable psychometric tools with increased 
measurement efficacy for both constructs. The PAMS and PAES could be 
used to examine and describe participants in specific types of physical 
activities in order to provide settings, services, instruction, and 
leadership that encourage adherence or continued involvement of current 
participants as well as those that will attract new participants. 
Motivation and enjoyment profiles could also be examined and compared 
for each individual as he or she participates in a variety of physical 
activities. Such descriptions should enhance activity selections that 
maximize enjoyment while meeting individual motivational needs. This, 
9 
in turn, should improve adherence. 
Data collected from individual and group research using multi -
factor motivation and enjoyment inventories also have direct 
implications for provision of sport and exercise by public and private 
organizations. Results should indicate participant expectations from 
physical activity and the relationship of those expectations to activity 
eryjoyment. These impact upon the types and number of activities that 
should be offered by public and private organizations to adequately meet 
the public's needs, facility design, instruction, supervision, and 
program evaluation. Specific information concerning each of the above 
are areas for future research. 
Definition of Terms 
The following terms are operationally defined for use in this 
research: 
exercise - planned, structured, repetitive physical activity with 
the primary objective of improving or maintaining physical 
fitness 
sport - voluntary, organized, competitive, physical activities 
with both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. There is a clear 
beginning and end to the competition, consequences are 
limited, competition is against either an opponent or a 
standard of achievement, and the outcome has not been pre-
determined. 
physical activity - playing sports, practicing sports skills, and 
exercising 
motivation - a driving cognitive force for the initiation and 
10 
maintenance of goal- directed behavior 
enjoyment - the global posi tive affective response to the outcome 
evaluati on of goal -directed behavior 
II 
CHAPTER II 
REVIEW OF LITERATURE 
Motivation for physical activity is a complex phenomenon that 
provides the underlying energy for individual sport and exercise 
behavior and determines the selection, intensity or vigor, and 
persistence of an individual's participation in physical activities. In 
order to more fully understand participation motivation, a brief 
historical summary of motivation theory and constructs that have been 
applied in sport, exercise, and leisure settings is useful. 
Descriptions of relevant motivation questionnaires and inventories 
designed for exercise, sport, and leisure participation and their 
relationship to motivation theory and the initial motivation inventory 
designed for the present research are included for each motivation 
theory. Next, a summary of enjoyment and satisfaction theoretical 
constructs that have been applied in physical activity and leisure 
settings are presented. Enjoyment and satisfaction questionnaires and 
inventories designed for sport, exercise, and leisure are described and 
their relationships to the present proposed enjoyment inventory 
delineated within relevant theoretical constructs. Finally, exercise 
and sport participation are considered from a developmental perspective 
across the adult lifespan. 
Trait Theory 
Trait theory (Allport, 1937) is based upon the premise that 
personality can be described in terms of stable, enduring traits or 
factors that remain consistent across a variety of differing situations. 
12 
These traits are considered synonymous with predispositions to act in a 
certain way, although such predispositions do not mean the individual 
will always act in the expected manner. The traits with particular 
relevance to sport and exercise participation motivation include self-
motivation (Dishman, Ickes, & Morgan, 1980), achievement motivation 
(Duda, 1993 review), self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986; McAuley, 1992 
review), and sport confidence (Vealy; 1986, 1988). 
Self-Motivation. Using a trait theory approach to exercise, 
Dishman, Ickes, and Morgan (1980) developed the 40-item Self-Motivation 
Inventory (SMI) as a dispositional measure of behavioral persistance 
designed to assess the individual's tendency to engage in vigorous 
physical activity regardless of extrinsic reinforcement. Eleven factors 
accounted for 40.5% of the total variance. In initial research, the SMI 
predicted compliance of women to crew training and middle-aged adult 
males to a health-oriented exercise program and was valuable in 
discriminating between drop-outs and adherers in organized 
fitness/rehabilitation programs. Even though the SMI was predictive in 
initial research, in some research it did not assist in -classifying 
those who eventually dropped out of a structured fitness program (Ward & 
Morgan, 1984) nor was it related to fitness program attendance (Wankel, 
1984). Rejeski (1994) suggested these inconsistencies might be 
accounted for by the restrictiveness inherent in the trait theory upon 
which the SMI was founded. They could also be the result of basing the 
SMI on a factor structure that explained less than half of the variance 
in the initial sample and consequently may well have eliminated one or 
more important, untapped sources of motivation. 
13 
Sport Confidence. A second trait identified in sport settings is 
sport confidence, "the belief or degree of certainty individuals possess 
about their ability to be successful in sport (Vealey, 1986, p.222). 
According to Vealey (1986, 1988), the athlete brings to the objective 
competitive sport situation a personality trait of sport confidence and 
a particular competitive orientation which are predictive of the level 
of situational state-specific sport confidence exhibited by the athlete 
during actual sport competition. This situation-specific sport 
confidence is predictive of overt behavioral responses or performance 
which, in turn, lead to subjective perceptions of outcome by the athlete 
including satisfaction, perception of success, and outcome attributions. 
Subjective perceptions of outcome influence and are influenced by both 
the athlete's competitive orientation and personality trait of sport 
confidence. Thus, the motivational mechanism in this model is limited 
to mastery and excludes social motives for sport participation. Also , 
because self-confidence and self-efficacy are used interchangeably by 
Vealey (1986), additional limitations of sport confidence for adequately 
explaining sport participation motivation are more fully explained in 
the discussion of self-efficacy. 
Achievement Motivation. The McClelland-Atkinson model of 
achievement motivation (1953) proposes that achievement motivation is 
based upon two psychological constructs: the motive to achieve success 
and fear of failure. Within the sport setting, achievement motivation 
has been defined as "the athlete's predisposition to approach or avoid a 
competitive situation" (Cox, 1994, p. 212) . In a broader sense, 
achievement motivation represents the desire or drive to excel. As 
14 
such, achievement can be conceptualized as a drive or need, and 
achievement motivation can be viewed from the perspective of drive 
theory even though it is not quite so simplistic. 
The motive to achieve success is believed to represent the 
athlete's intrinsic motivation to engage in an interesting and exciting 
activity, while fear of failure is associated with cognitive state 
anxiety {Cox, 1994). Maehr and Nicholls {1980) suggest achievement 
motivation may take a variety of forms derived from individuals' primary 
goals for participation and the meanings they attach to success and 
failure. Maehr and Nicholls identified three categories of achievement 
goal orientations: ability-oriented, task-oriented, and social 
approval-oriented behaviors. 
Ability-oriented behavior is characterized as the desire to 
maintain favorable perceptions of personal ability with the primary goal 
of maximizing the probability of demonstrating high ability or 
minimizing the probability of demonstrating low ability. Social 
comparison is the predominant source of information for ability goal 
orientation, and performance outcomes attributed to high ability are 
subjectively experienced as success and result in positive affect and 
the expectation of future success in similar situations. Outcomes 
attributed to low ability are perceived as failure which result in 
negative affect and lead to expectations of failure in future mastery 
attempts in similar situations. 
Task-oriented behavior focuses on the process of involvement in 
achievement situations rather than the outcome. Success is experienced 
as intrinsic motivation derived from mastery of the task itself, and the 
15 
criteria against which such performances are evaluated are inherent in 
the task or based on previous individual performances and not those of 
others. 
The goal of social approval -oriented behavior is to maximize the 
probability of demonstrating virtuous intent and thus gain social 
approval for these intentions. The role of effort is emphasized in the 
social approval orientation because effort is viewed as being 
voluntarily controlled by the individual and thus indicative of social 
conformity. Thus, goal attainment for individuals in competitive 
situations such as sport who are either ability-, task - , or social 
approval-oriented implies some measure of individual competence. For 
this reason, achievement motivation can be linked to competence 
motivation theory (Harter, 1978, 1980; White, 1959) and the roles played 
by perceived competence and perceived control in determining 
motivational orientation, evaluation of performance, affect, and future 
expectations in similar sport situations. 
Competence Motivation. According to Harter (1978, 1980), 
perceived competence is a multidimensional motive that directs 
individuals in the cognitive, social, and physical domains. Success and 
failure are evaluated by significant others such as parents, teachers , 
coaches, and peers. Perceived competence and intrinsic pleasure 
resulting from positive evaluations and positive feedback indicate 
success and increase achievement striving. Perceptions of incompetence 
and displeasure result from negative evaluation and negative feedback 
from significant others , are associated with failure, and presumably 
lead to anxiety and a decrease in achievement motivation. Thus, 
16 
individuals who perceive themselves as competent in sport and exercise 
activities should be more likely to participate in sport and exercise 
than individuals who perceive themselves as incompetent in sport and 
exercise settings. Unfortunately, the relationship between competence 
and participation in sport activities is weak (Feltz & Brown, 1984; 
Feltz & Petlickoff, 1983; Ulrich, 1987). 
The initial motivation inventory designed for the present research 
accounted for both achievement and competence theories of motivation . 
The motivation inventory included three sub-scales that attempted to 
directly assess perceived personal competence, social competence, and 
control. In addition, individual items addressed the importance of 
winning, being better than others, improving skills, and being respected 
by others. 
Social Learning Theory 
A second major school of thought in human behavior and motivation 
is social learning theory (Bandura, 1977; Hull, 1943; Rotter , 1954). 
According to social learning theory, human behavior is a function of 
social learning and the strength of the situation. Individuals learn to 
behave through modeling the observed behavior of others and through 
social reinforcement or rewards received for specific behaviors . In 
social learning theory , self-efficacy is a term used to describe the 
conviction an individual has in his/her ability to successfully execute 
the behavior required to produce a certain outcome (Bandura , 1977). 
Social learning theorists have identified a problem of getting 
people to take immediate steps toward long-term rewards. They have 
attributed this problem to a general lack of motivation caused by the 
17 
delayed consequences associated with health outcomes. Most people seem 
to seek immediate gratification and act in a particular way because they 
expect that their behavior will produce some desired outcome. When 
outcomes occur only after a training period of eight to ten weeks as in 
the case of exercise, the expectancy and reinforcement values of the 
exercise behavior are affected. However, the individual's perception or 
belief in his or her ability to control outcomes and subsequent 
reinforcement are still significant tenets in social learning theory and 
deserve attention in sport and exercise research. For this reason, the 
scales for perceived freedom or personal choice and control and social 
recognition and rewards were included in the initial inventories 
developed for the present research (see Appendix A). More specifically, 
it is essential to recognize that reinforcements exist in hierarchies 
that vary for each individual within each sport experience and exercise 
session. Enjoyment is one such reinforcement, and its sources within 
the sport and exercise settings might provide insights into both the 
individual's hierarchy of physical activity needs or motives and the 
relative values of these motives in determining the individual's general 
and specific enjoyment from physical activity participation. 
The Health Belief Model. The Health Belief Model (Becker, 1974) 
proposes the following determinants of compliance to health behaviors: 
1) readiness to undertake behavior determined by motivations, value of 
illness threat reduction, and probability that compliant behavior will 
reduce threat and 2) modifying and enabling factors including 
demographics, structural components, attitudes, interaction with 
doctors, past experience with behavior, and social pressure. Although 
18 
Willis and Campbell (1992) identified health and fitness as a recurring 
primary motivator for exercise participation, Rejeski (1992) seriously 
questionned the theoretical merit of the Health Belief Model and its 
application in the exercise setting on the following grounds: the 
limits defined by the motivating and enabling dimension of the Health 
Belief Model are ambiguous and create considerable error variance from 
one study to another because of the multiple meanings given to terms, 
systematic definitions are not specified, individual differences such as 
health locus of control are not recognized, delay of gratification and 
hierarchy of needs are not addressed, and the extent to which other 
exercise motives exist reduces the predictive power of the Health Belief 
Model. However, because health and fitness are recurring primary 
motives for both sport and exercise participation, they were directly 
included by item 9 of the Personal Competence sub -scale and may have 
been indirectly measured by items 2, 4, 5, 7, and 10 of the Personal 
Competence sub-scale and items 4 and 5 of the Variety and Change sub-
scale in the initial motivation inventory designed for the present 
research (see Appendix A). 
Theories of Reasoned Action and Planned Behavior. Fishbein and 
Ajzen (1975) developed the theory of reasoned action to predict and 
explain voluntary behavior. According to the theory of reasoned action, 
attitude and social norms lead to intention which leads to behavior. 
Attitude is comprised of outcome expectancies and the values attached to 
outcomes, while social norms contain the normative beliefs of 
significant others and motivation to comp 'y. One major limitation of 
the theory of reasoned action is its restriction to behavior completely 
19 
under volitional control and its consequent inapplicability to behavior 
restricted by available resources. To account for goal -directed 
behavior in situations in which the individual does not have complete 
volitional control, Ajzen (1985) added a behavioral control construct to 
the theory of reasoned action in his theory of planned behavior. 
Behavioral control in this context is very similar to the perception of 
self-efficacy (Ajzen, 1991). 
Wankel, Mummery, Stephens, and Craig (1994) investigated the 
utility of attitude, perceived behavioral control, and perceived social 
support measures as operationalizations of the theories of reasoned 
action and planned behavior in order to assess the effectiveness of each 
theory for predicting physical act vity intentions of 1733 male and 1946 
female participants in the 1981 Canada Fitness Survey. The theory of 
planned behavior accounted for 31% of the behavior intention variance, 
while the theory of reasoned action accounted for only 15% of the 
behavior intention variance. In other words, the addition of perceived 
behavioral control increased the amount of explained variance for 
behavioral intention from 15% to 31% even though a measure of social 
support for activity was substituted for that of subjective norm when 
operationalizing both theories. lhe authors suggested that general 
predictions from the theory of planned behavior were supported when the 
constructs were operationalized in a less than optimal manner which 
supported the construct validity of the theory and added confidence in 
its robustness. A 1 test indicated that the behavioral intentions of 
males and females were not significantly different, and the relative 
contributions of the three predictor variables were similar. Perceived 
20 
behavioral control was the most important predictor of activity 
intention, fo11owed by attitude, and social support . However , there was 
a successive decrease across age in the intention to be active with a 
significant difference between the youngest age group (20 -39) and a11 
others. In the initial inventories developed for the present research, 
control was tapped by items in the Perceived Freedom sub -scale, and 
social support was addressed by items in the Social Competence and 
Affiliation sub-scale. Through its delineation of specific sources of 
enjoyment from physical activity, the enjoyment inventory also provided 
a means for assessing why individuals like to participate in sports and 
exercise. This provided a measure of the sources of positive attitudes 
toward physical activity participation (see Appendix A). 
Model of Interpersonal Behavior. Triandis (1977) model of 
interpersonal behavior proposed that the probability of an act is a 
function of intentions, habit strength, and facilitating conditions. 
Additionally, intentions are determined by four factors: social, 
cognitive, affective, and personal normative beliefs. The social 
component constitutes the individual's perception of the 
"appropriateness" of the behavior in relation to his/her reference 
group, role expectations, and self-concept. Perceived consequences 
times the value of these consequences is the cognitive component, while 
personal normative beliefs are the individual's perceived moral 
obligation to perform the act in question. Affect taps the individual's 
feelings and includes enjoyment derived from the behavior addressed 
through the initial enjoyment inventory developed for the present 
research. Moral obligation is a component not addressed in other 
21 
motivation questionnaires or inventories, but one suggested by Triandis 
and included in the initial inventories developed for the proposed 
research as a "responsibility" factor measured by items 6 and 7 of the 
Social Competence and Affiliation sub-scale (see Appendix A). Value was 
measured on a I to 5 Likert scale by asking respondents to rate how 
often items in the initial physical activity motivation scale were 
important reasons for participating in their weekly physical activities 
and how often items in the initial physical activity enjoyment inventory 
were important sources of enjoyment from their weekly physical 
activities . A rating of five was "always," four was "usually," three 
was "sometimes," two was "ocassionally," and one was "never." 
Valois, Desharnais, and Godin (1988) contrasted Fishbein and 
Ajzen's theory with Triandis' model in the exercise setting using data 
collected from 166 university employees on questionnaires designed to 
tap the components of each theoretical position. Results indicated that 
attitudes were the only significant component of Fishbein and Ajzen's 
the0 ry for this sample, and attitudes and the subjective norm component 
Predicted 9% of the variance in intentions. However, the affect, 
cognition, social, and personal normative beliefs factors from Triandis' 
model predicted 25% of the variance in intention. Intention to exercise 
from Fishbein and Ajzen's theory explained 32% of the variance in 
exercise behavior, while habit multiplied by the facilitating factor 
from Triandis' model explained 33% of the variance in exercise behavior. 
It was affect, not cognition, that shared variance with the intentions 
Part of Triandis' model. Also, the social component of Fishbein and 
Ajzen's theory was unrelated to intentions, but the social factor in 
22 
Triandis' model had a significant beta weight. This suggests that 
normative beliefs, role expectations, and self-concept may be important 
determinants for exercise intention. Normative beliefs are reflected in 
each item of the initial motivation inventory designed for the present 
research . Role expectations and self-concept are contained in the 
Personal Competence, Social Competence and Affiliation, and Cognitive 
Con s 1? stency scales (see Appendix A). 
Self-Efficacy. Self-efficacy theory is a social cognitive 
approach to behavioral causation. It posits that behavior, cognitive 
and physiological factors, and environmental influences operate as 
interacting determinants of one another (Bandura, 1986). Self-efficacy 
theory focuses on the role of self-referent thought in psychos9cial 
functioning and provides a common mechanism through which individuals 
demonstrate control over their motivation and behavior (McAuley , 1992). 
More specifically, self-efficacy cognitions are the beliefs an 
i nd ividual has in his/her capabilities to engage successfully in a 
course of action sufficient to satisfy the demands of the situation . 
Bandura (1986) has argued that the measurement of self-efficacy 
th
cognitions should be conducted along three dimensions: streng ' level , 
th
and generality. Strength of self-efficacy is an index of e 
i nd ividual's confidence ratings for successful participation in a 
specific behavior or course of action despite potential barriers or 
obstacles . Level of self-efficacy refers to the individual ' s expected 
Performance attainment within a progression of increasingly difficult 
tasks, while generality is the number of domains in which an individual 
considers him/herself efficacious . 
23 
McAuley (1992) reviewed self-efficacy and exercise research from 
two perspectives: how self-efficacy has influenced and can influence 
exercise behavior and how exercise behavior has enhanced or can enhance 
self-efficacy. The first perspect ive considers se lf-efficacy as an 
antecedent to exercise, while the second perspective views self-efficacy 
as a consequence of exercise. He concluded that self-efficacy is 
influenced by information based on previous exercise/physical activity 
performance; influences adoption of and adherence to such activities; 
and plays an important role in the effects of and effects on goal-
setting, social support, and coping responses. For these reasons, he 
suggested using self-efficacy as a theoretical framework to better 
understand and predict exercise behavior in conjunction with other 
supposedly potent influences on exercise such as goal orientations, 
coping strategies, goal-setting, motivational climate, and social 
support mechanisms. 
Dzewaltowski (1988) developed the Exercise Motivation 
QueS t ionnaire to assess exercise motivation based on the theory of 
reasoned action and social cognition theory. The questionnaire assessed 
self-?efficacy and outcome expectations in relation to exercise behavior 
Using self-efficacy scores that represented an average of the 
ind ividual's confidence in adhering to an exercise program in spite of 
his/her work schedule, when physically fatigued, or when exercise is 
boring. Behavioral intention and subjective norm were also measured. 
Multiple regression analyses of data col lected from 328 undergraduate 
students indicated that social cognitive t heory constructs accounted for 
14% of the variance in predicting exerc ise behavior, while attitude and 
24 
subjective norm accounted for 20% of the behavioral intention to 
exercise. Commonality analysis indicated that the theory of reasoned 
action constructs did not account for any unique variance in exercise 
behavior when compared to constructs from social cognitive theory. 
Garcia and King (1991) administered a self-motivation inventory 
and self-efficacy questionnaire to 74 sedentary men and women age 50 to 
64 to compare predictors of exercise adherence based on social-cognitive 
theory (self -efficacy) with exercise adherence predictors derived from a 
trait approach (self-motivation). Subjects were randomly assigned to 
one of three exercise regimens or to an assessment -only control group. 
Subjects in the exercise conditions recorded each bout of exercise and 
rated the experience in terms of perceived exertion, enjoyment, and 
convenience. Self-efficacy was significantly associated with exercise 
adherence at both six months and one year. Self-motivation was not 
significantly associated with exercise adherence. Contrary to the 
researchers' expectations, perceived exertion, enjoyment, and 
convenience measured during the first six months did not make a 
significant contribution to the total variance in adherence during the 
second six months. One possible explanation is that perceived exertion, 
enjoyment, and perceptions of convenience changed for the subjects after 
initial measurement and as a result of exercise. Periodic measurements 
of these factors would appear necessary in future research. The initial 
physical activity enjoyment inventory designed for the present research 
could provide a means for one such measurement. 
Duncan and McAuley (1993) examined the relationship among social 
support, self-efficacy, and the ongoing exercise behavior of 851 
25 
sedentary adults aged 45 to 64. Latent growth modeling techniques were 
used to determine whether self-eff icacy served a mediational role in the 
influence of social support on exercise behaviors. Results suggested 
that self-efficacy cognitions did serve a mediational role in the 
relat 1? onsh1?p  between social support and health-promoting behaviors for 
an at -risk population sample. 
~lf-Determination Theory 
Deci (1975 , 1987, 1994), Deci and Ryan (1985 , 1987, 1989) , and 
Dec; et . al. (1991, 1992, 1994) conducted a research program of 
intrinsic motivation that led to the formulation of a theory of self-
determination. According to self-determination theory, people are 
inherently motivated by needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness . 
Accord ing to Deci & Ryan (1991): 
The needs for competence and self-determination (autonomy) provide 
a comprehensive explanation for a wide range of exploratory and 
mastery behaviors and for the idea that individuals strive to 
develop their interests and capacities. Thus in most contexts 
these two needs are emphasized as the bases of intrinsic or 
mastery motivation . However, an exclusive focus on mastery 
motivation fails to take account of the intrinsic social need that 
directs people's interest toward the development of relational 
bonds and toward a concern for interpersonally valued and 
culturally relevant activities . (p. 242) 
~c?l a 1 contexts that facilitate the satisfaction of needs for 
competence, self -determination, and relatedness by providing optimal 
nd 
challenge, informational feedback, interpersonal involvement , a
26 
autonomy support promote both intrinsic motivation and self-determined 
forms of extrinsic motivation. These, in turn, are positively 
associated with high quality learning and personal adjustment (Deci et. 
al., 1991, Deci &R yan, 1994). Additionally, the relative autonomy of a 
person's motivated actions is more useful for characterizing the 
motivational basis of learning than the undifferentiated intrinsic-
extrinsic motivation dichotomy (Rigby et. al., 1992). Accordingly, 
extrinsic rewards can be perceived by the individual as either 
informational or controlling. Informational external rewards enhance 
the individual's sense of accomplishment and self-determination and 
increase levels of intrinsic motivation; while external rewards 
Perceived by the individual as controlling decrease feelings of self-
determination and the level of intrinsic motivation. 
Deci and Ryan (1987) detailed the contextual and personal factors 
that tend to promote autonomy and those that tend to control by 
reviewing research related to the initiation and regulation of 
intentional behavior. They concluded that autonomy support or the 
promotion of choice rather than pressure toward specific outcomes has 
generally been associated with more intrinsic motivation, greater 
interest, less pressure and tension, more creativity, more cognitive 
flexibility, better conceptual learning, a more positive emotional tone, 
hl' gher self-esteem, more trust, greater persistence of behavior change, 
and better physical and psychological health. Based on these results, 
Deci and Ryan presented an organismic perspective in which they argued 
that the regulation of intentional behavior varies along a continuum 
from autonomous or self-determined to controlled. The sub-scale, 
27 
Perceived Freedom, was included in the initial inventories for both 
motivation and enjoyment developed for the present research in an 
attempt to at least partially measure levels of self-determination. In 
additi on, t he 1. tem "trym. g to reach personal goals" implies autonomy 
inasmuch as personal goals imply goals developed by the individual. 
Relatedness is measured by the sub-scales Social Competence and 
Affiliation and Social Recognition and Rewards. 
Self -determination theory also suggests that intrinsic motivation 
varies in line with perceptions and feelings of competence. Vallerand 
and Reid (1984) conducted a study to determine whether the effects of 
verbal feedback (informational extrinsic motivation) on intrinsic 
mot ivat 1? 0n are mediated by perceived competence and concluded that 
positive feedback increased while negative feedback decreased both 
intrin s1. c mot1. vat1.o n and perce1.v ed competence . Results of their path 
analysis using verbal feedback, perceived competence, and intrinsic 
mot?l Vat1?o n supported the mediating effects of perceived competence on 
intr i?n s,?c  motivation and provided strong support for the theory of self -
determination. The sub-scale, Personal Competence, was included in the 
initial mot1? vat1.o n and enJ.o yment inventories developed f or th e presen t 
research in an attempt to measure the importance specific types of 
competence related to or derived from physical activity have for both 
the ind ? 1 1 1v1? dual's motivation and enjoyment in a var1?e  t Yof  ac t ? v? t Y 
settings. 
Briere et al. (in press) developed a new measure of motivation 
toward sport based on the tenets of Deci and Ryan's self-determination 
th
theory, the Echelle de Motivation vis -a-vis les Sports (EMS), at was 
28 
translated from French and validated in English by Pelletier et al. 
(1995). The English version was labeled the Sport Motivation Scale 
(SMS) and consists of seven sub-scales that measure three types of 
intrinsic motivation (intrinsic motivation to know, intrinsic motivation 
to accomplish things, and intrinsic motivation to experience 
stimulation), three forms of regulation for extrinsic motivation 
(identified, introjected, and external), and amotivation. Intrinsic 
motivation to know was defined as performing an activity for the 
pleasure and satisfaction one experiences while learning, exploring, or 
trying to understand something new. Intrinsic motivation to accomplish 
something was related to mastery motivation, efficacy motivation, and 
task-orientation and referred to engaging in an activity for the 
pleasure and satisfaction experienced when one attempts to accomplish or 
create something. Trying to master difficult training techniques in 
order to experience personal satisfaction was one example of intrinsic 
motivation to accomplish something. Intrinsic motivation to experience 
stimulation was defined as engaging in an activity in order to 
experience stimulating sensations such as sensory pleasure, aesthetic 
experiences, fun, excitement, flow, and peak experiences. External 
regulation referred to behavior controlled by external sources such as 
material rewards and constraints imposed by others in order to obtain 
rewards such as praise and avoid negative consequences such as criticism 
from parents. Introjection was defined as an external source of 
motivation internalized such that its actual presence is no longer 
necessary to initiate behavior. The authors used sport participation 
because of pressures such as anxiety and guilt are examples of 
29 
introjection. Identification was def ined as extrinsic motivation in 
which the 1? n d 1? v1? dual has come to value and judge the behavior as 
important and chooses to initiate the behavior albeit for extrinsic 
rewards ? Athl etes who participate in sport to achieve personal goa ls 
such as personal growth and development were cited as an example of 
identification. The last sub-scale, amotivation, was compared to 
learned helplessness and referred to individuals who were neither 
intrinsically nor extrinsically motivated. Rather, these athletes 
perceived no contingencies between their action and the outcomes of 
their actions and experienced feelings of incompetence and lack of 
control . 
The preliminary and validation studies for the EMS (Briere et al., 
in press) involved approximately 600 athletes (mean age 18.4 years) 
Participating on athletic teams in the Canadian province of Quebec in 
the following sports: basketball, volleyball, swimming, ice hockey, 
foot ball, handball, soccer, and badminton. Data analyses revealed that 
the EMS had satisfactory internal consistency levels (a mean alpha score 
of ?82 ), moderate to high indices of temporal stability? (a mean test-
reteSt correlation of .69 over a one-month period), a seven-factor 
structur e confirmed by confirmatory factor ana 1y s1?s  w1" th LISREL , 
conS t ruct validity of the scale supported by a series of ~orrelational 
ana ly ses among the seven sub-scales as well as between t he  su b- sea 1e s 
t rd 
and 0ther constructs relevant to the sport domain (intereS towa
Sport ' sport satisfaction, and posit1.v e emot1. ons exper1.e nce d du r,.n g 
sport Practice), and predictive validity for sport drop-out. 
Pelletier et al. (1995 ) translated the EMS from French to English 
30 
and administered an experimental version of the SMS to 319 males and 274 
females (mean age 19.2 years) who had at least two years of competitive 
experience at the high school or college level and were currently 
members of athletic teams in the Canadian province of Ontario in the 
following sports: basketball, volleyball, swimming, ice hockey, 
football, track and field, cross country running, soccer, and rugby. 
Data analyses revealed the SMS had adequate internal consistency levels 
considered equivalent to those obtained with the original scale (a mean 
alpha of .75), confirmed the seven-factor structure of the EMS, and 
showed agreement with the sub-scale correlations from the EMS. These 
correlations among the sub-scales revealed a simplex pattern that 
confirmed the self-determination continuum and thus provided support for 
the construct validity of the SMS. Gender differences were similar to 
those obtained from the EMS with female athletes scoring higher than 
male athletes on the Intrinsic Motivation to Know and Intrinsic 
Motivation to Accomplish Something sub-scales and lower on the External 
Regulation sub-scale. 
A second study was conducted using 31 female and 19 male soccer 
players (mean age 18.4 years) competing at the provincial level in the 
Ottawa region of Canada to assess temporal stability of the SMS. Sub -
scale internal consistency alphas for the sub-scales ranged from .71 to 
.85 (mean .78) on the pretest and from .69 to .85 (mean .75) on the 
posttest. Test-retest correlations on the sub-scales ranged from .58 to 
.84 (mean .6986). These results were very close to those observed with 
the EMS and offered support for the reliability of the scale. 
Pelletier et al. admit that the exclusion of integrated 
31 
regulation, a type of extrinsic motivation postulated by Oeci and Ryan 
(l9BS) in their theory of self-determination, was one shortcoming of the 
EMS and consequently the SMS. Deci et al. (1994, p.121) defined 
integration as "internalization in which the person identifies with the 
Value of an activity and accepts full responsibility for doing it . 
... One does the behavior wholly volitionally because of its utility or 
importance for one's personal goals." Briere et al. included this type 
of extrinsic motivation in the EMS but renamed it identification. 
The initial inventories developed for the present research 
included items and sub-scales consistent with those in the SMS but 
intentionally differentiated feelings of pleasure and satisfaction from 
reasons for participation in sport and exercise activities. An 
under1ying assumption for this differentiation was that human behavior 
is, at some level, based on the pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of 
pa in ? Th erefore, it is redundant and poss1? bly con f us1?n g t o 11 . n k 
fee1?l ngs of satisfaction, enjoyment, fun, and pleasure to motives. 
Certainly positive affect impacts on behavior and is often cited as a 
th
reason for participation in sport and exercise, but one ?purpose of e 
Present research was to attempt to provide a means for diSt inguishing 
between motivation and enjoyment. In addition, the present research was 
not limited to athletes or young adults, but sought to measure 
mot ivat ? i t 1? 0 1
10n and positive affect derived from partic pa n 
? n exerc1? se 
and sport activities across the adult lifespan. 
&1.iv-at..J ona] Control Jheorx 
Hyland (1988) proposed motivational control theory, a meta-
0 
theor e t 1? 
1
c framework that differs from conventional t he or ? es f 
32 
motivation by being at a more fundamental level of description. He 
argued that the following four motivational research programs are 
complementary and focus on different aspects of a single underlying 
mechanism: the work of Atkinson and colleagues referred to in its 
modern version as the dynamics of action; the concept of goal setting 
and the associated concepts of intention, task, set, and level of 
aspiration; cognitive or attributional approaches to motivation; and the 
need for self-determination that arose from effectance and competence 
motivation. Hyland's motivational control theory describes a single 
process that integrates each of the above and is based on control 
theory, a branch of engineering developed to enable machines to do 
things previously done only by people. 
The central unit of motivational control theory is the negative 
feedback loop. The underlying process for the negative feedback loop 
begins with perceptual input from the environment and its comparison to 
a reference criterion by a comparator. The difference between the two 
generates detected error that is amplified or reduced by error 
sensitivity, but in either case elicits behavior to reduce the 
discrepancy between the reference criterion and perceptual input. This 
negative feedback loop is thus a reconceptualization of the accepted 
idea that behavior is shaped by its consequences. However, motivational 
control theory adds several ideas that provide a framework from which 
other motivational theories can be discussed and integrated. 
Hyland suggested four categories of reference criterion: end 
states (outcomes), a rate of progress toward an end state, a particular 
type of action (doing or being), or a particular emotion. Perceptual 
33 
input was defined as a selected aspect from the person's perceived 
environment that takes different forms corresponding to the different 
kinds of reference criterion. When the reference criterion is an end 
state or the rate of progress toward an end state, the perceptual input 
is some aspect of the situation surrounding the person that can be used 
to evaluate whether the expected outcome has been reached, the 
designated task has been accomplished, or acceptable progress has been 
made. When the reference criterion is the person's actions, the 
perceptual input is the individual's awareness of what he or she is 
doing and its comparison to intended actions. When the reference 
criterion is a particular emotion, the perceptual input derives from the 
individual's internal environment of thoughts, feelings, and mental 
states. 
When the reference criterion and perceptual input are compared, 
the difference generates a signal called the detected error that either 
directly or indirectly selects and energizes a particular behavior that 
tends to eliminate the difference between the reference criterion and 
the perceptual input. Detected error is relevant to both positive and 
negative goals and may have emotional consequences. In addition, error 
in one control loop due to external change may have indirect effects on 
the detected error of other feedback loops. According to Hyland, error 
sensitivity determines the level of behavioral response for any given 
level of detected error and is responsible for both the direction and 
intensity of goal-directed behavior. Therefore, the relative strength 
of error sensitivities among control loops is an important determinant 
of goal priorities and consequent behavior choice. 
34 
According to motivational control theory, the organization of 
goals is a top down causal hierarchy of control loops wherein detected 
error at a higher level control loop activates a reference criterion at 
a lower level. The reference criterion of the highest level control 
loop represents a superordinate goal, while the reference criterion of 
lower level control loops are sub-goals and provide means for reaching 
the superordinate goal. 
Hyland admitted that one weakness of motivational control theory 
is the lack of an explanation for the emergence of high level control 
loops. He suggested two possible answers to the question of the 
derivation of high level control loops. The first is that the control 
hierarchy is actually a heterarchy in which low level control loops can 
have some influence on the high level reference criterion thus 
reflecting past behaviors and the formation of of reference criterion 
that represent a baseline derived from prior experience. The second 
explantion he proposed is the existence of some independent cognitive 
decision-making system people use to work out the sort of person they 
want to be. Regardless, both superordinate and subordinate loops are 
essential for motivational control theory. 
Hyland used motivational control theory as an integrative meta -
theoretical framework. In his view, theories of motivation focus on 
different aspects of the single process described by his motivational 
control theory. The first type of motivation theory focuses on error 
sensitivity and the antecedents of error sensitivity of one or a small 
number of control loops. This type of theory includes need theories 
such as McClelland and Atkinson's theory based on the needs to achieve 
35 
success an d avoid failure and Weiner's theory based on the need for 
information concerning ability and excellence. The second type of 
motivat?i on theory focuses on the reference criteria for a number of 
control l oops and is represented by goal-setting theories. The third 
type of th eory focuses on the organization of goals within a hierarchy 
Where; n t he relation between means and ends is a learned cognition and 
the form of the relation between means and ends predicts purposive 
behavior. This type of theory is represented by both self-determination 
and self-effi?c acy theories. 
Hyland's integration of motivation theories using a single process 
model f or behavior is consistent with the view that mechanistic 
(behav; oral), cognitive, and social cognitive theories of motivation are 
not ant a gonistic approaches to the explanation of human behavior but 
represent l ayers of complexity that interact as ever-changing 
hierarchies ? Th e "r ight" theory of mot1? vat1?o n 1? s th us a "to t al" theory 
thats?i multaneously includes behavioral, cognitive, and social cognitive 
Views of humans and their reasons for initiating and maintaining 
behavior. 
~nd Exerc?1 s~Mot 1?v ationnI vent  or1? es 
st
A variety of questionnaires have been developed and used to udy 
t
exerc i?s e motivation from a social-psychological perspective {OS row, 
1. 990). Descriptive exercise motivation research has focused on personal 
1989
incent; ves for exercise and physical activity (Duda &T appe, ; 
Keny on, 1966), exercise goals and commitment (Burton, Raedeke, & 
Carro11 , 1989; Seigel, Johnson, & Newhof, 1987), exercise adherence and 
drop-out (Seigel, Johnson, & Newhof, 1987), barriers to exerci.s e 
36 
{Burton, Raedeke, & Carroll, 1989), positive exercise-induced feelings 
{Gauvin & Rejeski, 1993), and sport and exercise from a developmental 
perspective {Heitman, 1986; McPherson, 1984; Rudman, 1986). Because the 
present research is concerned with why individuals exercise and the 
sources of enjoyment from exercise and sport across the adult lifespan, 
exercise adherence, drop-out, barriers and other possible explanations 
for why individuals do not exercise will not be addressed. 
Kenyon {1968) attempted to develop a multi-dimensional conceptual 
model to characterizing physical activity as a socio-psychological 
phenomenon. His object was to identify the perceived instrumental 
values physical education held for individuals and, through them, 
determine whether the domain of physical activity could be reduced to I I 
several independent or quasi-independent subdomains. He first 
formulated a structural model whose components represented various 
hypothesized manifest or latent instrumental values of physical activity 
based on a combination of his intuitive perceptions and traditional 
conceptions of the dimensions of physical activity. These were: 
physical health, mind-body dichotomy, cooperation-competition, mental 
health, social intercourse, and patriotism. Statements thought to 
represent each of these six postulated domains of physical activity were 
incorporated into an inventory and administered to a sample of 756 non-
institutionalized, non-military adults over the age of 21 living in 
Wisconsin and a convenient group of approximately 100 college students. 
Based partially on the results from this study and partially upon 
further reflection, Kenyon formulated a second structure also consisting 
of six subdomains: social experience, health and fitness, pursuit of 
37 
vertigo, aesthetic experience, recreational experience, and competitive 
experience. The integrity of this configuration was tested using 73 
Likert-type attitude statements evaluated by an undisclosed number of 
judges, revised, incorporated into an inventory, and administered to a 
second sample of 176 college men and women. Results were still 
unsatisfactory for the subdomains recreational experience and 
competitive experience. Consequently, these two subdomains were revised 
and defined as catharsis and ascetic experience, and, in addition to 
social experience, health and fitness, pursuit of vertigo, and aesthetic 
experience, became the basis for Kenyon's third and final model. 
The integrity of Kenyon's third model was evaluated by determining 
the internal consistency of each subdomain using Cronbach's alpha and 
the factor intercorrelations resulting from oblique rotation of the six 
incomplete image factors using the data collected from the responses of 
a third sample of 353 men and 215 women college freshmen at the 
University of Wisconsin-Madison to an inventory of Likert -type attitude 
statements thought to represent each subdomain. Based on his results, 
Kenyon concluded that his conceptual model had some validity but made no 
claim that the model was any more than a crude beginning at 
characterizing physical activity as a socio-psychological phenomenon 
(1968, p. 96-105). However, his Attitude Toward Phvsjcal Activity 
Inventory has since been used and/or modified to provide some empirical 
support for the model and its subdomains (Martindale, Devlin & Vyse, 
1990; Wenger, 1980). 
Kenyon's work appears to support the social psychological nature 
of sport and exercise participation motivation. His use of attitudinal 
38 
statements regarding physical activity clearly reflects the affect 
associated with individual beliefs toward the value of physical activity 
and impacts on individual awareness of potential satisfaction from and 
expectations toward sport and exercise participation. For this reason, 
his six subdomains were incorporated within the initial inventories 
designed for the present research (see Appendix A) as follows: fitness 
and health were contained within the Personal Competence sub-scales, 
pursuit of vertigo and catharsis were contained in the sub-scales for 
variety and change, the social experience was tapped within the sub-
scales for social recognition and rewards and social competence and 
affiliation, ascetic experience was contained in the sub-scale for 
perceived freedom, and the aesthetic experience was captured by the sub-
scales concerning the activity itself. 
Siegel, Johnson, and Newhof (1987) developed the 20- ite~ Adherence 
to Exercise Questionnaire and administered it to 186 college women in 
exercise classes. Construct validity was demonstrated when this 
questionnaire discriminated between 135 college women who completed the 
exercise classes and the 51 college women who dropped out, but 
reliabilty of the questionnaire was not reported . Women who completed 
the exercise classes were more positive about developing and utilizing 
personal skills, using their minds in physical activity, and being 
involved in social interactions. The initial physical activity 
motivation inventory developed for the proposed research used several 
items in the Personal competence sub-scale to address developing and 
Using the mind was defined more specifically 
ut i l 1? z1?n g personal skills. 
through such items as "directing your own activity," "achieving ? 
39 
co ns,.s tency in your performance," and "disciplining your mind and body . " 
Social interactions were inherent in the items in the initial physical 
activity motivation inventory sub-scales for social competence and 
affiliation and social recognition and rewards (see Appendix A). 
Burton, Raedeke, and Carroll (1989) developed the 66- item, 10-
scale Exercise and Sport Goal Inventory to assess the goals individuals 
express toward the values of exercise and sport. Confirmatory factor 
analysis of the responses of 292 current and former adult members of 
faculty/staff wellness programs from three universities and a community 
college in the Northwest supported the following exercise/sport goals: 
health/fitness, performance, involvement, outcome, recognition , 
solitude, social, mental health, muscular fitness, and "feel good . " 
Each of these goals were contained in one ?or more of the initial 
motivation items or sub-scales developed for the present research except 
"fe el good. 11 One of the purposes of the initial enjoyment inventory 
designed for the proposed research was to more specifically define and 
measure positive affective feelings that cause exercise participants to 
feel good. 
Duda and Tappe (1989) developed the Personal Incentives for 
Exercise Questionnaire to evaluate the personal incentives individuals 
express for participating in exercise . Open-ended responses from 165 
adult exercise participants and a review of the exercise psychology 
l ?te rature were used to generate 85 items which were administered to 212 1 
male and 313 female undergraduates at a large midwestern university . 
Principal component factor analyses led to the retention of ten factors 
and 48 items which were then administered to a new sample 135 male and 
40 
217 female college students. Factor analyses supported a stable factor 
structure across the two samples. These were: flexibility/agility, 
appearance, competition, weight management, mastery, affiliation, social 
recognition, health benefits, mental benefits, and fitness 
(St rength/endurance). Cronbach alpha reliability coefficients ranged 
from ,74 to .94 (Sample 1) and .77 to .92 (Sample 2). A sub-sample 
(n=l06) was readministered Version 2 of the questionnaire after two 
weeks which yielded test-retest correlations from .58 to .86. The 
latest or fourth version of the Personal Incentives for Exercise 
Questionnaire contains new items to further clarify the mastery, 
flexibility/agility, and weight management subscales and support the 
existence of a fitness (strength/endurance) exercise incentive. No 
methods for testing the reliability or determining the validity of this 
final version were reported. 
Leisure Motivation 
Leisure activities are self-determined, intrinsically motivated, 
enJ? oyable behaviors (Iso-Ahola, 1989). Freedom of choice is a critical 
factor for individuals to define their activities as leisure and impacts 
upon both their depth of involvement (Mannell, 1980) and frequency of 
participation (Wankel &T hompson, 1978). Leisure motivation has two 
fundamental dimensions: seeking personal and/or interpersonal rewards 
and escaping personal and/or interpersonal environments (Iso-Ahola, 
1989), These two dialectical forces represent approach and avoidance 
behaviors simultaneously present, in varying degrees, in all leisure 
behaviors. In achievement situations such as sport, individuals are 
thought to "approach" success and ?avo;d" fa ;lure (McClelland et a 1, 
41 
1953) . 
Beard and Ragheb (1983) developed the Leisure Motivation Scale to 
measure motivation for leisure activities. 150 items were generated to 
assess approximately 12 major and minor categories of leisure motives. 
These items were then reduced to 105 items through critical analysis by 
the investigators and 28 students and faculty associates. The items 
were formatted into five-point Likert scales preceded by the statement, 
11 
"O ne of my reasons for engaging in leisure activities is ... In a pilot 
study, 65 students were asked to think of their favorite leisure 
activities and then respond to each item. The scale was reduced to 103 
items after appropriate changes and deletions suggested by the pilot 
study. 
Beard and Ragheb administered the 103-item leisure motivation 
inventory to 174 students. Principal components analysis with Varimax 
rotation was conducted for seven factors initially hypothesized as major 
psychological and social motivation categories by Beard and Ragheb . 
Results indicated six interpretable factors and suggested four sub-
scales that accounted for 59% of the variance: intellectual, social, 
competence-mastery, and stimulus avoidance. 48 items were retained (12 
for each sub-scale) and administered to 1205 individuals from high 
nd 
school and college classes and meetings of retired persons a mailed to 
st
employees of a university, community college, and several ate 
government agencies. Principal components analysis confirmed the four 
sub-scales. A short form was developed using eight items for each sub-
nd 
scale based on their relatively large factor loadings a
un?d? Sub-scale correlations ranged form .17 to .48 and 1 imensionality. 
42 
Were substantially lower than inter- item correlat ions for each sub-
scale . Alpha reliabilities for the short scale sub-scales were : 
intellectual, .90; social, .91; mastery-competence, .90; and stimulus 
avoidance, .89. 
Beard and Ragheb used the dominant criteria of parsimony , utility, 
and communication to arrive at this particular sub-scale structure. 
Although there are many specific reasons why i ndividuals engage in 
leisure activities, Beard and Ragheb concluded most of those reasons 
could easily fit within their four sub-scales . Additionally , the four 
sub - scales are "manageable in number , usefull J different, and 
understandable" (1983, p. 227). For this reason, the short form of the 
Leisure Motivation Sca1e was selected for determination of concurrent 
validity with the motivation for physical activity scale developed from 
the present research. (see Appendix B) 
Sport and Exercise Enjoyment 
Although enjoyment is recognized as an important factor for 
exercise motivation and adherence (Will i s &C ampbell, 1992), most sport 
and exercise research fails to address enjoyment as a specific multi -
factor social psychological construct . Instead, enjoyment is simply 
considered a primary reason for participation in sports and exercise. 
such a definition fails to address the cr itical questions of what makes 
participation in sports and exercise fun .nd why such participation is 
enjoyable for some individuals and not for others. Recent research has 
focused specifically on the definition of sport enjoyment, sources of 
enjoyment within sport, and the place of sport enjoyment within a larger 
model of sport commitment (Kimiecik & Harris, 1994; Scanlan & Simons, 
43 
1992 ; Wankel, 1993) . However, there is some disagreement concerning the 
definition of enJ?oyment and the relationship of enjoyment to other 
conSt ructs such as fun, liking, pleasure, intrinsic motivation, flow, 
attitude, and affect (Kimiecik &H arris, 1994). 
Kimiecik and Harris (1994) examined the conceptual and 
definitional aspects of sport enjoyment by reviewing how it has 
typically been defined in sport and exercise psychology research and how 
these definitions compare to constructs for affect, pleasure, fun, 
intrinsic motivation, flow, and attitude. They found in earlier 
research that, if defined at all, fun and enjoyment were used 
interchangeably to refer to a positive affective state resulting from 
Participation in sport or exercise settings (Brustad, 1988; Wankel & 
Kreisel, 1985; Wankel &S efton, 1989). In more recent research, Scanlan 
ands?1 mons operationally defined sport enjoyment as: 
a positive affective response to the sport experience that 
reflects generalized feelings such as pleasure, liking, and fun . .. 
more differentiated than global positive affect, but more general 
than a specific emotion such as excitement. (pp.202-203) 
Wankel de f '1 ned enjoyment as: 
a positive emotion, a positive affective state . It may be 
homeostat;c ;n nature, resulting from the sat;at;on of b;ological 
needs (e.g., need to be act;ve), or growth or;ented, involving a 
cogn;t;ve d;mens;on focused on the percept;on of successfully 
apply;ng one's skills to meet env;ronmental challenges. (p.153) 
Kim?l ec ? k and Harris critiqued both definit1.o ns of sport enJ?o ymen t f or 
1
their ;nclusion of cognitions and percept;ons w;th affect and instead 
44 
de f  l?n ed sport enjoyment by linking intrinsic motivation to 
Csikszentm1?h  a l y1. 's descr1.p t1.o n of enJ.o yment and flow {1990, p.46). 
According to Kimiecik and Harris, sport enjoyment is: 
an optimal psychological experience (i.e., flow) resulting from . 
performing an activity primarily for its own sake and leading to 
or associated with positive feeling states. {p . 14) 
Ki m1? ecik and Harris thus view enjoyment as a psychological process that 
is the experience, not an affective response to or product of that 
experience . 
The premise of the present research is not supportive of Kimiecik 
and Harris' definition of sport enjoyment for several reasons. First, 
feeling enjoyment is not limited to only while an individual is 
Participating in an activity. Enjoyment also occurs as a result of 
cognitive evaluation of the outcomes of the experience. Second, 
Kim?1 ec 1? k and Harris' definition of sport enjoyment as the process of 
being 1? n f low intentionally limits the construct of sport enjoyment to 
separate cognitive or perceptual aspects of enjoyment from positive 
affective states or responses suggested by previous definitions {Scanlan 
&S imons, 1992; Wankel, 1993). In contrast, the definition of emotion 
CDenz? ? d 1 1 
1n, 1984) upon which Kimiecik and Harris base the1r e
 f ' n?t ,? on?f  
1 1
enjo .Yment clearly supports a link between self-feelings an d cogn ?t ? ons 
as well as associations among the following motivation theories : drive 
and achievement, cognitive, social cognitive, and social psychological. 
Denzin's (p.ll ) first level of emotion is sensible feelings felt 
3
through -r?n tentional focusing on the body and its part s. As such ' 
sensible feelings are biologically based and reflect feelings of 
45 
pleasure (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990) and satisfaction associated with both 
d r 1. ve and need achievement theories of motivation. 
The second level of emotion {Denzin, p.125) is lived feelings that 
express a particular value content or meaning found in the world by the 
ind ividual. Lived feelings are subjective emotional states that occur 
dur?l ng actual experiences and, according to Kimiecik and Harris {1994), 
include sadness, boredom, happiness, and joy. Enjoyment at this level 
is associated with cognitive theories of motivation that "view humans as 
b el.n g active and initiating action through subjective interpretation of 
the achievement context" (Roberts, 1992, p.6). 
Denzin's third level of emotion is intentional value feelings that 
"ant ?i cipate (or remain after) actual emotional experiences ... [They] are 
part of a person's interpretive framework and exist as orientations 
toward the world, independent of specific interactional experiences" 
{P,l20). It is at this level that Kimiecik and Harris placed attitudes, 
defined by Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) as reflections of like-dislike 
toward an object. Enjoyment at this level supports social cognitive 
theor;es of motivation and is associated with the positive feeling 
state , l'1k 1' ng. 
Denzin's fourth level of emotion is feelings of the self and moral 
Person derived from intentional reflection on the self as an object of 
consciousness (p.126). Although Kimiecik and Harris stated that these 
feelings encompass the totality of the person through purposeful self-
reflection, they did not apply this level of feelings to enjoyment. 
Feelings of the self and moral person arise from intentional reflection 
on the self and represent the perceived view of oneself not only through 
46 
one's own eyes, but also through the eyes of others. Feelings at this 
level thus reflect the totality of the person within both the individual 
and so c1? a l environment and could be associated with the affective 
response, fun. Podlichak's (1991) argument that fun is inherently a 
social process and part of an ongoing lived experience requiring 
interaction with others would appear to support this association. 
Feelings at this level can also be associated with social psychological 
theories of motivation that emphasize the interaction of the individual 
Wi th his or her social environment. 
It is at this level of feelings of the self and moral person that 
positive feeling states associated with the previous levels of emotion 
can be 1? ntegrated into a more global construct: enjoyment. It is also 
at th is level that theories of motivation for participation in sport and 
exercise can be integrated. consequently, positive affective feeling 
states associated with the fulfillment of drives and needs, cognitions, 
and social cognitions could be reflected upon as part of a conscious 
evaluation of both the self and the outcome of the individual's 
motivated behavior. As such, enjoyment is the global positive affective 
response of the individual to the outcome evaluation of goal-directed 
behavior and sources of enjoyment are inexticablY linked to sources of 
motivat?1 0n. 
In order to empirically test the possibility of a link between 
t
sport Participation motivation and sport enjoyment, a queS ionnaire was 
developed by the present author based upon previous research (Raugh & 
Wa11, 1987; Wall & Raugh, !985) and the secondary level of themes for 
sport enjoyment suggested by Scanlan and Simons (1992)- Fifty-two items 
... 
47 
were gene ra t ed  to reflect possible sources of enjoyment from 
participat?io n 1. n sports and exercise by adults 55 years old or older and 
evaluated by a graduate-level seminar class in Sport Psychology for face 
validity and clarity. These items were categorized according to the 
needs suggested by Mannell (1990): competence, perceived freedom, 
affiliation, and variability. Extrinsic rewards and characteristics of 
the activity itself (the sensations it provides, excitement of this 
movement, and the physical environment) were added as categories to tap 
additional sources of enjoyment from exercise and sport. The 
QUeSt ionnaire was piloted on 21 subjects between 50 and 70 years old 
act?i vely involved in either sport or exercise. The questionnaire was 
then ad m.1 n.1 stered to 85 Maryland Senior Olympians and 40 Washington, 
D.c. Golden Olympians. Five relatively independent sources of enjoyment 
ins port were identified. In order of their importance to the group, 
these sources of enjoyment were: vitality; personal goals and 
nd 
performance consistency; affiliation; physical, mental, a emotional 
control; and social recognition and comparison. Although these results 
Were i?n  t eresting, a major limitation was that the quest1?o nna1? re was no t 
Validated nor were items reworded from those used previously to assess 
motivation. Two purposes of the present research were to try to correct 
th
both of the above limitations by rewording items to capture e 
affective definition of enjoyment and by validating the physical 
activity enjoyment measure with the Leisure Satisfaction Scale and CES-
Depres si?o n scale. 
Using a somewhat different approach to measure enjoyment from 
exercise, Gauvin and Rejeski (1993) developed and validated a measure 
48 
designed to assess positive feeling states that occur in conjunction 
with acute bouts of physical activity, the Exercise-Induced Feeling 
Inventory (?FI). They conducted five studies with three different 
groups of undergraduate students from two different universities (n = 
77, 256, 154) in order to develop and refine the fFI: establish its 
content validity, factor structure and structural equation model, 
internal consistency, concurrent validity, discriminant validity, and 
construct validity. The final form of the ?FI contains 12 items that 
capture four distinct feeling states: revitalization, tranquility, 
positive engagement, and physical exhaustion. Its multidimensional 
structure was supported by confirmatory factor analysis, and reliability 
was shown with Cronbach alphas for its subscales that ranged from .82 
to .91 pre-exercise and .72 to .80 post-exercise. Items in the initial 
enjoyment inventory developed for this research were generated to tap 
each positive feeling state identified by Gauvin and Rejeski. 
leisure Satisfaction 
Because participation in sports and exercise is often a leisure 
activity, a brief review of the literature pertaining to leisure 
satisfaction is relevant to the definition of enjoyment from exercise 
and sport participation. Mannell (1990) examined existing leisure 
satisfaction constructs and proposed a leisure satisfaction construct 
typology to distinguish among them along two dimensions: motivation-
based (motivational or non-motivational) and level of specificity (molar 
or molecular). 
Along the first dimension, leisure satisfaction constructs are 
either anchored to an explicit theory of human needs (motivation-based) 
49 
or make no assumptions about basic human motivation and needs (non-
motivational). According to motivation-based constructs, being 
satisfied is the result of the fulfillment of drives, motives, needs, or 
expectations. Unfortunately, although recent approaches to motivation 
consider most behavior as the result of biological, learned, and 
cognitive components to varying degrees, there is little consensus as to 
what constitutes a complete set of human needs and to what extent they 
are learned or inherited. From his review of literature, Mannell 
suggests the following social needs are common to all individuals to 
some extent: need for variety and change, need for cognitive 
consistency, need for perceived freedom, need for competency, and need 
for affiliation. All of the above universal needs were used as sub-
scales for the initial motivation and enjoyment inventories except 
cognitive consistency. Items reflecting cognitive consistency were 
generated within each sub-scale rather than as a separate category. 
Mannell suggested non-motivational constructs for leisure 
satisfaction rely on measures of subjective well-being and satisfaction 
appraisal. Along this second dimension, leisure satisfaction is linked 
to a level of specificity where the more molar the construct the more 
global its measure of leisure satisfaction. The more molecular the 
construct, the more it measures facets of leisure satisfaction. In both 
cases satisfaction implies an act of individual judgment and is based on 
self-reported comparisons of outcomes to expectancies. Satisfaction is 
thus distinguished by Mannell from happiness which he described as 
reflecting the affective feelings of the present moment. In addition, 
satisfaction reflects an appraisal of how things have gone in the past. 
50 
Mannell concluded that the measurement of leisure satisfaction as 
either need-satisfaction or appraisal-satisfaction is equally 
problematic because both typically rely on self-reports and suggested 
instead the development of on-site monitoring and observation to provide 
leisure satisfaction measures. This emphasizes the importance of 
continuously watching participants for behavioral measures of 
satisfaction. However, this can be equally problematic because outward 
behavior does not always accurately mirror inner feelings and emotions. 
In addition, behavior at the time of its occurence can produce very 
different feelings and emotions within an individual than those 
affective responses that occur as a result of the outcome of the 
behavior and its evaluation by the individual and/or others. 
The need-satisfaction and appraisal -satisfaction constructs 
developed by Mannell to conceptualize leisure satisfaction fit into a 
broader model for satisfaction proposed by Deci (1975). In the first 
two steps of Deci's model, stimulus inputs lead to an awareness of 
potential satisfaction. Awareness of potential satisfaction then leads 
to the formation of goals and plans which, in turn, lead to goal -
directed behavior. Goal-directed behavior culminates in rewards and 
satisfaction that can then become stimulus inputs, lead to awareness of 
potential satisfaction, ... and so the process continues. According 
to Deci , s~tisfaction is a positive or pleasurable affect, a reward for 
achieving pre-set goals. From the leisure need-satisfaction 
perspective, needs are stimulus inputs in the first step of Deci's 
model. From the leisure appraisal-satisfaction perspective, 
expectancies provide an awareness of potential satisfaction, the second 
51 
? o , b d n prev 1?ous experience and previous 
s t ep 1n eci s model, and are ase o 
satisfaction, the fourth and final steps in Deci's model. 
Deci uses this model to explain intrinsic motivation, and he and 
Ryan (1985 , 198?) use it to conceptualize intrinsic motivation and self-
determination in their cognitive evaluation theory of human behavior. 
Cognitive evaluation theory provides a means for including extrinsically 
motivated behavior in oeci's model for intrinsic motivation bY 
addressing the effects of external r.wards on self-determination, 
perceptions of competence, and intrinsic motivation. Cognitive 
evaluation theory suggests two ways extrinsic rewards can be perceived 
by the individual: as controlling or as informational. When individuals 
perceive their behavior as being controlled by external forces, their 
levels of intrinsic motivation decrease. But, when external rewards 
provide feedback that enhances an individual's sense of competence and 
self-determination, levels of intrinsic motivation increase. Because 
feelings of competence and self-determination can impact directly on 
intrinsic motivation a- satisfaction, ite~ to tap both were develop~ 
for the initial enjoyment inventory used in this research. The sub-
scale, Perceived Freedom, represents personal choice and control and is 
synonymous with self-determination. 
Although Deci's model for satisfaction is a useful tool for 
integrating leisure satisfaction models, it too requires integration 
with other models for a more complete conceptualization of the behavior 
process for participation in sports and exercise that culminates in 
satisfaction and enjoyment. Awareness of potential satisfaction need 
not rely solely on previous experiences or expectancies. Awareness of 
52 
potential satisfaction can also be based on beliefs and attitudes. 
Fishbein and Ajzen's (1975) information-processing attitude model and 
theories of reasoned action and planned behavior already discussed 
describe such a behavior process. 
Ragheb and Beard (1980) developed the Leisure Satisfaction Scale 
from theories and models of leisure, recreation, and play. Satisfaction 
was operationally defined as "the total outcome of a direct experience, 
which has been lasting for a significant period of time" (p.331). Six 
sub-scales were derived from factor analysis of items administered to 
680 individuals who varied in sex, age, marital status, employment 
status, and income and were chosen to represent the broader population. 
These were psychological, educational, social, relaxational, 
physiological, and aesthetic. Next, a revised version of the Leisure 
Satisfaction Scale was prepared and administered to 347 individuals to 
provide confirmation of its component structure by using orthogonal and 
oblique rotations for factor analysis. Internal consistency reliability 
coefficients (alpha) for each sub-scale and the total scale and 
intercorrelations between the sub-scales were computed. ? Although the 
sub-scales were moderately intercorrelated with a range of .38 to .66 
and a median of .52, despite some overlap, the differences between the 
reliabilities of the sub-scales and the sub-scale intercorrelations 
indicated substantial unique variance in each sub-scale. A short form 
of the Leisure Satisfaction Scale was developed by selecting four items 
from each sub-scale based on correlation with the sub-scale factor and a 
preservation of the content validity of each sub-scale. Sub-scale 
rel iabilities on the short form ranged from .80 to .93, and 
53 
intercorrelations of these sub -scales ranged from .35 to .53 with a 
median of .46. The physiological sub-scale was the most reliably 
measured and the most clearly differentiated from the remaining sub-
scales. 
Ragheb and Beard's preliminary findings indicated that female 
respondents derived more satisfaction from the relaxational aspects of 
leisure activities than males, while males derived more satisfaction 
from doing physical activities than females. However, there were more 
significant differences among age categor ies than any other category. 
In a sunwnary of their preliminary findings, Ragheb and Beard reported 
that satisfaction gained from physical activities was greatest for the 
young, single, male respondents. A marked and sudden decrease in 
satisfaction from physical activities occurred at age 65 even though the 
age group 60-65 had the highest mean for the physiological sub-scale. 
The purpose of the present research is not to provide further 
confirmation of this finding, but to attempt to discover more 
specifically what components impact upon motivation and enjoyment of 
physical activity for those of all ages across the adult lifespan who 
are participating in sports and exercise. 
Developmental Perspective for Leisure 
Rapoport and Rapoport (1980) examined the relationship among 
leisure, socialization, and the lifecycle. Young adulthood, age 20 to 
39, is a period of establishment in which dreams are formed, roles are 
assumed, and new family patterns are established (Rapoport & Rapoport, 
1975) . The demands of this period are: establishment of intimacy, 
development of a "dream," and establishment of competence. Social goals 
54 
are a factor in directing leisure involvement because leisure 
involvement can provide one venue for the young adult to find someone 
with whom to establish an intimate relationship and facilitate both 
occupational entry and mobility. Leisure for the young adult is a 
social space in which an intimate relationship may be explored and 
developed. The demands of parenting usually reduce the young adult's 
range of leisure activities, especially the mother. However, 
childrearing often involves parents in the play world of their children 
and reestablishes ties with the parents' families. In addition, 
enjoyment of adult associations outside of marriage and family may 
affect leisure choices during young adulthood. However, shared leisure 
may provide a means for maintaining the marriage relationship under the 
pressures of childrearing as well as a setting in which to experiment 
with new ideas, lifestyles, and social patterns. 
According to Rapoport and Rapoport, middle age is a time of 
revision in which goals, values, and work styles are critically 
reviewed. At this stage, a pattern of selective withdrawal or renewed, 
expanded interests and productivity is initiated by the.individual. 
Although there is a loss of child-centered events and child-determined 
schedules, the spouse is still significant in leisure activities. 
Participation in less strenuous sports and physically demanding outdoor 
recreational activities is typical. Leisure activities with non-family 
members can lead to resocialization by creating new levels of social 
involvement. Middle age is thus a time for change or acceptance that 
l ife is "finished." 
Retirement and aging is the last stage of adulthood and described 
55 
by Rap oport and Rapoport as the time in which leisure and maintenance 
are th e maJ. or focus of life. The older adult must come to terms with 
the los s of his/her work identity and work schedule and reconstruct a 
routine. Leisure can provide a means for continued social relatedness 
Particularly after the death of a spouse. However, there is not 
automatically more leisure during retirement and aging because limited 
resources ' f a1. l1.n g health, questions of personal worth, and d1. srupted 
rout?m es may cause a loss of the perceived freedom and intrinsic 
motivat?i on necessary for activities to be defined as leisure. 
Recurrent leisure developmental themes for Rapoport and Rapoport 
are d.i sengagement versus relatedness, personal freedom, and social 
interact.i on. 'Not only what is done, but why, is related to the demands 
Of diffe rent periods of a "life career"' (p.127). The inventories 
develo Ped for this research should provide preliminary emp.1r1. cal 
evidence concerning why adults of varying ages participate in physical 
act ivit.i es, what sources of enjoyment they find from thi.s  participation, 
and how these differ as a function of the lifecycle. 
~PmentaJ Perspective for sport and Exercjse participation 
A limited number of studies have addressed the motivation for 
sport or  exercise participation of adults across the lifespan (Cousins & 
1986
Burgess ' 1992; Heitman, 1986; McPherson, 1984; Rudman, )? 
McPherson (1984) reviewed the literature concerning sport 
Part1c?l pation across the lifecyle and suggested numerous direc t?io ns an d 
specif ??c  questions for further research- He noted that only a small 
Proport? O ion of adults regularly participate in anY type f Ph y si?c a l 
activitY  and particularly sharp decreases in participation ra t es occur 
56 
when individuals leave formal schooling and when they leave the labor 
force. McPherson suggested several possible explanations for this 
pattern of declining involvement in sports and exercise after 
adolescence. These included: inadequate socialization into sport during 
youth (generational differences prevail), lack of perceived need for 
physical activity at the present time, lack of participation 
opportunities because of ageism, lack of adult role models, other 
leisure activities with higher priorities, cultural or sub-cultural 
devaluations of sport and exercise for adults, fear of injury and 
subsequent loss of earnings, myths that the need for exercise decreases 
with age and adults do not have the necessary skills for sport 
participation, lack of encouragement from significant others, and lack 
of time or commitment due to family and job responsibilities. Because 
the samples used for the present research were composed only of those 
adults who are engaged in regular physical activity, data collected from 
them will have only limited relevance to adults who are not currently 
participating in sports and exercise. Nonetheless, the majority of 
McPherson's possible explanations for non-involvement are directly or 
indirectly addressed in the initial motivation and enjoyment 
questionnaires developed for the present research. For instance, 
subjects' self-report of the length of time of their regular 
participation in sport and exercise activities could provide a partial 
measure of previous socialization into physical activities. In 
addition, the role of significant others is measured through responses 
to items concerning the importance of friends and family to sport and 
exercise participation as well as positive feelings generated from such 
57 
support 
Heitman (1986) surveyed 227 male and female older adults aged 40 
to over 70 who were par t.1 c1. pa t.,n g ,.n  ph y s1.c a 1 ac t.1 v1. ty at nine randomly 
select ed si.t es by asking them to rank six previously determined motives 
for exerc?i se from most to least important. In descending order, the 
rank i health, achieving, coping, social, appearance, ngs for males were: 
and aesthetics. For females 60 years old or older they were: health, 
social ' coping, appearance, achievement, and aesthetics. For females 
age 40 to 59 health, appearance, achievement, coping; they were: 
aesthet?i cs, and social. There were significant mean differences between 
and among the groups by age and sex. No information describing these 
Six mot.i ves, the rationale used for their selection, or methods for 
td eterm?1 n 1 . n g re 11 ? a b 1? l  ity were presented. Nonethe 1e ss, eac h ,oo t 1? ve i s 
apped bY  at least one item in the initial motivation inventory 
deve1 oped for the present research . 
Rud11an (1986) analyzed data collected from a national sample of 
1
13 . 19 Amerl. eans who reported their sport attitudes and behav1. ors (M . ller 
nd 
lite Re port, 1983) to determine if sport is a developmental task a how 
Patterns of sport participation vary according to age. According to 
Rudman: 
If sport participation is to be considered a developmental task, 
comparable to occupational tasks, it is necessary to evaluate how 
sport meets current needs and prepares the individual for future 
tasks. Under this scheme, sport participation is viewed as a 
Progression of specific stages, each stage meeting new needs and 
Pro~ iding the ground work for t he next stage of growth . ?.? In this 
58 
study, sport stages are categorized into three distinctive 
periods: (1) competitive, (2) family, and (3) social. Competitive 
stages occur during young adulthood, family stages during middle 
age, and social stages occur at older ages. (p.455-456) 
Competitive sport participation during young adulthood meets the 
immediate needs for social recognition and self-esteem and the 
transitional needs for leadership skills, cooperation skills, teamwork, 
and self-discipline while providing a meeting place for participants. 
Family sport participation during middle age meets the immediate needs 
of bonding family members, providing family recreation and social 
interaction, and teaching children social and communication skills. The 
transitional needs addressed by family sport participation are helping 
parents remain active in non-work social outings, providing reference at 
older ages, and teaching small group communication skills. Social sport 
participation for older adults provides social settings where 
interaction can take place, allows the individual to remain physically 
and mentally capable of social interaction, and again provides a 
reference group. 
Rudman calculated regression statistics for 1019 complete data 
sets collected from the respondents using the following variables and 
categories relevant to the present proposed research: 
1. Age: (1) 18-34(n=462) (2) 35-54(n=368) (3) 55+(n=l89) 
2. Sports: tennis, golf, bike riding, jogging, ice skating, 
calisthenics, weight lifting, bowling, swimming, 
pool/billiards, basketball, softball, football, and soccer 
3. Level of participation: (1) never (3) once a month 
59 
(S)everyday 
Rudman found a steady decrease in sport participation as age increased 
and a significant negative linear effect of age on sport participation 
in 13 out of 14 sports when the effects of race, sex, geography, family, 
and socioeconomic status were controlled. In addition, data suggested 
that the largest decrease in participation occurs between young adults 
and the middle-age group. Further age- and sex-specific analyses 
supported the role of sport participation as a developmental task and a 
part of successful aging. One purpose of the present research is to 
extend and/or support these findings. 
Summary 
A variety of theories have been proposed to explain motivation 
including trait theory, drive or need theory, and social learning 
theory. Whether the approach is behavioristic, cognitive, or social 
psychological; several commonalities exist. Sources of motivation for 
the initiation of behavior that are consistently identified regardless 
of the theoretical base can be generally defined as mastery, competence, 
and relationship. The relative importance of these motives varies 
according to age and sex. Additionally, internal and external 
reinforcement are viewed as playing a significant role in the 
maintenance of behavior. 
Consistent with the varied theoretical approaches to motivation, a 
number of scales and questionnaires have been developed to measure 
motivation in diverse settings including sport and exercise. Again, 
aspects of mastery, competence, and relationship are cormnon motivational 
factors addressed in these scales. In the sport and exercise setting 
60 
these specifically include (but are not limited to): health and 
fitness, skill mastery, skill improvement, friendships, team membership , 
and competition. The relative importance of specific motives for sport 
and exercise participation varies according to both age and sex. 
Internal reinforcement for participation in sports and exercise is 
typically defined as being derived from the fun or enjoyment experienced 
from physical activity, while external reinforcement is defined as being 
derived from external rewards for performance or feedback concerning 
performance. 
Clearly fun and enjoyment play a significant role in the 
maintenance of sport and exercise behaviors across the adult lifespan, 
but what is the relationship between motivation for participation and 
sources of enjoyment from physical activity? There are two current 
views. The first defines enjoyment as a motive. The second 
differentiates between motivation and enjoyment based on the premise 
that motivation occurs before and during physical activity, while 
enjoyment occurs during and after physical activity. However, enjoyment 
derived from participation in physical activity during one session can 
provide motivation for participation in that activity in subsequent 
sessions. This illustrates the cyclic nature of motivation and 
enjoyment. It also raises questions as to the sources of enjoyment 
individuals across the adult lifespan experience from physical activity 
participation and how these differ from their motivation for such 
participation. 
In conclusion, while descriptive and theory-driven research in 
sport and exercise motivation provide numerous explanations that appear 
61 
to account for some dimension of motivation and its impact on 
participation in physical activity, few studies attempt to integrate or 
unify theoretical constructs, and only one approach has directly linked 
behavior intention to cognitive, social, and affective components 
(Triandis, 1977). Because Triandis'(l977) model was developed in an 
attempt to understand interpersonal behavior, there is serious question 
regarding its appropriateness in the exercise domain (Rejeski, 1992). 
No applications of Triandis' model have been completed within the sport 
setting. The initial questionnaires developed for this research 
attempted to remedy this by capturing the diversity and idiosyncracy of 
motivation and sources of enjoyment from exercise and sport across the 
adult lifespan. 
62 
CHAPTER III 
STAGE ONE METHODS AND PROCEDURES 
The purpose of stage one in this research was to develop two 
reliable scales with content validity to assess the multi-factor, 
social-psychological constructs of motivation for and enjoyment from 
physical activity participation across the adult lifespan. 
Development and Content Validity for the PAMS and PAES 
Initial Physical Activity Motivation Inventory. A 52-item 
inventory was developed by revising the Raugh Sport Participation 
Motivation Inventory (Raugh & Wall, 1987) to reflect possible reasons 
for participation in sport and exercise activities by adults 55 years 
old or older. Items were re-scaled into six categories suggested by 
research in leisure satisfaction (Mannell, 1990), sport enjoyment 
(Scanlan & Simons, 1992), and sport and aging (Heitman, 1986; Rudman, 
1986). These were: competence, perceived freedom, affiliation, 
extrinsic rewards, variability, and the activity itself. The items and 
sub-scales were presented to a panel of 10 graduate sport psychology 
students in an advanced sport psychology seminar and the two sport 
psychologists teaching the seminar. These students and instructors 
acted as an expert panel to assess face and content validity. Several 
items were re-worded for clarity. A questionnaire was developed from 
the resultant items and administered to 21 adults 55 years old or older 
currently engaged in exercise or sport activities and known well by the 
panel of experts. The results from this preliminary pilot study 
indicated that the inventory appeared to represent the individual 
63 
motivational patterns of the respondents for their exercise or sport 
participation. Based on feedback from the respondents and panel of 
experts, several items were eliminated and/or re-worded. 
The motivation inventory used initially for this research was a 
revision of the above inventory and contained 50 items and six scales: 
personal competence, social recognition and rewards, social competence 
and affiliation, variety and change, perceived freedom, and 
characteristics of activity (see Appendix A for sub-scales and items and 
the questionnaire used in stage one). Sub-scales and items were 
presented to three sport psychologists who regularly participate in 
sport and exercise activities for their input and evaluation of the 
content and face validity of the items. This resulted in the addition 
of one item (being respected) in the social recognition and rewards sub-
scale, the addition of one item (coordination and flow) meant to capture 
a more masculine aesthetic perspective in the characteristics of the 
activity sub-scale, and the rewording of one item (being rewarded~ 
others) to clarify rewards as extrinsic. Items were rated according to 
how often they were important reasons for weekly physical activity 
participation. A five-point Likert scale was used where five was 
"always," four was "usually," three was "sometimes," two was 
"occasionally," and one was "never." 
Initial Physical Activity Enjoyment Inventory . The preliminary 
enjoyment inventory was developed by generating a list of 39 positive 
feelings possibly associated with each item and sub- scale of the 
initial motivation inventory. Each item was conceptually consistent 
with the definition of enjoyment as the global positive affective 
64 
response t 0 the outcome evaluation of goal-directed behavior because 
each ite m represented possible ex post facto positive feelings directly 
associated with each a priori motive for sport and exercise 
Partic?l pation in the initial motivation inventory. The items in the . 
initial enJ?o yment inventory were evaluated for content and face validity 
by several experts in sport and exercise psychology who exercise and 
Play sp orts regularly. {see Appendix A for sub-scales and items and the 
question na 1. re used in stage one). A five-point Likert scale with the 
same values as those for the physical activity mo ti va t 1? 0n 1? nven t ory was 
used for respondents to rate how often each item was an 1. mpor t an t source 
of enjoJ"-...n t from weekly physical activity participation. 
~ 
Data were collected from 95 respondents in their twenties, 82 
resp on de nts in their forties, and 82 respondents sixty years old or 
Older ? Mean ages for each group were 22.8, 44.6, and 69.4 respectively. 
There were 45 males and 50 females in their twenties, 43 males and 39 
O 
females i n the1. r forties, and 38 males and 43 females s1. xty years ld or 
Older ? One respondent in the late adulthood sample failed to report 
his/her 1sex. All three age samples were predom1. nantlY wh ? te.?  92 ? 6% f or 
the earl Y adulthood group 95.1% for the middle adulthood group, an d 
93 ?9% for the late adultho' od group. Table I contains a sul'llllary of 
dem ographic information for each group. 
~ th
Subjects were chosen to represent the three stages of adul ood 
(Le~inson, 1986): early (20-39 years old), middle (40-59 years old), and 
t 
late {6 0 Years and older). Ages were restricted in the firS two age 
65 
categories to 20-29 and 40-49 in order to maximize potential 
developmental differences for the subsequent construction of revised 
physical activity motivation and enjoyment scales appropriate for use 
across the adult lifespan. Because subjects were solicited from within 
a limited geographical area, race was relatively homogenous. 
Respondents were solicited from 11 different suburban facilities 
including a local university, YMCA, public golf course, private golf 
course, shopping mall, fitness club, pool, public bike trail, private 
horse farm, and two retirement communities. In addition to these 
facilities, respondents participated in physical activities in a variety 
of other private and public settings including their homes and 
neighborhoods, recreational leagues, church leagues, and other private 
sports and fitness clubs. The purpose of using such a wide range and 
variety of sport and exercise settings was to minimize the effects of 
one type of activity or one activity setting on responses to the initial 
motivation and enjoyment questionnaires while attempting to balance the 
number of respondents in each age group involved in similar sport and 
exercise activities. 
Testing Procedures 
The researcher approached individuals in each of the eleven 
settings listed above, introduced herself, explained the purpose of her 
research, asked if the individuals participated in sports and exercise 
at least an hour a week, asked if they were in one of the age groups 
used in this stage, and asked if they would be willing to take about 
fifteen minutes to fill out two questionnaires. Respondents were 
assured their answers were confidential and would be reported as mean 
66 
data The researcher remained 
' not individual responses or profiles. 
close enough t o answer any questions and clarify items where necessary. 
Table I 
~ograoh- 1?c Information for Stage One Respondents 
-
Age Twenties Forties 
sixty and Older 
43 38 Males 45 
43 
Females 39 50 
82 
82 
Total 95 
t---- 93,9 
Percent White 95.1 92.6 
I--_ 69.4 
Mean Age 44,6 22,8 
t----_ 
Mean Pa r t'1 c1. pation 
3.44 hours/week 
Sports 2.58 hours/week 5.65 hours/week 
4,75 hours/week 
4.66 hours/week 
Exercise 5.43 hours/week 
8,19 hours/week 
Total hours/week 4.24 hours/week 11,15 
r---
Mean De si?r ed Activity 
7,50 hours/week 
Sports 10,04 hours/week 14.65 hours/week 
6.50 hours/week 
9.05 hours/week 
Exercise 9.15 hours/week 
14,09 hours/week 
Total 19.09 hours/week 23.80 hours/week 
2.19 
2,78 
Mean Activities 2.95 
~ 
t 
Subjects in their twenties reported the higheS weekly 
5
Part?l Cipation rates in sports (5.65 hours/week) and exercise ( . 43 
3 44 d 4 75 
hours/week) followed by subjects 60 years or older ( ? ao ?
67 
hours/week). Subjects in their forties had the lowest weekly 
participation rates in both sports (2 . 58 hours/week) and exercise (4.66 
hours/week). The desired amounts of weekly participation in spar.ts and 
exercise were higher for each age group than actual participation and 
decreased with age from 23.8 hours per week for subjects in their 
twenties, to 19.09 hours per week for subjects in their forties, and to 
14.09 hours per week for subjects 60 years old or older. The mean 
number of weekly physical activities also decreased with age from 2.95 
to 2.78 to 2.19. 
Data Analysis 
To test the firsr research hypothesis, item responses were 
analyzed for each age group using SPSS/PC+ to calculate frequencies, 
means, correlations, reliabilities, and principal components for the 
initial motivation and enjoyment inventories. The number of factors for 
each age group on each inventory were identified based on principal 
components extracted with eigenvalues greater than or equal to one. In 
order to locate simple structure, both varimax and oblimin rotations 
were used. Varimax factor loadings were reported because oblimin 
rotations did not change the factor structure. 
For both inventories, items were retained for the next factor 
analysis if they had a factor loading of .50 or higher on only one 
factor and were present in a factor extracted for at least two of the 
three age groups. This suggested relative unidimensionality and 
commonality across the adult lifespan. Those items that met these 
criteria were reanalyzed to identify subsequent factors and factor 
loadings. Factor analyses were considered complete when the items that 
68 
had factor loadings of .50 or higher on one factor were present on 
factors extracted for all three age groups. The factors thus identified 
were conceptually consistent with previous research and used as sub -
scales in the physical activity motivation scale (PAMS) and physical 
activity enjoyment scale (PAES) administered in stage two of this 
research. 
Reliabilities for the PAMS, PAES, and their sub-scales were 
calculated using Cronbach's alpha as a measure of internal consistency 
and compared to the correlations among the sub -scales . In addition, a 
convenience sample of 32 individuals in early adulthood, 7 individuals 
in middle adulthood, and one individual in late adulthood was retested 
on the PAMS and PAES after a two week interval to determine test-retest 
reliability. Pearson product-moment correlations were calculated to 
determine PAMS and PAES sub-scale intercorrelations. 
69 
CHAPTER IV 
STAGE ONE RESULTS 
The purpose of stage one was to administer two comprehensive 
inventories designed to assess motivation for and enjoyment from 
participation in sports and exercise for individuals across the adult 
lifespan. Analyses of the results from a 50-item physical activity 
motivation inventory and a 39-item physical activity enjoyment inventory 
were used to develop two assessment tools for further research, the 
Physical Activity Motivation Scale (PAMS) and the Physical Activity 
Enjoyment Scale (PAES). 
Physical Activity Motjvation Principal Components 
Six principal components and 24 items were identified that 
appeared stable and consistent across the adult lifespan . These 
principal components were labeled: Mastery and Autonomy, Social 
Recognition and Rewards, Affiliation, Family, Health and Fitness, and 
Emotional Control. This confirmed the first research hypothesis 
concerning the multi-factor, social-psychological nature of motivation 
for participation in sports and exercise. Items used in the Emotional 
Control sub-scale of the PAMS loaded with items for Health and Fitness 
for respondents in their twenties, with items for Mastery and Autonomy 
for respondents in their forties, and as a separate factor for 
respondents 60 years old or older. The maximum number of factors was 
retained for stage two in an effort to capture as much of the complexity 
of the motivation phenomenon as possible. However , these results raised 
questions concerning the relationships between the items in the Mastery 
70 
and Aut onomy, Health and Fitness, and Emotional Control sub-scales. 
Table 2 conta1.n s the factor loadings for each item and each age group. 
Table 2 
llige One PAMS Factor Loadjngs 
-
Social 
milY Health and ~otional ~-Scale and Mastery and Recggnition Affili~tion 
~ control 
lte! Autonoay and Rewards 
Age Loading Age Loading Age Loading 
Age Loading Age Loading Age Loading 
i--
Mlltecy mid 
~ 20S ,11502 20S 
.03523 20s -.00871 
20s ,79338 20S ,06142 
40S .27953 
Trying to be 40s ,65752 40s ,23331 40s ,04699 
40S ,12822 
60+ ,14533 
the best you 60+ ,28393 60+ -.07381 
60+ ,16879 
60+ .62086 60+ .30728 
can be 
t----- 20S ,18760 
Pushing ,08562 20S ,00248 20s .80619 20s ,12633 20S 
40S ,02704 
yourself to 40s ,77412 40s ,12900 40S ,08706 
40S ,01143 
60+ .19451 
your liaits ,26701 
60+ -,08675 
60+ ,71217 60+ ,18812 60+ ,14725 
60+ 
Trying to 
reach 20S ,19161 
20S ,20493 
20s .75345 20S ?,06006 20S ,01506 
,40668 
Personal 40S ?,05438 40S ,02323 
40S 
40s .58289 40s ,32257 
,28571 60+ ,37699 60+ 
goals 
60+ ,56565 60+ , 21826 60+ ,36195 
60+ ,16572 
,48357 
Inproving 20S ,07877 20S -,01277 
20S 
20s .68063 20S -,02748 
,22625 
40S .12692 
40S 
Your skills 40s .81718 40S ,08157 40s -.02555 
,31354 60+ ,26410 60+ 
60+ ,01746 60+ 
,11445 
60+ ,78194 60+ .02256 
71 
Social 
Sub-Scale and Mastery and Recoqni tion Affiliation Fanily Health and Enotional 
Itel Autono!JY and Rewards Fitness Control 
Age Loading Age Loading Age Loading Age Loading Age Loading Age Loading 
Disciplining 20S ?7 5335 20s .13933 20S .20146 20s .05923 20s .10061 
your mind and 40s .81604 40s ,08326 40S .16612 40s .17445 40s ,19093 
body 60+ ,78646 60+ .09563 60+ .20404 60+ .13553 60+ .33811 60+ .07332 
Social 
Recognition 20s -.03238 20s .84754 20s ,17376 20s ,15220 20s .07456 
and Rewards 40s .04924 40s ,85060 40s -.00638 40S -,12223 40s .06387 
Being admired 60+ .04870 60+ .88512 60t .14345 60+ ,04735 60+ -.03500 60+ ,12074 
by others 
others 20s .07873 20S .80785 20s .05779 20s .14874 20S .13317 
looking up to 40s .14929 40s ?7 7894 40s ,04234 405 .15309 40S ,07267 
you 60+ ,09840 60+ .80104 60+ .27920 60+ .10673 60t .05526 60+ .18458 
Being better 20s .17416 20S .74466 20s .08513 20s .02027 20s .-.15107 
than others 40S .12863 40s ?7 1736 40s .10839 40s .18897 40S -,04916 
60+ .17549 60+ .87584 60+ .11416 60+ .09610 60+ .02114 60t .00473 
Being 20s ,03370 20S .84702 20s ,11382 20s ,15994 20s ,04436 
recognized by 40s ,16392 40s .83555 40s .27527 40S -,03840 405 -,01867 
others 60+ ,09085 60+ .81041 60t .29909 60+ .13571 60+ .06119 60+ .22251 
? 
72 
Social 
Sub-Scale and Mastery and Recognition Affiliation Family Health and Emotional 
Item Autonomy and Rewards Fitness Control 
Age Loading Age Loading Age Loading Age Loading Age Loading Age Loading 
Being watched 20s -.05874 20s .81483 20s ,15357 20s ,21161 20s .03516 
by others 40s .14277 40s ,80283 40S .14158 40s ,02112 40s -.09849 
60+ .19633 60+ , 75337 60+ .33614 60+ .18244 60+ .04137 60+ -.16360 
Affiliation 20S ,03944 20s ,14453 20s ,78066 20s -, 08876 20s ,06024 
Being part of 40s .02140 40s .09357 40s .86004 40s .08357 40s .06808 
a group 60+ .19459 60+ , 29383 60+ .79492 60+ .02898 60+ -.12630 60+ -.15822 
Participating 20s ,04342 20s .25003 20s ?7 7720 20s .09927 20s ,00264 
with friends 40s ,11589 40S .09021 40s .76796 40s .00318 40S ,07455 
60+ .04080 60+ , 20683 60+ .79451 60+ .26921 60+ ,08066 60+ .00340 
Meeting new 20s .18135 20s -.06800 20s .82606 20S .06993 20S .08044 
people 40S .10149 40s ,16551 40s .85727 40s ,04189 40s .07744 
60+ .29067 60+ .28215 60+ , 78351 60+ .12023 60+ .11239 60+ .03157 
Making new 20S ?2 0201 20s ,08700 20s . 86429 20s ,02457 20s .15323 
friends 40s .10789 40s .06435 40s , 88257 40s .10090 40S .16075 
60+ .10250 60+ ?2 0436 60+ .82541 60+ ,11525 60+ .10025 60+ .20036 
Commitment or 20s ,07029 20s ?2 2303 20S .66849 20s ?2 0947 20s .14238 
obligation to 40s .02145 40s ,35176 40s ,59451 40s .24974 40S ,15466 
another 60+ .12226 60+ .29040 60+ ?5 4977 60+ ,50067 60+ -,02193 60+ , 38738 
73 
r--_ 
I 
SQilll 
Family Health and Enotional tub-Scale and Mastery an d Recognit ion Affiliati on 
Fitness control 
lln Autonomy and Rewards 
Age ing Age Load ing Age Loading Load 
Age Loadi ng Age Load ing Age Loading 
1---- 20S -,03096 
~ 20s .17314 20S .25613 20S -,03927 
20S ,81021 
40S ,12307 40S , 78866 
40S ,06520 
Participating 40s .27277 40S .07659 
60+ -.02727 60+ .00149 
With family 60+ ?7 6524 60+ .00084 60+ .19942 60+ ?2 1453 
Fanily 20S ,13007 20S ,81080 
20S ,06320 
20s .16539 20S ,22149 
', 
encourageaent 40S -,02617 40S ,85768 
40S -,00041 
40s -,01788 40S -,13016 
60+ ,17152 60+ -.00723 
60+ ,17537 60+ -.04279 60+ ,14313 
60+ ,80764 
r---_ 
20S ,11868 
Your family 20S ,20349 20S ,80013 20S -.01700 20S .13239 
.18107 40S ,80015 
40S .12559 
is active 40s ,24778 406 .29616 40S 
,08621 60+ .28291 
60+ ,69193 60+ 
60+ ,19797 60+ .22672 60+ ,05260 
~ 
20S .18720 20S ,63632 llinm 20s ,48009 20S ?,13803 20S .10294 
40S ?,00264 40S . ,63321 Increasing 40s ,46237 40S ?? 20490 40S .20167 
60+ ,03357 60+ .81393 
60+ .22234 
energy and 60+ 60+ .05484 60+ .03913 .25897 
vitality 
Maintaining/ 
20S ,43229 
aproving 20S ,23241 20s ,56991 20S -,02981 20S 
,05657 
40S ?7 8562 
health and 40S ,00134 40s ,34578 40S -.13521 40S ,12292 ,80163 60+ ,03676 
fi tness 60+ ,05434 
60+ 
60+ 60+ -.07844 .32659 60+ -.10831 
74 
- I 
s.Qilll 
~otional 
~-scale and Klstery and Recognition Affiliation ~ 
Health and 
Fitness Control 
~ Autonony and Rewards 
Age wading Age Loading 
-- Age Loading Age Loading Age I.Dading 
Age I.oading 
Delaying 20S ?,30365 20s ,38668 
20S ,45219 
20s ,13511 20s ,12323 
40S , 78223 
effects of 40s ,08821 40S ,15718 40S .25099 
40S ,18047 
60+ .11234 60+ ,81879 
60+ , 20942 
aging 60+ .01612 60+ .12116 60+ ,14845 
r---
~tiol!fil. 
~n?J. 
Reducing 20S ,11907 20S ,03797 
20S ,65138 
20s ,12951 20S ?,11344 
40S ,11247 
stress or 40s ,42859 40s -,13601 40S ,53066 
40S ?,10301 
60+ ,76593 
relieving 60+ ,00983 
60+ ,42162 
60+ ,03181 60+ ,03460 60+ ,09977 
tension 
20S ,03818 20S , 78730 
Controlling 206 .07007 20S ,19007 20S ,15315 
40S ?,13400 
Your emotions 40S ,10921 40s .64602 40S .13238 40S ,43863 
60+ ,10810 60+ ,84990 
60+ .19704 
60+ .27264 60+ ,08720 60+ -.00007 
OVerCOAing 20S ,10675 20S -,07368 
20S , 73144 
20s .29786 20S .13467 
40S ,13948 
personal 40s ,55511 40S ,21905 40S ,19131 
40S ,33422 
60+ ,11484 60+ ,77650 
Weaknesses 60+ ,03986 60+ .38849 60+ ,15764 60+ ,00572 
~ub-sc ale Reliabilities 
Correlations between the initial SO- item physical activity 
lllotivat?i on inventory and the physical activity motivation scale 
developed in stage one, the PAMS, indicated these two measures s ha re d 
75 
93 ?4%, 93.2%, and 95.3% of their total variance for respondents in their 
twenties , f orties, and 60 or older respectively. Measurement efficacy 
was v i? rtually unchanged using the shorter scale. 
Cronbach's alpha was used as a measure of internal consistency to 
ca lcu l at  e reliability of the PAMS and its sub-scales. Alpha 
rel i ab.1  l i. ties for the total PAMS for respondents in their twenties, 
forties , and 60 or older respectively were .8762, .8991, an d .8991. 
Test-er te st reliability of the PAMS based on results from a convenience 
sample of 32 individuals in early adulthood, 7 individuals in middle 
adulthood, and one individual in late adu l toh o d was. 7770 ? 
nd 
Sub-scale reliabities for the three age groups in stage one a
test-retest reliabilities are presented in Table 3. 
Table 3 
l:AM.s._ Sub-Sea le Rel iabil it ies 
,,,.___ 
Test-Retest 
Sub-scale eronbach's alpha 
(aggregate) 
20S 40S 
60+ 
.7280 
Mastery .8625 and Autonomy .8625 .8703 
t---_ 
Socl' al Recognition 
.8370 
and Rewards .9192 .8840 .8703 
t--- .7564 
Affiliation .8779 .8903 .8608 
.7426 
Fa111ily .8906 . 7244 .8272 
t--- .6904 
Real th .8090 and F.i tness .6373 .7620 
.7484 
Emotl? 
.8500 
onal Control .7062 .7160 
~ 
76 
PAMS Sub-Scale Intercorrelations 
The PAMS sub-scales were correlated to determine the strengths and 
directions of their relationships to one another. Correlations less 
than .3 were considered low, and correlations ranging from .3 to .5 were 
considered moderate. As shown in Table 4, all sub-scale 
intercorrelations were positive and either low or moderate. The top 
score is for respondents in their twenties, the middle score for 
respondents in their forties, and the bottom score for respondents 60 
years old or older. In addition, all sub-scale intercorrelations were 
less than sub-scale reliabilities using internal consistency and test-
retest. 
Table 4 
PAMS Sub-Scale Intercorrelations 
social 
Sub-Scale Recognition Affiliation Family Health and Emotional 
and Rewards Fitness Control 
20s 40s 60+ 20s 40s 60+ 20s 40s 60+ 20s 40s 60+ 20s 40s 60+ 
Mastery and .12 .34 .42 .29 .23 .51 .23 .34 ,42 ,54 ,53 ,53 .48 .57 .54 
Autonomy 
Social 
Recognition .30 .30 .59 .39 .22 ,34 .10 ,06 .10 .13 .28 , 24 
and Rewards 
Affiliation .23 .24 ,48 .10 ,30 .22 ,30 .48 .20 
Family .35 ,26 .26 .15 ,32 .26 
77 
r---
Social 
Emotional 
Sub-Scale Health and Recognition Affiliation Family 
Fitness control 
and Rewards 
20s 40S 60+ 
20s 40s 60+ 20S 40S 60+ 20s 40S 60+ 
20S 40s 60+ 
r---. 
,55 .39 .42 
Health and 
Fitness 
!::::::,,__ 
.eb..Ys ica 1 Ac t,?v ,.t y Enjoyment Principal Components 
The responses to the initial physical activity enjoyment inventory 
adm?i nistered . n stage one were subjected to the same statistical 1
Procedures as those used for the initial physical activity motivation 
inventory. Table 5 contains the resultant factor structures and 
1o adings f or the three age groups. The multi-factor, social-
fP?s ycholo gi. cal nature of physical activity enjoyment proposed in the 
irst rese arch hypothesis was upheld. 
en? In stage one, four principal components for physical activity 
JOYJnent and 14 items were identified that appeared stable and 
con. sistent across the three age groups of the adult lifespan. . The 
Prine; Pal components were labeled: self rewards, social recognition and 
reward s, family and responsibility. However, for respondents in their 
forties a 0 o' r older items in the Responsibility sub-scale loaded nd 6
With items in the Family,  sub-scale. The maximum number of factors was 
retained i.n  an effort to capture the complexity of the enjoyment 
bPh eno menon ' bu t questions were raised concerning the re 1a t  ,?o ns h, ?p s 
etween it ems i.n  the Responsibility and Family sub-scales. 
78 
Table 5 
Stage One PAES Factor Loadings 
Social Recognition 
Sub-Scale and Item Self Rewards and Rewards Responsibility Faiily 
Age LOading Age Loading Age Loading Age Loading 
Self Rewards 20s .89584 20s -,02261 20s ,14042 20s ,02312 
Feeling good about 40s ,85455 40s ,11245 40s ,10281 
yourself 60+ ,87709 60+ .17829 60+ -.05827 
Feeling 1ore 20S .68880 20s ,22163 20s -.39116 20s ,13237 
relaxed 40s .75135 40s -.09205 40s , 18667 
60+ , 79496 60+ -.08446 60+ .21892 
20s , 78820 20s ,13143 20s -,02967 20s -. 08732 
Feeling energized 40s , 76867 40s ,07534 40s ,00876 
60+ ?7 4638 60+ .09417 60+ .25950 
Feeling better 20s ,83840 20s ,04546 20s .08251 20S ,00083 
about yourself 40s .81705 40s .12375 40s ,05216 
60+ .69704 60+ .19435 60+ , 21435 
Feeling satisfied 20S ,69509 20s ,05891 20s .16190 20s .21881 
with your amount of 40s .80164 40s ,08989 40S -.10836 
physical activity 60+ .75051 60+ .13944 60+ -.14966 
79 
Sub-Scale and Item Self Rewards social Recognition Responsibility Family 
and Rewards 
Age Loading Age Loading Age Loading Age wading ? 
Social Recognition 
and Rewards 20s , 20442 20s , 79209 20S .18925 20s .14375 
Feeling admired by 40s ,09697 40s .85285 40S -,07024 
others 60+ ,10538 60+ .88101 60+ .15631 
Feeling respected 20s .29945 20s , 71075 20S .25040 20S .12696 
by others 40S .07594 40s ,83351 40s .34972 
60+ .13988 60+ , 79330 60+ .20475 
Feeling liked by 20s -.02564 20s ,84998 20s ,02932 20s .15405 
others 40s ,11611 40s , 73122 40S ,36265 
60+ .20231 60+ ,73287 60+ .41028 
Feeling recognition 20S ,10473 20s ,91707 20s .12749 20S ,06143 
from others 40s -.02183 40s , 85475 40S .22389 
60+ .17825 60+ ,85931 60+ ,23730 
Feeling rewarded by 20S ,00201 20s , 70876 20S ,31753 20s .43977 
others 40s .13221 40s .68595 40S .48793 
60+ -.11601 60+ ,57210 60+ .55774 
- ----=--= - ---? 
80 
ID!b-Scale and Item Self Rewards Social Recognition Responsibility Family 
and Rewards 
Age Loading Age Loading Age Loading Age Loading 
Responsibility 20s .10595 20s ,31586 20S , 87234 20s .08049 
Feeling responsible 40s ,14944 40S ,34748 40s , 75602 
for another 60+ ,12116 60+ .27553 60? , 79005 
Feeling responsible 20s ,05186 20s , 26896 20! .81635 20s , 28860 
for others 40s .03786 40s .27933 40$ , 77779 
60+ , 08104 60+ .32949 60? ,77300 
Family 20s ,00904 20s , 2863 4 20! .14365 20s .91239 
Feeling comfortable 40s -.02935 40s ,llm 40s , 82677 
with your family 60+ .12719 60+ ,08442 60? ?7 8703 
Feeling supported 20s .13329 20s .15588 20! .13139 20s ?9 3255 
by family 40s .05724 40s .11640 40s ,7 8593 
60+ .11842 60+ .26409 60? , 79614 
PAES Sub-Scale Reliabilities 
Correlations between the initial physical activity enjoyment 
inventory and the revised scale, the PAES, indicated these two measures 
shared 86.6%, 86%, and 90.1% of their total variance for respondents in 
their twenties, forties, and 60 or older respectively. Measurement 
efficacy was virtually unchanged using the shorter scale. 
Using Cronbach's alpha as a measure of internal consistency, PAES 
81 
reliabilities in stage one were .8680, .8633, and .8841 respectively for 
the total scale for respondents in their twenties, forties, and 60 or 
older. Test-retest reliability of the PAES based on results from a 
convenient sample of 32 individuals in early adulthood, 7 individuals in 
middle adulthood, and one individual in late adulthood was .7745. These 
were considered acceptable. Sub-scale reliabilities shown in Table 6 
indicated acceptable internal consistencies for the sub-scales but only 
a moderate relationship between test and retest scores on the Self 
Rewards sub-scale. 
Table 6 
PAES Sub-Scale Reliabilities 
Sub-Scale cronbach's alpha Test-Retest 
20s 40s 60+ (aggregate) 
Self Rewards .8426 .8620 .8070 .5290 
Social Recognition and .9042 .9061 .8804 .8282 
Rewards 
Responsibility .9111 .8189 .9282 .6853 
Family .9365 .7899 .8561 .7466 
PAES Sub-Scale Intercorrelations 
PAES sub-scale intercorrelations indicated there were low positive 
relationships between the Self Rewards sub-scale and all other sub-
scales for respondents in all three age groups. All other sub-scale 
correlations were positive and moderate except the high positive 
82 
relationship between Responsibility and Family for respondents in their 
forties. These results indicated that self rewards were relatively 
i ndependent, while social recognition and rewards, responsibility, and 
fami l Y were perhaps separate dimensions of a single social factor. 
In addition, all sub-scale intercorrelations were lower than sub-
scale re1 1? ab1.l.1t.1e s calculated using both Cronbach's alpha as a measure 
of inte rnal consistency and test-retest. 
Table 7 
~Sub-s ca]e Intercorrelation? 
=-----
Sub-Scale Social Recognition 
Family 
Responsibility 
and Rewards 
60+ 20S 40S 
60+ 
40S 
20S 40S 60+ 
20S 
,1685 ,0823 .2472 ,2506 
Self Rewards .1860 .2911 ,1419 
,1779 
.2409 
.4748 .4116 .5045 
Social Recognition ,5309 
,5742 ,5647 
anct Rewards 
,6189 .5484 .3876 
Res'!Klnsibili ty 
~ 
th
The findings in this stage supported the first research hypo esis 
that Phys.i cal activity participation motivation and enJ.o yment are multi.  _ 
nd 
f.a ctor ' soci. al-psychological constructs. The factors a items 
ldent;f?i ed for sports and exercise motivation measured ,.n  t r,.n si.c  
motivat ? t e and self -
ion, achievement motivation, the need for compe enc 
efficac ? ? soc?a1 
Y, autonomy, self-direction and self-control, extrinsic i 
rewa rds , family support, affiliation, and commitment to or 
83 
responsibility for others. Sources of enjoyment included self esteem, 
energy level, social recognition, social rewards, family support, 
comfort within the family, and responsibility for others. Further, the 
correlation between the total PAMS and PAES was .7936. This supported 
the hypothesized high positive association between motivation for and 
sources of enjoyment from physical activity. 
84 
CHAPTER V 
STAGE TWO METHODS AND PROCEDURES 
The purposes of stage two were to determine validity for the PAMS 
and PAES and to confirm their factor structures using a different sam.p le 
of 80-100 respondents in each of three age groups: 20-39 (early 
adulthood) , 40-59 (middle adulthood), and 60 and older (late adulthood) .. 
~ 
Data were collected from 105 respondents in early adulthood, 87 
responde nt  s 1. n middle adulthood, and 83 respondents in late adulthood. 
Mean ag es for each group were 25.8, 48.4, and 72.l respectively. There 
Were 52 males and 53 females in early adulthood, 42 males and 45 females 
in middl e adulthood, and 38 males and 45 females in late adulthood. All 
three a e samples were predominantly white: 86.9% for the early 9 
adultho od group, 96.5% for the middle adulthood group, and 96.4% for the 
l. ate ad uJthood group. Table 8 contains a su11111ary of d-graphic 
informat.,o n for each group. 
~ th st
Subjects were chosen to represent Levinson's (1986) ree ages 
4
Of adulth ood: early adulthood (20-39 years), middle adulthood ( 0-S 9 
Years) 'and late adulthood (60 years and older). Subjects were 
Solie., ted from within a limited geographical area, so race was 
relat?l Vely homogenous. 
th
Respondents reported weekly participation in e following 
activ >? ties: basketball, softball, volleyball, golf, tennis, racquetball, 
squash 'aerobics, strength training, walking, runnifl9, biking, horseback 
... 
85 
riding ' self defense, dancing, and swimming. The settings for these 
act ivit i?e s included public and private courts and golf courses, public 
roads and t rai. ls, homes and neighborhoods, recreational leagues, church 
leagues, and private sports and fitness clubs. The purpose of using 
such a w?d e range and variety of sport and exercise activities and 1 
setting s was to minimize the effects of one type of activity or one 
act?l Vity sett,?ng on responses to the motivation?  and enjoyment scales 
While att empting to balance the number of respondents in each age group 
invol ved in similar sport and exercise activities. 
}gsti ng Procedure 
Because subjects in stage one often required clarification of the 
terms" sports" and "exercise" and still had difficulty separating their 
Weeki y phys,?cal activities into these two categories, th e more genera l 
term ' ,, Ph y sical activity," was used in stage two. In addition, the 
item ' "H ow long have you been participating in sport and exercise 
activit?, es on a regular basis?" was re-worded, "Since the age of ten, 
how long been participating in sport and exercise activities on have you 
Activity history 
a reg u l ar basis?" in order to provide a baseline. 
could th en be calculated consistently as a percentage of the subject's 
current age m,? nus ten and the response to this question. otherw,? se , the 
same test?in g procedures were used in stage two that were use d i? nst  age 
one. 
86 
Table 8 
Qemographic Information for Staae Two Resgondents 
-
Age Young Adulthood Middle Adulthood 
Late Adulthood 
Males 42 
38 
52 
Females 45 
45 
53 
83 
87 
Total 105 
r--- 96.4 
Percent White 96,5 86.9 
72.l 
Mean Age 48,4 25.8 
t---
Mean Participation in 
Sports and  Exerc.i se 
8.87 hours/week 
8.39 hours/week 
Males 10.99 hours/week 
7,90 hours/week 
7,90 hours/week 
Females 7.03 hours/week 
8.34 hours/week 
Total hours /week 7.10 hours/week 8. 99 
t----
Mean De si?r ed Activity 
11.78 hours/week 
18.09 hours/week 
Males 23.97 hours/week 10,63 hours/week 
11,14 hours/week 
Females 13.03 hours/week 
11.17 hours/week 
Total 14,50 hours/week 18.50 hours/week 
r----
Mean Act1' vi.t1.e s 2,78 
2,97 
Males 3.29 2,63 
2,84 
Females 3.49 
2,70 
Total 90 3. 39 2. 
87 
r-- I 
I 
Middle Adulthood Late Adulthood Age Young AdulthOod 
Activity History 
?7 239 
.8318 
Males .9084 
.8153 . .9139 
Females .9459 
.8222 
Total .9273 .8232 
~ 
Subjects in early adulthood reported the highest mean weekly 
Partici pati.o n rate (8.99 hours/week) followed by subjects in late 
adulthood (S.34 hours/week) and middle adulthood (7.1 hours/week). 
Weeki Y participation rates for females were lower than for males in each 
age group. The means for desired amount of weekly participation for 
age 
each age group were higher than actual participation, decreased with 
from 18.5 hours per week to 11.17 hours per week, and decreased for 
females with i'n each age group. The mean number of weekly physical 
activit'i es also decreased with age from 3.39 to 2.70 and-decreased for 
females in m.i ddle and late adulthood. However, the mean number of 
Weeki Y activites was slightly higher for females in early adulthood than 
f.o r males ? Act1. v1. ty hi. story was calculated as the percentage of the 
lOdl' Vidual' sage during which he or she participated regularly 1. n sports 
a, nd exerci se. This also decreased as age increased. 
~?is  of Factor Structures for the PAMS and PAES. 
The number of factors for the PAMS and PAES were identified for 
the total sample based on principal components extracted with 
) 
88 
eigenvalues greater than or equal to one. In order to locate simple 
structure, varimax rotation was used. The subsequent factor structures 
for the total stage two sample were compared to those identified in 
stage one. 
Concurrent Validity for the PAMS and PAES 
Concurrent validity for the PAMS was determined using Pearson 
product-moment correlations to correlate the total scale and its sub-
scale scores with the short form of the LMS as a test of convergent 
validity and with the CES-D as a test of divergent validity. Concurrent 
validity for the PAES was determined by correlating the total scale and 
its sub -scale scores with the short form of the LSS as a test of 
convergent validity and with the CES-D as a test of divergent validity. 
PAMS Description. The PAMS (Appendix B) contains five sub-scales 
designed to measure motivation for physical activity across the adult 
lifespan. The Mastery and Autonomy sub-scale consists of six items that 
examine the role of personal competence, self-determination, and self-
discipline for participation in sports and exercise. The Social 
Recognition and Rewards sub-scale consists of five items that examine 
the importance of such extrinsic rewards as being admired, being 
respected, being recognized, being watched, and being better than 
others. The Affiliation sub-scale consists of five items that examine 
the importance of relationship and responsibility to another for 
participation in physical activity. The Family sub-scale consists of 
three items that examine the impact of family encouragement and family 
participation on the individual's motivation for participation in sports 
and exercise. The Self-Control sub-scale consists of three items that 
89 
examine the importance of reducing stress and relieving tension, 
controlling emotions, and delaying the effects of aging by participating 
in physical activity. 
Leisure Motivation Scale Description. Because participation in 
sports and exercise is a leisure activity, scores from the PAMS were 
correlated with scores from the short form of the Leisure Motivation 
Scale in an attempt to establish convergent validity for the PAMS. The 
short form of the Leisure Motivation Scale contains four sub -scales with 
four items each (see Appendix B). The Intellectual sub-scale of the LMS 
measures the extent to which individuals are motivated to engage in 
leisure activities which involve substantial mental activities such as 
learning about the self and the external environment, expanding 
knowledge, exploring new ideas, discovering new things, satisfying 
curiosity, being creative, and using the imagination (Beard &R agheb, 
1983, p.225). The Social sub-scale of the LMS measures the extent to 
which individuals are motivated to engage in leisure activities in 
response to needs for friendship, interpersonal relationships, and the 
esteem of others (Beard &R agheb, 1983, p.225). The Competency/Mastery 
sub -scale assesses the extent to which individuals engage in leisure 
activities in order to achieve, master, experience challenge, and 
compete in activities that are usually physical in nature (Beard & 
Ragheb, 1983, p.225). The Stimulus -Avoidance sub-scale of the LMS 
measures the extent to which individuals engage in leisure activities in 
order to avoid social contacts, seek solitude and calm, rest, and 
unwind. Intercorrelations among these sub-scales suggest a clear 
distinction between Stimulus Avoidance and the other three sub -scales 
90 
consistent with the conceptualization of leisure motivation along two 
dimensions: seeking personal and/or interpersonal intrinsic rewards and 
escaping personal and/or interpersonal environments (Iso-Ahola, 1989). 
Alpha reliabilities for the short form of the Leisure Motivation Scale 
ranged from .89 to .91. 
PAMS Scale and Sub-Scale Hypothesized Relationships to the LMS. 
Because both the PAMS and LMS measure motivation in leisure settings, 
total scores from the two instruments should be significantly and 
positively related. Hypothesized strengths and directions of the 
relationships between PAMS and LMS sub-scales are contained in Table 9. 
The following ranges were used: low is less than .3, moderate is between 
.3 and .5, and high is .6 or higher. 
Table 9 
Hypothesized Relationships Between the PAMS and LMS Sub-Scales 
LMS Sub-Scale 
PAMS Sub-Sc11le Intellectual Social Competency/Mastery stimulus Avoidance 
Mastery and I.ow Positive Moderate Positive High Positive . Unrelated 
Autonomy 
Social Recognition I.ow Positive Moderate Positive Moderate Positive Unrelated 
and Rewards 
Affiliation I.ow Positive High Positive Moderate Positive Unrelated 
Family I.ow Positive High Positive Moderate Positive Unrelated 
I 
Self-Control I.ow Positive Moderate Positive Moderate Positive Unrelated ' 
I 
91 
Al though each sub-scale of the PAMS attempted to define a 
relativeYl .1 ndependent motivation factor, opportunities for learning 
about oneself and others and the other mental activities described in 
the Intellectual sub-scale of the LMS are available through most of the 
items co nt  a1.n ed in each sub-scale of the PAMS. Consequently, each of 
the PAMS sub-scales should have a low positive correlation to the 
Intellectual sub-scale of the LMS. 
The Social sub-scale of the LMS should be most highly positively 
related t the Affiliation and Family sub-scales of the PAMS because all 0 
three a re measures of the importance of relat1o. nsh1.p  for part1.c 1.p at1.o n 
in 1~l. sure activities. In addition, the social sub-scale of the LMS 
should be  moderately and positively related to the Self-Control sub-
scale of the PAMS because reducing stress or rel1.e v1.n g tens1.o n, 
contro11i?n g emotions, and delaying the effects of aging can directly 
affect on e ' s behavior and thus indirectly affect one's interpersonal 
relat?lo nships and evaluation bY others. The Mastery and Autonom.Y and 
Social Re cognition and Rewards sub-scales of the PAMS should be 
moderatel Y positively correlated to the social sub-scale of the LMS 
1 0 
because ?t 
1 ems in each represent reasons why others would th
? nk  we 11 f 
the 1? nd ividual or demonstrate such admiration and recognition. However, 
because social recognition and rewards are extrinsic sources of 
motivat?i on, and leisure by definition is intrinsically mot.i vated (Jso-
Ahola ' , p.255), the social Recognition and ReWards sub-scale of the 1989
PAMs may be less positively related to the Social and Intellectual sub-
scales of the LMS than the other PAMS sub-scales. t 
The Competency/Mastery sub-scale of the LMS should be moS highly 
92 
and positively related to the Mastery and Autonomy sub-scale of the PAMS 
because both are measures of achievement and mastery in physical 
activity settings. In addition, the Competency/Mastery sub-scale of the 
LMS should have a moderate positive relationship to the Social 
Recognition and Rewards, Affiliation, Family, and Self-Control sub-
scales of the PAMS because each sub-scale represents a dimension for 
demonstrating personal achievement . 
The Stimulus Avoidance sub-scale of the LMS represents Iso-
Ahola's escaping dimension of leisure and should not be closely related 
to any of the PAMS sub-scales because the PAMS sub-scales represent 
means for seeking personal and/or interpersonal rewards from 
participation in physical activity. 
PAES Description. The PAES (Appendix B) contains three sub-scales 
to measure individual sources of enjoyment from participation in sports 
and exercise. The Self -Rewards sub-scale contains five items that 
examine the importance of positive self-evaluation and reflect possible 
individual sources for the "feel good" phenomenon resulting from 
participation in physical activity. The Social Recognition and Rewards 
sub -scale consists of five items that examine the importance for 
enjoyment of participation in physical activity of feeling admired, 
respected, liked, recognized, and rewarded by others. The 
Responsibility/Family sub-scale consists of two items that examine how 
often feelings of responsibility for others are a source of enjoyment 
from physical activity participation and two items that examine how 
often feeling supported by family and feeling comfortable with family 
are sources of enjoyment from physical activity participation. 
93 
Short Form of the Leisure Satisfaction Scale. Because 
participation in sports and exercise is a leisure activity and enjoyment 
and satisfaction are positve affective responses, scores from the PAES 
were correlated with scores from the short form of the Leisure 
Satisfaction Scale in an attempt to establish convergent validity for 
the PAES. There are six four-item sub-scales for the short form of the 
Leisure Satisfaction Scale (Ragheb & Beard, 1980, pp.345-346). The 
Psychological sub-scale measures individuals' evaluations of how 
interesting their leisure activities are, the impact of leisure 
activities on their self-confidence and their sense of accomplishment, 
and their use of many different skills and abilities in their leisure 
activities (see Appendix B). Although somewhat diverse, when these 
items are aggregated, they provide a measure of the individual's self-
concept and interest in leisure activities. The Educational sub-scale 
measures the extent to which leisure activities increase knowledge of 
the external environment, the self, and others as well as provide 
opportunities to try new things. The Social sub-scale measures the 
extent to which leisure activities provide social interaction, provide 
the opportunity to participate with friendly people, help develop close 
relationships with others, and impact on association with others who 
also enjoy doing leisure activities. The Relaxation sub-scale assesses 
the extent to which leisure activities help the individual to relax and 
relieve stress, contribute to the individual's emotional well-being, and 
are engaged in simply because the individual likes doing them. The 
Physical Activity sub-scale measures the extent to which individuals 
engage in leisure activities that are physically challenging, develop 
94 
physical fitness, help them stay healthy, and restore them physically. 
The Aesthetic sub- scale assesses the extent to which individuals engage 
in leisure activities in areas that are fresh and clean, interesting, 
beautiful, and well-designed. 
PAES Scale and Sub-Scale Hypothesized Relationships to the LSS. 
Because the PAES and LSS both measure positive affect associated with 
leisure activities, total scores from the two instruments should be 
significantly and positively related. Additionally, because the PAES 
measures sources of enjoyment from participation in physical activities, 
the total PAES score should be most highly positively related to scores 
on the LSS Physical Activity sub-scale. 
The Pychological sub-scale of the LSS should have a moderate 
positive relationship to the Self Rewards and Social Recognition and 
Rewards sub-scales of the PAES because all three address self-esteem, 
self-confidence, and positive evaluations of performance in leisure 
activities according to oneself or the perceived evaluations of others . 
The Responsibility/Family sub-scale of the PAES should also be 
moderately positively related to the Psychological sub-scale of LSS 
because it contains items that indirectly affect the individual's 
feeling of self-confidence and self-worth. 
The Educational sub-scale of the LSS should have a low positive 
relationship to each of the PAES sub-scales because self rewards, social 
recognition, rewards from others, feelings of responsibility, family 
interaction, and family support each provide means for learning about 
oneself. 
The Social sub-scale of the LSS should be moderately positively 
95 
related to all three PAES sub-scales because feeling good about oneself 
and feeling a sense of accomplishment; feeling socially accepted and 
recognized and rewarded by others; feeling responsible for others and 
feeling supported by family can each be associated with the need for 
relationship with others. 
The Relaxation sub-scale of the LSS should be most highly and 
positively related to the Self Rewards sub-scale of the PAES because 
both contain items that assess relaxation, stress reduction, and 
emotional well-being. The Relaxation sub-scale of the LSS should also 
hve a low positive relationship to the Social Recognition and Rewards 
and Responsibility/Family sub-scales of the PAES because both of these 
PAES sub-scales contain items that directly influence the individual's 
self-concept and self-esteem and thus impact upon the individual's 
emotional well-being. 
The Physical Activity sub-scale of the LSS should have a high 
positive relationship to the Self Rewards sub-scale of the PAES because 
both are concerned with feelings of competence derived from physical 
activity participation. The other two PAES sub-scales should have a low 
positive relationship to the LSS Physical Activity sub-scale because 
they are linked only by their shared sport and exercise as leisure 
activities. 
The Aesthetic sub-scale of the LSS is concerned with individual 
levels of satisfaction with the areas or physical settings in which 
leisure activities take place. Each of the PAES sub-scales should be 
unrelated to the Aesthetic sub-scale of the LSS because the PAES is a 
measure of enjoyment from the leisure activity itself and indirectly, at 
96 
best, measures enjoyment from engaging in leisure in a specific area or 
place. 
Table 10 contains the above hypotheses concerning the strengths 
and directions of the relationships between the PAES and LSS sub-scales. 
Table 10 
Hypothesized Relationships Between the PAES and LSS Sub-Scales 
LSS Sub-Scale 
PAES Sub- Psychological Educational Social Relaxation Physical Aesthetic 
Scale Activity 
Self Rewards Moderate Low Positive Moderate High Positive High Positive Unrelated 
Positive Positive 
Social Moderate Moderate 
Recognition Positive Low Positive Positive Low Positive Low Positive Unrelated 
and Rewards 
Responsi- Moderate Moderate 
bility/ Positive Low Positive Positive Low Positive Low Positive Unrelated 
Family 
Center for Epidemiological Depression Scale Descriptjon. "In a 
healthy population, positive and negative affect are expected to co-
exist, with a low (negative) correlation" (Radloff, 1977, p. 391). In 
addition, there is a "feel good" phenomenon associated with 
participation in vigorous physical activity based on frequent reports of 
feeling better by individuals following their bouts of vigorous exercise 
97 
(Morgan, 1984, 1985; Morgan & O'Connor, 1988; Wankel, 1993). Regular 
physical activity has also been associated with reduced depression 
l evels (Berger & Owen, 1983) and improved self-esteem (Sonstroem, 1984). 
For these reasons, scores from the PAMS, PAES, and CES-D were correlated 
to determine divergent validity for the PAMS and PAES. 
The CES -D Scale is a short self-report scale designed to measure 
depression symptomology in the general population (Radloff, 1977). It 
contains 20 items and four sub-scales: Depressed Affect, Positive 
Affect, Somatic and Retarded Activity, and Interpersonal Affect. 
Depressed Affect contains items concerning feeling depressed, lonely, 
fearful, sad, like life had been a failure, having crying spells, and 
feeling unable to shake off the blues even with help from friends and 
family. The Positive Affect sub-scale contains items such as feeling as 
good as others, hopeful about the future, happy, and enjoying life. The 
Somatic and Retarded Activity sub-scale examines changes in perceptions 
and decreases in normal activities such as being bothered by things that 
do not usually bother you, having trouble keeping your mind on what you 
are doing, feeling everything is an effort, talking less than usual, 
sleeping restlessly, not feeling like eating, and not being able to get 
"going." The Interpersonal Affect sub-scale contains two items that 
address feeling people are unfriendly and dislike you. Each item is 
rated according to how often the respondent felt this way during the 
past week on a zero to three scale where O is rarely or less than one 
day, 1 is sometime or one to two days, 2 is occasionally or three to 
four days, and 3 is most of the time or five to seven days (see Appendix 
B) . Responses for the Positive Affect sub-scale are reversed to reflect 
98 
th
e lack of positive affect associated with depression. A total score 
of 16 or higher is considered a high score. 
Hypothesized Relationships Between the PAMS, PAES, and CES-D. 
Because subjects in this research were currently involved in sport and 
exercise activities at least once a week, even this minimal amount of 
regular physical activity should have an impact on self-esteem and 
depression. Consequently, the Depression Affect, Somatic and Retarded 
Activity, and Interpersonal Affect sub-scales of the CES-D should be 
significantly and negatively related to the PAMS and PAES total scores 
and each PAMS and PAES sub-scale score. In addition, the Depressed 
Affect sub-scale of the CES-D should have the strongest negative 
correlations with the Mastery and Autonomy and Social Recognition and 
Rewards sub-scales of the PAMS and the Self Rewards and Social 
Recognition and Rewards sub-scales of the PAES because the Depressed 
Affect sub-scale of the CES-D measures feelings of incompetence while 
all of the other sub-scales measure feelings of competence. The 
Interpersonal Affect sub-scale of the CES-D should have the strongest 
negative relationship with the Social Recognition and Rewards, 
Affiliation, and Family sub-scales of the PAMS and the Social 
Recognition and Rewards and Family sub-scales of the PAES because each 
sub-scale attempts to measure some aspect of interpersonal 
relationships. 
The Somatic and Retarded Activity sub-scale of the CES-D should 
also be negatively related to the PAMS, PAES, and their sub-scales 
because participation in sport and exercise for whatever reasons and 
with whatever sources of enjoyment can alleviate such symptoms as poor 
99 
appetitie and restless sleep and also provide an environment in which 
the individual must "get going" and focus on the task at hand even if it 
is a great effort. 
The Positive Affect sub-scale of the CES-D should be significantly 
and positively correlated with the total PAMS and PAES scores and with 
their sub-scale scores because each one was designed to assess an 
individual's reasons for or positive feelings from participation in 
sport and exercise activities. 
Predictive and Discriminant Validity for the PAMS and PAES 
Item responses were analyzed for males and females in three age 
groups: early adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood using SPSS 
PC+ to calculate 2X3 MANCOVAs as measures of both the predictive and 
discriminant validities of the PAMS and PAES. For the PAMS, the 
independent variables were age group and sex, the covariate was number 
of hours of weekly physical activity, and the dependent variables were 
the six PAMS sub-scale scores. For the PAES, the independent variables 
were age group and sex, the covariate was desired number of weekly 
physical activity hours, and the dependent variables were the three PAES 
sub-scale scores. The covariates in the MANCOVAs described above were 
different and dictated by the hypotheses. 
Further, a 2X3 MANCOVA was calculated using age group and sex as 
independent variables, number of weekly physical activity hours as the 
covariate, and sub-scale scores for both the PAMS and PAES as dependent 
variables in order to measure the effects of weekly participation rates 
in sports and exercise on each sub-scale as well as the main effects and 
interactions of age group and sex on both physical activity motivation 
100 
and enjoyment. Finally, Tukey's test of significance was used post hoc 
to determine which sub-scale means for the three age groups were 
significantly different at the .001 level. 
Motivation for and Sources of Enjoyment from Physjcal Activity 
The final issue addressed in this research was conceptual and not 
usually present in the development of psychometric tools. The 
statistical analyses previously described used summed scores to examine 
the behaviors of the scales developed to measure motivation for and 
enjoyment from physical activity by males and females across the adult 
lifespan. The summed scores are inter-correlated because items are not 
strictly unidimensional. However, by using summed scores (as would be 
done in practical application of the scales) one obtains the most 
accurate description of the behaviors of the scales themselves as 
applied in situ. But, the final issue addressed in this research was 
the relationship of the two constructs - motivation for and enjoyment 
from physical activity - to one another. 
An underlying assumption in this research was that motivation for 
and enjoyment from sports and exercise participation, although highly 
related, are distinguishable. Motivation was defined as providing the 
impetus for participation in physical activities, while enjoyment was 
defined as the global positive affect resulting from the individual's 
outcome evaluation of that participation. Certainly what initially 
motivates someone to play sports or exercise can also provide a source 
of enjoyment from those activities, but additional sources of enjoyment 
can also be realized that were not considered prior to participation. 
For instance, an individual might be motivated to exercise in order to 
101 
lose weight. Losing weight wi ll provide enjoyment for that individual, 
but meeting new people and making new friends at the exercise facility 
could also be sources of enjoyment. In turn, this affiliation could 
provide the motivation for continued exercise. Obviously the two 
constructs, motivation and enjoyment, are highly related to one another 
because of this cyclic connection. Motivation occurs before physical 
activity participation, while enjoyment occurs and after physical 
activity participation. Both motivation and enjoyment can be present 
during physical activity. Are the two really different? 
In order to examine the relationship between motivation for and 
sources of enjoyment from physical activity participation, the final 
statistical analyses in this research used factor scores rather than 
summed scores for the PAMS and PAES sub-scales. Factor scores provide 
the most precise measure of the motivation and enjoyment constructs 
because "the factor scores have the additional advantage of being 
uncorrelated, thus giving maximum information for a space of given 
dimensionality" (Cooley & Williams, 1962, p.64). Further, because 
varimax rotations were used, the factor scores for the latent variables 
measured within the PAMS and PAES, res pectively, will be independent. 
Thus, there will be no redundancy in tests that correlate PAMS sub-
scales with PAES sub-scales. In other words, each correlation between 
motivation and enjoyment factor scores provides unique information about 
the redundancy or independence of motivation and enjoyment. Pearson 
product-moment correlations were calculated for the PAMS and PAES sub-
scales using factor scores to determine their relative independence. 
102 
CHAPTER VI 
STAGE TWO RESULTS 
The purposes of stage two were to confirm the factor structures . 
and determine the validity of the PAMS and PAES using a different sample 
of from 80- 100 respondents in each of three age groups: 20-39 (early 
adulthood), 40-59 (middle adulthood), and 60 and older (late adulthood). 
PAMS Factor Structure 
The six factors extracted in stage one were extracted for the 
total sample in stage two. Four sub-scales contained the same items as 
those in stage one: Social Recognition and Rewards, Family, Health and 
Fitness, and Affiliation. One item, "overcoming personal weaknesses," 
changed from the Emotional Control sub-scale to the Mastery and Autonomy 
sub-scale. Because of its instability, this item was dropped from the 
PAMS . 
Subsequent factor analyses extracted five factors and led to 
dropping the item, "disciplining your mind and body," because it loaded 
almost equally on two factors. The final version of the PAMS contained 
22 items and five sub-scales: Mastery and Autonomy, Social Recognition 
and Rewards, Affiliation, Family, and Self-Control. The Social 
Recognition and Rewards, Family, and Affiliation sub-scales were 
unchanged. Although the items "maintaining/improving health and 
fitness" and "increasing energy and vitality" loaded somewhat equally on 
two factors, they were retained and added to the sub-scale on which they 
loaded the highest, Mastery and Autonomy, because of their importance as 
motives for participation in sports and exercise. The new three-item 
103 
factor was labelled Self-Control. These results confirmed the multi -
factor social-psychological nature of physical activity participation 
motivation. 
Stage one data were used to recalculate the revised PAMS sub-scale 
reliabilities. Using Cronbach's alpha as a measure of internal 
consistency for the total sample and test-retest correlations of paired 
scores, the reliabilities of the Mastery and Autonomy sub-scale were 
respectively .8249 and .6983 and the reliabilities of the Self-Control 
sub-scale were respectively .4847 and .7101. The intercorrelation of 
the Mastery and Autonomy and Self-Control Sub-scales was .4850. 
Although this was higher than the alpha reliability for Self-Control, it 
was considerably less than the Self-Control test-retest reliability. 
Intercorrelations among the remaining PAMS sub-scales ranged from .2271 
to . 3526 and indicated relative independence. Table 11 shows the stage 
two factor loadings for each item retained in the PAMS. 
Tab le 11 
Revised PAMS Factor Loadings 
Social 
Sub-scale Mastery and Recognition Affiliation Faaily Self-control 
Autonoay and Rewards 
Mastery and 
Autonony 
Trying to reach .68164 .16742 .05716 .08209 ,19040 
personal goals 
104 
Social 
Sub-scale Mastery and Recognition Affiliation Palily Self-control 
Autonomy and Rewards ' 
Maintaining/ 
improving health .57928 -,06638 -.02839 -.11670 .52663 
and fitness 
Trying to be the .70174 .18829 .28125 -.02547 .10311 
best you can be 
Increasing energy .61725 -,05927 ?0 6281 -.08017 ,52162 
and vitality 
I1proving your ,75891 ,07301 .09161 ,05221 ,01650 
skills 
Pushing yourself . 70410 .22229 .00777 .14537 .11669 
to your limits 
social 
Recognition and 
Rewards 
Others looking up .15119 , 78919 .09735 .12041 .19827 
to you 
Being admired by .07195 ,88332 ,17330 .04424 .07253 
others 
105 
-
social 
Family self-Control 
Sub-scale Mastery and Recognition Affiliation 
Autonomy and Rewards 
,11946 .01333 
Being watched by .02948 .83189 .23469 
others 
Being recognized .36792 ,12447 
.01457 
,13499 .76462 
by others 
,05720 -.23561 
Being better than .32080 ,68019 .08293 
others 
Affiliation 
,14398 
Meeting new .08172 ,22313 , 77839 
,08232 
people 
-.08187 
Participating .11000 ,07433 ?7 4873 .08297 
with friends 
Being part of a .14296 , 78560 ,15505 
,04855 
,09110 
group 
Making new .06712 .02076 .24541 .86969 ,09663 
friends 
Connitnent or 
obligation to ,14708 ,29447 .45812 ,39547 -.06358 
another 
106 
Social 
Sub-scale Mastery and Recognition Affiliation Family Self-Control 
I i 
Autonomy and Rewards 
I 
Family 
Participating .00560 .03002 .06913 .86693 ,02989 
with family 
Your family is .02489 .04226 .09146 .84565 ,08079 
active 
Being encouraged ,06404 .30516 .32455 .64196 .06988 
by your family 
self-Control 
Reducing stress 
or relieving .07642 -.00805 ,02569 .09660 ?7 9212 
tension 
controlling your .14346 , 23664 , 25203 ,31774 ,35721 
emotions 
Delaying effects .27310 .07965 ,01535 ,07250 .56281 
of aging 
PAES Factor Structure 
The three factors extracted for respondents in their forties and 
60 or older in stage one were extracted for the total sample in stage 
two and contained the same items. These were: Self Rewards, Social 
107 
Recog n1? t?1 0n and Rewards, and Family/Responsibility. Although in stage 
one Fa m 1- 1Y  and Responsibility loaded on separate factors for respondents 
in their twenties, their intercorrelation was moderate (.3876) and 
stat?1 st1? cally significant at the .001 level. For this reason, it was 
not surprising that items for the Family and Responsibility sub-scales 
loaded on one factor for the total sample in stage two. Varimax factor 
loadings for stage two are contained in Table 12. These results 
confirmed the multi-factor social-psychological nature of enjoyment from 
physical activity participation proposed in the first research 
hypothesis. 
Table 12 
stage Two PAES Factor Loadings 
. 
Sub-Scale and Ite11 Self Rewards social Recognition and Responsibility/Family 
Rewards 
Self Rewards 
Feeling good about .82423 ,19635 -.03072 
yourself 
Feeling more relaxed .80859 -.03847 ,19888 
Feeling energized .80503 ,06209 -,03118 
Feeling better about .81987 .07901 .07108 
yourself 
108 
social Recognition and Responsibility/Family fu!b-Scale and Item Self Rewards 
Rewards 
Feeling satisfied with 
-. 07996 
your illllount of physical ?7 1354 .10915 
activity 
Social Recognition and 
Rewards .17172 .87616 
,16908 
Feeling adllired by others 
Feeling respected by .81043 ,33529 .11726 
others 
Feeling liked by others .05340 .81329 
.28161 
Feeling recognition from .92215 .17845 .08402 
others 
Feeling rewarded by .63524 .41591 .08415 
others 
I 
! 
Responsibility/Fanily 
Feeling responsible for -.00482 .28059 ?7 2516 
another 
Feeling responsible for -.08245 .30805 ?7 3231 
others 
109 
Sub-Scale and Item Self Rewards Social Recognition and Responsibility/Family 
Rewards 
Feeling comfortable with ,08462 .23004 , 76502 
your family 
Feeling supported by your ,05369 ,15510 , 77564 
family 
Concurrent Validity for the PAMS 
Scores from the PAMS and PAMS sub-scales were correlated with 
scores from the short form of the LMS and LMS sub -scales to determine 
convergent validity and the CES-D and CES-D sub-scales to determine 
divergent validity. The strengths and directions of their relationships 
are contained in Table 13. 
Tab le 13 
PAMS and LMS Sub-Scale Correlations 
LMS Sub-Scale 
PAMS Sub-Scale Intellectual Social ConpetencyjMastery Stimulus Avoidance 
Mastery and .3462*** .2083*** ,5429*** .0947 
Autonomy 
Social Recognition ?3 042*** ?5 287*** ,3856*** .1619** 
and Rewards 
Affiliation .4323*** ?5 658*** ?2 907*** .1654** 
Fanily .1623** .3128*** .1339* .1913** 
110 
FAHS Sub-Scale Intellectual Social competency jHastery Stimulus Avoidance 
Self-Control .2712tH .2006*** , 2274*** ,2725*** 
*p= .05 **p=.01 ***p=.001 
The correlation between the total PAMS and LMS was positive and 
moderate (.5916) and thus provided support for convergent validity. In 
addition, all relationships between the PAMS and LMS sub-scales were 
positive. As predicted, there were low correlations between the LMS 
Stimulus Avoidance sub-scale and all PAMS sub -scales. However, the 
correlation between LMS Stimulus Avoidance and PAMS Self-Control (.2274) 
was significant at the .001 level. Additional low relationships were 
identified between the LMS Intellectual sub-scale and the PAMS Family 
and Self-Control sub-scales, the LMS Social sub-scale and PAMS Mastery 
and Autonomy and Self-Control sub-scales, and the LMS Competency/Mastery 
sub-scale and the PAMS Self-Control, Affiliation, and Family sub-scales. 
The remaining relationships were moderate and ranged from .3128 to 
. 5658 . As predicted, the strongest relationships were between the PAMS 
Social Recognition and Rewards and Affiliation sub-scales and the LMS 
Social sub -scale and the PAMS Mastery and Autonomy sub-scale and the LMS 
Competency/Mastery sub-scale. These results supported the sixth 
research hypothesis concerning the direction and strength of the 
relationships between the PAMS, the LMS, and their sub-scales. 
111 
Table 14 
PAMS and CES-0 Sub-Scale Correlations 
CES-D Sub-Scale 
PAMS Sub-Scale Depressed Affect Positive Affect Somatic and Retarded Interpersonal 
Activity Affect 
Mastery and -.1703** -.2815*** -.1960** -.1348* 
Autonomy 
Social Recognition .0350 .0219 - ,0046 ,0736 
and Rewards 
Affiliation ,1653** ,0645 ,0638 .1000 
Fanily .0486 .0612 ,0504 .0543 
Self-Control -.0628 -.1041 -.0520 -.0575 
*p :e . 05 **p=.01 p=.001 
The correlation between the total PAMS and CES-D was -.0327. PAMS 
and CES-0 sub-scale correlations are contained in Table 14. As 
predicted, almost half of the correlations between the PAMS and CES-D 
sub-scales were negative indicating higher scores for motivation were 
associated with lower scores for depression. There was a significant 
negative correlation at the .001 level between the CES-D Positive Affect 
sub-scale (recoded to represent lack of positive affect associated with 
depression) and the PAMS Mastery and Autonomy sub-scale. The remaining 
correlations were extremely low, ranging from .0219 to .1000. This 
provided partial support for the divergent validity of the PAMS and its 
sub-scales and therefore supported the eighth research hypothesis. 
112 
Concurrent Validity for the PAES 
Scores from the PAES and PAES sub-scales were correlated with the 
short form of the LSS and LSS sub -scales to determine convergent 
validity and with the CES-D and CES -D sub -scales to determine divergent 
validity. The strengths and directions of their relationships are 
contained in Tables 15 and 16. 
Table 15 
PAES and LSS Sub-Scale Correlations 
LSS Sub-Scale 
PAES Sub- Psychological F.ducational Social Relaxation Physical Aesthetic 
Scale Activity 
Self Rewards ,4658ttt .3516*** .2100*** .3926*** .4516*** ,3421*** 
Social 
Recognition .3276ttt .3831*** .4659*** .2142*** .1905** ,2005** 
and Rewards 
Family/Res- .0737 .2764*** .3114*** .1575** ,0984 .2023*** 
ponsibili ty 
*p=.05 **p=.01 ***p=.001 
The PAES and LSS were positively and moderately related (.4911, 
p=.001). Further, all PAES and LSS sub-scale relationships were 
positive. These results partially supported the seventh research 
hypothesis concerning predicted significant and positive relationships 
between the PAES, the LSS, and their sub -scales. The PAES Self Rewards 
sub-scale was moderately related to all of the LSS sub-scales except the 
113 
Social sub -scale with which it had a low relationship. The PAES Social 
Recognition and Rewards sub-scale was moderately related to the LSS 
Psychological, Educational and Social sub-scales and had a low 
relationship to the LSS Relaxation, Physical Activity, and Aesthetic 
sub-scales. The PAES Responsibility and PAES Family sub-scales were 
related to all of the LSS sub-scales at a low level ranging from .0260 
to .2707. These results were generally consistent with the predicted 
relationships between the PAES and LSS and provide preliminary support 
for the convergent validity of the PAES because exceptions to the 
hypothesized relationships were matters of strength, not direction. Of 
particular note was the finding that the PAES Self Rewards and LSS 
Aesthetic sub-scales shared 12% of their variance. 
Table 16 
PAES and CES-0 Sub-Scale Correlations 
CF.S-0 Sub-Scale 
FAES Sub-Sea~ Depressed Affect Positive Affect Sciatic and Retarded Interpersonal 
Activity Affect 
Self Rewards -.1934** -.2578*** -. 2414*** -.0906 
Social Recognition ,0261 -.0508 ,0111 .0013 
and Rewards 
Responsibility/ ,0195 .0709 .0226 - ,0217 
Fanily 
** p . 01 *** p = . 001 
As predicted, the PAES and CES-D were negatively related 
114 
indicating higher physical activity enjoyment scores were associated 
with lower depression scores. Although all correlations were low, 
negative and significant correlations at the .001 level were identified 
for the PAES Self Rewards sub-scale and the CES-D Depression, Positive 
Affect, and Somatic and Retarded Activity sub-scales. These results 
provided partial support for the divergent validity of the PAES and 
upheld the eighth research hypothesis. 
Predjctive and Discriminant Validity for the PAMS 
A 2X3 MANCOVA was calculated using age group and sex as the 
independent variables, scores on the five PAMS sub-scales as dependent 
variables, and weekly number of hours of participation in sports and 
exercise as the covariate. Main effects and interactions of age group 
and sex were calculated as measures of the discriminant validity of the 
PAMS sub-scales. Regression on the covariate, number of hours spent 
each week participating in sports and exercise, was used as a measure of 
predictive validity for the PAMS sub-scale scores. 
According to the multivariate test of significance, Pillais trace, 
the effect of age group on PAMS sub-scale scores was significant at the 
.001 level with F(2,248)= 3.143. Univariate tests of significance 
disclosed the following significant effects of age group on the PAMS 
sub-scale scores: Affiliation (F=S.747, p=.004) and Self-Control 
(F=3.757, p=.025). Although means on the both sub-scales increased 
with age (Appendix B), the differences between each age group were not 
always statistically significant. According to results from post hoc 
use of Tukey's test of significant differences, on both sub-scales late 
adults scored significantly higher than early adults. On the 
115 
Affiliation sub-scale, late adults also scored significantly higher than 
middle adults. These results supported the fourth research hypothesis 
that motivation for physical activity varies according to age. There 
was no significant main effect for sex or significant sex-age group 
interaction on the PAMS sub-scales. These findings did not support the 
fifth research hypothesis that physical activity motivation varies 
according to sex. 
According to the multivariate test of significance, Pillais trace, 
the effect of the number of hours of weekly participation in physical 
activity on the PAMS sub-scales was significant at the .000 level with 
F(l,248)= 7.31. Univariate tests of significance disclosed the 
following effects of weekly hours of physical activity participation on 
the PAMS sub-scale scores: Mastery and Autonomy (F=l4.822, p=.000), 
Social Recognition and Rewards (F=7.538, p=.006), and Affiliation 
(F=B.948, p=.003). These results supported the second research 
hypothesis concerning the positive and high relationship between the 
PAMS and a behavioral measure of motivation. 
Predictive and Discriminant Validity for the PAES 
A 2X3 MANCOVA was calculated using age group and sex as the 
independent variables, scores on the three PAES sub-scales as dependent 
variables, and desired weekly number of hours of participation in sports 
and exercise as the covariate. Main effects and interactions of age 
group and sex were calculated as measures of the discriminant validity 
of the PAES sub-scales. Regression on the covariate, desired number of 
hours spent each week participating in sports and exercise, was used as 
a measure of predictive validity for the PAES sub-scale scores. 
116 
According to the multivariate test of significance, Pillais trace, 
the effect of age group on PAES sub -scale scores was significant at the 
.000 level with F(2,252)= 5.421. Univariate tests of significance 
disclosed the following effects of age group on the PAES sub-scale 
scores: Social Recognition and Rewards (F=8.346, p=.000) and 
Responsibility/Family (F=6.676, p=.001). Mean scores increased linearly 
with age on both sub-scales (Appendix B). Tukey's test of significant 
differences applied post hoc disclosed a significant difference between 
scores for late and both early and middle adults on the Social 
Recognition and Rewards sub-scale and a significant difference between 
scores for late adults and early adults on the Responsibility/Family 
sub-scale. These findings supported the fourth research hypothesis that 
physical activity enjoyment varies according to age. There was no 
significant main effect for sex ?or significant sex-age group interaction 
on the PAES sub-scales at the .05 level. These findings did not support 
the fifth research hypothesis that physical activity enjoyment varies 
according to sex. 
The multivariate effect of the desired number of hours spent 
participating in sports and exercise on the PAES sub-scale scores 
approached significance (p=.069), while the univariate tests of 
significance identified a significant effect of desired physical 
activity hours on the Self Rewards sub-scale (F=3.927, p=.049). These 
findings provided partial support for the third research hypothesis 
concerning the positive relationship between the PAES and a behavioral 
measure of physical activity enjoyment. 
According to the multivariate test of significance, Pillais trace, 
117 
the effect of the number of hours of weekly participation in physical 
activity on both the PAMS and PAES sub-scales was significant at the 
.000 level with F(J,248)= 5.063. Univariate tests of significance 
disclosed the following effects of weekly hours of physical activity 
participation on the PAMS sub-scale scores - Mastery and Autonomy 
(F=l3.045, p=.000), Social Recognition and Rewards (f=7.356, p=.007), 
and Affiliation (f=S.978, p=.003) - and the PAES Self Rewards sub-scale 
(F=9.728, p=.002). 
Motivation for and Sources of En.joyment from Physical Activity 
Factor scores were calculated from responses on the PAMS and PAES 
in stage two in order to compare the constructs of motivation for and 
enjoyment from physical activity. Because factor scores are 
uncorrelated, they provide more precise information concerning the sub-
scales than summed scores (Cooley & Lohnes, 1962). Table 17 contains 
the Pearson product-moment correlations for the PAMS and PAES sub-scale 
factor scores. These correlations provide preliminary support for the 
first research hypothesis that motivation for and sources of enjoyment 
from physical activity are positively and highly related, but 
distinguishable. 
118 
Table 17 
PAMS and PAES Sub-Scale Factor Score Correlations 
PAMS Sub-Scale 
Social 
PAES Sub-Scale Mastery and Recognition and Affiliation Fanily Self-Control 
Autono1y Rewards 
Self Rewards .4335*** -.0276 .0312 -.0682 ,3453ttt 
Social 
Recognition and .1910** .5542*** , 3322*** -.1014 -.1329* 
Rewards 
Responsibility/ -.0492 ,0767 ,2040** ,5462*** .1767** 
F1111ily 
*p=.05 **p=.01 ***p=.001 
Factor score correlations for the PAMS and PAES sub-scales shown 
in Table 17 indicate positive moderate correlations in descending order 
between the PAMS and PAES Social Recognition and Reward~ sub-scales, the 
PAMS Family and PAES Responsibility/Family sub-scales, the PAMS Mastery 
and Autonomy and PAES Self Rewards sub-scales, the PAMS Self-Control and 
PAES Self Rewards sub-scales, and the PAMS Affiliation and PAES Social 
Recognition and Rewards sub-scales. All other correlations are low. 
Although nine of the 15 correlations among motivation and 
enjoyment reached statistical significance at the .05 level, no two sub-
scales share more than 31% of the variance. This is well below the 
internal consistency of all of the sub-scales except the PAMS Self-
119 
Control which has already been discussed. It is also well below test -
retest reliabilities for all sub-scales except the PAES Self Rewards. 
Examination of Table 17 shows that sub-scales sharing more than 10% of 
their variance are merely those sharing common conceptual elements, as 
would be expected. The low to moderate correlations between motivation 
and enjoyment factor scores are indicative of the cyclic nature of 
motivation and enjoyment and do not discount their conceptual 
independence. 
120 
CHAPTER VII 
SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION 
This research describes the development and validation of measures 
designed to assess motivation for and sources of enjoyment from 
participation in sports and exercise across the adult lifespan. In 
addition, patterns of motivation and enjoyment for males and females 
across the adult lifespan participating in a variety of sport and 
exercise activities are described. Finally, the underlying assumption 
in this research that motivation for and enjoyment from participation in 
physical activity are highly related but distinguishable constructs is 
addressed. 
The PAMS 
Three factors containing the same items were extracted for the 
PAMS for both stage one and stage two: Social Recognition and Rewards, 
Affiliation, and Family. Their stage one alpha and test-retest 
reliabilities respectively are .8912 and .8370 (Social Recognition and 
Rewards), .8763 and .7564 (Affiliation), and .8141 and ~7426 (Family). 
Further, the intercorrelations among these three sub-scales, although 
statistically significant at the .001 level, fall well below the above 
reliabilities. It is not surprising that motivation from social 
recognition and rewards, affiliation, and family are related as strongly 
as they are because each one addresses a dimension of social 
relationship. This finding supports the well-documented role of the 
social environment and relatedness in motivational theory (Bandura, 
1986; Deci & Ryan, 1991). In addition, these findings support a 
121 
significant role for extrinsic motivation in sport and exercise 
participation. The importance of extrinsic motivation for sport 
participation is recognized (Briere et al., in press; Pelletier et al., 
1995), but the importance of extrinsic motivation has been somewhat 
overlooked in exercise (Dishman, Ickes, Morgan; 1980). 
In stage one, three other PAMS factors were extracted for 
respondents 60 or older (Mastery and Autonomy, Health and Fitness, and 
Emotional Control), and two other factors were extracted for respondents 
in their twenties and in their forties (Mastery and Autonomy and Health 
and Fitness). For the total stage two sample, only two other factors 
were extracted (Mastery and Autonomy and Self-Control). Based on stage 
one responses, the alpha and test-retest reliabilities respectively for 
the revised Mastery and Autonomy sub-scale are .8249 and .6983 and for 
the new Self-Control sub-scale are .4847 and .7101. The rather unstable 
nature of the above factors and their consequent item loadings, coupled 
with their reliabilities and intercorrelations, indicates that perhaps 
they represent rather unique dimensions of a higher order factor -
competence. This finding supports the importance of achievement, 
competence, and self-efficacy in motivation for sports and exercise 
participation (Harter, 1978, 1980; Maehr & Nicholls, 1980; McAuley, 
1992). Nonetheless, the alpha reliabilities or test-retest 
reliabilities of the PAMS Mastery and Autonomy and Self-Control sub-
scales support their efficacy for measuring motivation for participation 
in sports and exercise. 
In stage two, the number of hours spent each week participating in 
physical activity had a statistically significant positive relationship 
122 
with the PAMS sub-scales Mastery and Autonomy (p=.000), Affiliation 
(p=.003), and Social Recognition and Rewards (p=.006). These sub-scales 
represent respectively intrinsic motivation, social support, and 
extrinsic motivation. Although sport participation motivation scales 
assess all three of the above factors, exercise motivation inventories 
are often less inclusive. For instance, in their development of the 
Self-Motivation Inventory, Dishman, Ickes, and Morgan (1980) 
intentionally disregarded extrinsic motivation and social support. This 
is perhaps another reason why the SMI has been weak in predicting 
adherence to structured fitness programs (Wankel, 1984; Ward & Morgan, 
1984). 
One interesting finding from stage one in this research is that 
people actively involved in physical activities across the adult 
lifespan have difficulty distinguishing between sports and exercise. 
Their recurring question is whether training for a sport is considered 
sport or exercise. Where exactly is the line between the two drawn? 
This provides strong support for the need to have measurement tools that 
are appropriate for use in both sports and exercise settings. 
Additionally, because most of the individuals in this research were 
involved in both sports and exercise, research that is restricted to 
either sports or exercise may not be providing an accurate picture of 
the actual physical activity participation motivation and enjoyment 
phenomena. 
In stage two, there was also a statistically significant main 
effect for age group on the PAMS (p=.000) and its sub-scales for 
Affiliation (p=.004) and Self-Control (p=.025). This finding is 
123 
consistent with the developmental tasks for early, middle, and late 
adulthood (Rapoport & Rapoport, 1980). Contrary to the popular belief 
that males are more achievement-oriented and females are more socially-
oriented, there was no main effect for sex on the PAMS. 
In stage two, the PAMS demonstrated convergent validity by its 
high positive relationship to the Leisure Motivation Scale (.5916). 
Nineteen of the 20 PAMS-LMS sub-scale intercorrelations were 
statistically significant at the .05 level or higher, and 14 of the sub-
scales intercorrelations were statistically significant at the .001 
level. This indicates that motivation for participation in sports and 
exercise is strongly related to the more general construct of leisure 
motivation and supports the convergent validity of the PAMS. 
In stage two, the PAMS also demonstrated divergent validity by its 
negative correlation with the Center for Epidemiological Studies 
Depression Scale (-.0327). Further, all of the PAMS sub-scales had low 
or negative correlations with the CES-0 sub-scales, and the negative 
correlations of PAMS Mastery and Autonomy sub-scale with each of the 
CES-D sub-scales were statistically significant. This appears to 
indicate that individuals who are more motivated to participate in 
sports and exercise in order to achieve competence, try to be the best 
they can be, and try to reach personal goals are less depressed than 
those who are motivated by social recognition and rewards, affiliation, 
family, or self-control. 
The PAES 
Two factors containing the same items were extracted for the PAES 
for both stage one and stage two: Self Rewards and Social Recognition 
124 
and Rewards. Their alpha and test-retest reliabilities respectively are 
. 8372 and .5290 (Self Rewards) .8969 and .8282 (Social Recognition and 
Rewards). Further, the intercorrelation between these two sub-scales , 
although statistically significant at the .001 level, falls well below 
their reliabilities. In addition, enjoyment from self rewards such as 
feeling good or better about yourself, feeling energized, feeling 
satisfied with your amount of physical activity, and feeling relaxed is 
strongly related to enjoyment derived from social recognition and 
rewards. One explanation for this finding is that others often 
recognize, admire, respect, and reward precisely those aspects of sport 
and exercise participation that are individually rewarding. This, in 
turn, provides additional reasons for the individual to feel good or 
better about himself or herself. Therefore, self rewards can be even 
more enjoyable, especially when they are reinforced by others. This 
finding supports the role of extrinsic rewards as sources of enjoyment 
in sports and exercise participation. 
In stage one, two other PAES factors were extracted for 
respondents in their twenties (Responsibility and Family), and one other 
factor was extracted for respondents in their forties and 60 or older 
(Responsibility/Family). For the total stage two sample, only one other 
factor was extracted (Responsibility/Family). Because of the 
consistency with which items loaded on this factor, its division into 
two factors for respondents in their twenties in stage one was probably 
a developmental artifact based on the lack of family responsibilities 
experienced by individuals at this age. According to stage one 
responses, alpha reliability for the Responsibility/Family sub-scale is 
125 
.8470, and test-retest reliability is .7495. The correlation between 
Self Rewards and Responsibility/Family was very low (.0811), but the 
correlation between Responsibility/Family and Social Recognitions and 
Rewards was .5830 and statistically significant at the .001 level. This 
is the highest PAES sub-scale intercorrelation. One explanation for 
this finding is that feelings of responsibility for one or more others, 
feeling supported by your family, and feeling comfortable with your 
family could precipitate feeling admired, respected, and rewarded 
particularly if these forms of recognition come from your family or 
those for whom you are responsible. Further, enjoyment from social 
recognition and rewards and responsibility/family are both extrinsic 
sources of enjoyment from sports and exercise participation so would be 
expected to be more highly related than an intrinsic and an extrinsic 
source of enjoyment such as self rewards and social recognition and 
rewards. 
In stage two, the effect of the desired number of hours spent 
weekly participating in physical activity approached statistical 
significance for the PAES (p=.069) and was statistically significant for 
the Self Rewards sub-scale (p=.049). Perhaps this finding is not 
statistically significant because the desired number of hours spent 
weekly participating in sports and exercise is not a true behavioral 
index of enjoyment derived from physical activity participation. A more 
accurate behavioral index for enjoyment is actual weekly participation 
behavior. This is supported by the stage two statistically significant 
effect of the number of hours spent each week participating in sports 
and exercise for the combined PAMS and PAES sub-scales (p=.000), the 
126 
PAMS sub-scales Mastery and Autonomy (p=.000), Affiliation (p=.003), and 
Social Recognition and Rewards (p= .007), and the PAES Self Rewards sub-
scale (p=.002). These findings emphasize the importance of intrinsic 
motivation, extrinsic motivation provided by the social environment, and 
enjoyment from feelings of competence for participation in sports and 
exercise. 
In stage two, there was also a statistically significant main 
effect for age on the PAES (p=.000) and its sub-scales for Social 
Recognition and Rewards (p=.000) and Responsibility/Family (p=.001). 
These findings are again consistent with the developmental tasks for 
each age group. There was no statistically significant effect for sex 
on enjoyment from physical activity. Again this finding contradicts 
popular beliefs concerning inherent differences between males and 
females participating in physical activities. 
In stage two, the PAES demonstrated convergent validity by its 
moderate positive correlation with the Leisure Satisfaction Scale 
(r=.4911). Further, 16 of the 18 PAES-LSS sub-scale intercorrelations 
were statistically significant at the .01 level or higher, and 13 of the 
sub - scales intercorrelations were statistically significant at the .001 
level. This indicates that enjoyment from .participation in sports and 
exercise is strongly related to the more general construct of leisure 
satisfaction and supports the convergent validity of the PAES. The LSS 
Aesthetic sub-scale, hypothesized to be unrelated to the PAES sub-
scales, was actually significantly related to all three. This finding 
indirectly supports the importance of aesthetically pleasing sport and 
exercise environments for the enjoyment of participation in physical 
127 
activity. 
In stage two, the correlation between the PAES and the Center for 
Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (r=-.1033) demonstrated 
divergent validity. In addition, all of the PAES sub-scales had low or 
negative correlations with the CES-0 sub-scales further supporting the 
divergent validity of the PAES. Additionally, the negative correlations 
of PAES Self Rewards sub-scale with each of the CES-D sub-scales except 
Interpersonal Affect were statistically significant. This finding was 
expected because two items in the Self Rewards sub-scale relate directly 
to positive feelings about oneself, while one item provides a measure of 
the individual's satisfaction with his or her amount of physical 
activity. However, it was interesting that the Responsibility/Family 
and Social Recognitions and Rewards sub-scales were unrelated to the 
Interpersonal Affect sub-scale since all three are social measures. 
Motivational Patterns for Physical Activity Across the Adult Lifespan 
Motivational patterns for physical activity participation are 
based on the results from stage two. In stage two, there were 
statistically significant main effects for age on the Affiliation and 
Self-Control sub-scales of the PAMS. Means on the both sub-scales 
increased linearly with age. On both sub-scales, late adults scored 
significantly higher than early adults. On the Affiliation sub-scale, 
late adults also scored significantly higher than middle adults. This 
finding supports Rudman's (1986) developmental perspective that views 
the role of sport participation during late adulthood as being more 
socially-oriented than at any other time in the lifespan. It also 
extends this perspective to the exercise setting. However, all three 
128 
age groups ranked the importance of the PAMS sub-scales in the same 
order from most to least important: Mastery and Autonomy, Self-Control, 
Affiliation, Family, and Social Recognition and Rewards (see Appendix B 
for sub-scale means). Further, the three items of most importance to 
all three age groups (although the second two differed in order 
according to age) were the same: "maintaining/improving health and 
fitness," "increasing energy and vitality," and "trying to reach 
personal goals." These findings clearly raise questions concerning the 
accuracy of defining the role of participation in sports and exercise 
according to age as Rudman (1986) has done. According to Rudman's 
developmental perspective for sport participation, early adulthood is a 
period in which sport participation is linked to competition, middle 
adulthood is a time when sport participation is linked to family, and 
late adulthood is a time when sport participation is primarily social. 
The results of this research do not support such a view. For all three 
age groups in stage two of this research, intrinsically motivated 
personal dimensions were more important than the social dimensions for 
physical activity participation motivation, and extrinsic motivation was 
least important. 
These findings reflect a clear trend that is somewhat consistent 
with Rapoport and Rapoport's (1980) developmental perspective of leisure 
and the demands involved at each stage of adulthood. According to 
Rapoport and Rapoport, young adulthood is a period for the establishment 
of competence and initimacy and the development of a "dream." 
Therefore, leisure for young adults provides a social space in which 
intimate relationship can be explored and developed and occupational 
129 
entry and mobility can be facilitated. Middle adulthood is a time of 
revision in which goals, values, and work styles are critically reviewed 
It is a time for change or the acceptance that life is "finished'' which 
is reflected by a pattern of selective withdrawal or renewed and 
expanded interests in leisure activities. Late adulthood is a period 
for coming to terms with the loss of a work identity and schedule. 
Leisure at this stage can provide a major focus for daily life, a means 
for reconstructing routine, and a new social setting. The results from 
stage two of this research support that participation in sports and 
exercise provides individuals across the adult lifespan with means for 
meeting their developmental demands, particularly the development of 
i ndividual and social identities that continues throughout each stage of 
adulthood. 
Rudman (1986) suggested a developmental perspective for sport 
participation which views early adulthood as a period in which sport 
participation is linked to competition, middle adulthood as a time when 
sport participation is linked to family, and late adulthood as a time in 
which sport participation is primarily social. The findings from this 
research do not support such a narrow view. 
Patterns of Enjoyment from Physical Activity Across the Adult Lifespan 
In stage two, there was a statistically significant main effect 
for age on the total PAES with the highest scores recorded by 
respondents 60 or older followed by respondents in their twenties and 
then respondents in their forties. One explanation for -why late adults 
enjoy participation in physical activity more than other age groups 
could be that since this age group is most likely to be limited by 
130 
health barriers, those late adults who can and do participate in sports 
and exercise appreciate and enjoy it more than individuals in other age 
groups who take such participation for granted. 
In stage two, there was a statistically significant main effect 
for age on the Social Recognition and Rewards and Responsibility/Family 
sub-scales. For both sub-scales, mean scores increased as age 
increased. The mean score for late adults on the Social Recognition and 
Rewards sub-scale was significantly higher than the mean scores for both 
early and middle adults. This finding may be related to the increased 
admiration and respect given aging individuals who are physically 
active. Vigorous physical activity participation is expected of early 
adults, less expected of middle adults, and relatively unexpected of 
late adults. Therefore, as they age, individuals are accorded greater 
recognition and respect for the same physical activity participation. 
This, in turn, reinforces physical activity participation and adds to 
its enjoyment. The mean score for late adults on the Responsibility/ 
Family sub-scale was significantly higher than the mean score for early 
adults. This is consistent with the early and late adulthood 
developmental tasks suggested by Rapoport and Rapoport (1980) discussed 
previously. 
The PAES items of most importance in stage two were: "feeling 
better about yourself," feeling good about yourself," feeling more 
relaxed," and "feeling energized." Because each of these items reflects 
why individuals feel good after participation in physical activity, this 
finding provides additional support for the "feel good" phenomenon 
associated with exercise participation and suggests that the "feel good" 
131 
phenomenon is also associated with sport participation. 
In stage two, the Self Rewards sub-scale had the highest mean for 
all three age groups. This reflects the overriding importance of 
individual concerns as sources of enjoyment from sport and exercise 
participation. For early adults, feelings of social recognition and 
rewards were more important for enjoyment of physical activity 
participation than feelings of responsibility for others, feelings of 
family support, or feeling comfortable with their family. Again, 
because early adulthood is a time during which leisure activity is used 
to establish intimacy and competence and develop a "dream" (Rapoport & 
Rapoport, 1980), this finding is not surprising. Early adulthood is a 
period for breaking away from the families of childhood and establishing 
independence prior to beginning one's own family. For this reason, 
family and the responsibility to others that accompanies having one's 
own family are least important to early adults. 
Physical Activity Participation Motivation and Enjoyment Distinctions 
The low to moderate correlations between the PAMS and PAES sub-
scale factor scores are consistent with a cyclic, yet independent nature 
of motivation for and enjoyment from physical activity participation 
across the adult lifespan. Further, sub-scales sharing more than 10% of 
their variance also shared common conceptual elements (i.e. PAMS Social 
Recognition and Rewards and PAES Social Recognition and Rewards). In 
addition, motivation and enjoyment patterns across the adult lifespan 
did not replicate one another as would be expected if motivation and 
enjoyment are actually the same construct. Although these findings 
provide preliminary support for a distinction between the motivation and 
132 
enjoyment constructs in physical activity settings, further study is 
necessary using a much larger sample and confirmatory factor analysis to 
more strongly support their independence empirically. 
Concluding Thoughts 
Interestingly, when individuals are asked why they participate in 
sports and exercise, their most common response is because it is fun or 
they enjoy it. When asked what makes their physical activity fun or why 
they enjoy doing it, individuals often find it difficult to elaborate. 
For this reason, the PAES is a valuable instrument because it provides a 
starting point to begin a more meaningful dialogue. 
This research was originated in an attempt to develop a means for 
assessing physical activity motivation while still capturing the 
complexity of the phenomenon. Ironically, the PAMS and PAES, driven by 
factor analytic procedures, also sacrifice complexity for 
instrumentality. However, represented in both scales is a dimension not 
measured by previous motivation or enjoyment scales - responsibility. 
This factor does not contain commitment/obligation to oneself or feeling 
responsible for oneself but refers only to commitment/obligation to 
others and feeling responsible for another and for others. This is 
consistent with the moral obligation contained in Triandis' (1977) model 
of interpersonal behavior, and provides preliminary support for its 
application in sports and exercise. However, because the PAMS and PAES 
are restricted to those factors that are consistent in sport and 
exercise across the adult lifespan, it is essential they be used as only 
one means for assessing the physical activity motivation and sources of 
enjoyment of adults. Additional information should be obtained using 
133 
qualitiative approaches and open-ended questions. 
The advantage of the PAMS and PAES is that they can be used across 
the adult lifespan in either sport or exercise settings to assess why 
individuals enter these settings and why they continue physical activity 
within them. For this reason, the PAMS and PAES would be valuable for 
managers and instructors or personal trainers as aids for identifying 
their client' motives and sources of enjoyment from physical activity 
and ultimately developing support systems to enhance both in order to 
maintain client interest and commitment. The PAMS and PAES could also 
be used to describe differences among and between participants in 
different physical activities, different types of settings (i.e. public 
or private), different organizations within the same setting offering 
the same activity, and before and after activity sessions. 
Additionally, the process used to develop the PAMS and PAES could be 
used to develop similar multicultural measures that are not limited as 
these are to a primarily white population. The PAMS and PAES could also 
be used in conjunction with other measures such as the Exercise-Induced 
Feeling Inventory to more fully describe the motivation ?and satisfaction 
or enjoyment phenomena in exercise settings. Finally, the question 
still remains, how are motivation and enjoyment different? Enjoyment 
unquestionnably impacts upon sport and exercise participation and 
adherence. The PAMS and PAES can be used to provide stronger empirical 
support for the distinctions between motivation for and sources of 
enjoyment from physical activity. 
134 
APPENDIX A 
IN IT IAL MOT IVATION AND ENJOYMENT SUB-SCALES AND ITEMS 
STAGE ONE QUESTIONNAIRE 
ITEM MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR THE INITIAL MOTIVATION INVENTORY 
ITEM MEANS AND STANDARD DEV IATIONS FOR THE INITIAL ENJOYMENT INVENTORY 
135 
INITIAL MOTIVATION AND ENJOYMENT SUB-SCALES AND ITEMS 
Motivation Enjoyment 
Personal Competence 
1. Be i ng good at what you're doing 1. Feeling better about 
2 . Trying to be the best you can be about yourself 
3. Improving your appearance 2. Feeling good about 
4 . Weight control yourself 
3. Feeling attractive 
5 . Trying to reach personal goals 4 . Feeling a sense of 
6 . Achieving consistency in performance accomplishment 
7. Overcoming personal weaknesses 
8 . Improving your skills 
9 . Improving your health and fitness 5. Feeling healthy and fit 
10 . Delaying the effects of aging 6 . Feeling younger 
11. You know physical activity is good 7. Feeling satisfied with 
for you your amount of physical 
activity 
Social Becggnitjgn and Rewards 
1. Being admired by others 1. Feeling admired by 
2. Others looking up to you others 
3. Being respected by others 2. Feeling respected by 
others 
4 . Being recognized by others 3. Feeling recognition from 
5. Being watched by others others 
136 
6. Receiving special treatment 4. Feeling special 
7. Receiving "freebies" like T-shirts 5. Feeling rewarded by 
or discounts others 
Social Competence and Affiliation 
1. Keeping up with others 1. Feeling you're just as 
2. Being better than others good as others 
3. Winning 2. Feeling you are the 
4 . The competition it provides best 
3. The thrill of competing 
5. Being part of a group 4. Feeling of belonging 
6 . Participating with friends 5. Feeling liked by others 
7 . Making new friends 6. Feeling supported by 
friends 
8 . Commitment or obligation to another 7. Feeling responsible for 
9 . Commitment or obligation to others another 
10 . Helping others 8. Feeling responsible for 
others 
11. Participating with family members 9. Feeling supported by 
12. Being encouraged by family family 
13. Working alone 10. Feeling free from others 
14 . Your friends are active 11. Feeling comfortable with 
your friends 
15. Your family is active 12. Feeling comfortable with 
your family 
137 
Variety and Change 
1. Trying new activities 1. Feeling excitement 
2. Meeting new people 2. Feeling more relaxed 
3. Taking part in thrilling activities 3. Feeling of "time-out" 
4. Reducing stress and relieving tension from normal life 
5. Increasing energy and vitality 4. Feeling energized 
6. Pushing yourself to your limits 5. Feeling challenged 
6. Feeling discomfort 
7. Activity has always been part of 7. Feeling driven to be 
your life active 
Perceived Freedom (Personal Choice and Control) 
1. Developing your own goals 1. Feeling responsible for 
2. Directing your own activity yourself 
2. Feeling in control of 
your activities 
3. Someone else directing your 3. Feeling controlled by 
activities someone else 
4. Meeting the goals of others 4. Feeling ? in control of 
5. Controlling your emotions yourself 
6. Disciplining your mind and body 
Characteristics of Activjty 
1. The physical sensations it provides 1. How you feel during 
2. The physical environment where you your activity 
participate 2. How you feel after 
you've finished 
3 . The beauty and grace of your 3. Feeling graceful and 
138 
activit ies beaut ?ifu l 
4. The coord ina t ion and flow of your 4. Feel ing coordinated and 
activit ies flowi ng 
139 
Physical Activity Motivation and Enjoyment 
Why do you play sports and/or exercise? What do you enjoy most about 
participating in sport and exercise activities? Your answers will provide 
important information that can be used by sport and exercise practitioners for 
program development and delivery as well as facility planning. In turn, your 
needs will be better met. 
If you receive payment for your activity (instructors, scholarshipped 
athletes) or compete at an elite level, please do not fill out this 
questionnaire. 
All information you provide is confidential and anonymous. It will be 
reported as group data, not individual responses. Thank you for your time and 
cooperation! 
Please circle the number that describes you most accurately. 
1. Sex (!)Male (2)Female 
2. Race (!)White (2)African-American (3)Hispanic (4)Asian 
(S)Other 
3. Age __ 
4. How many hours each week, on average, do you usually: 
play sports? (hours/week) 
practice sports skills? (hours/week) 
exercise? _____  (hours/week) 
5. How long have you been participating in sport and exercise activities on 
a regular basis? 
______ (months) 
or 
______( years) 
6. Please list your weekly sport and exercise activities from most to least 
frequent and indicate where you do each one. 
140 
Please circle the number that corresponds to how often each item below is 
important for your participation in your weekly sport and exercise activities. 
Never lkcasiona lly S.til!S Usually Always 
1 2 3 4 5 
1. Being good at what you're 
doing 
1 2 3 4 
5 
2. Being admired by others 
5 
1 2 3 4 5 
3. Keeping up with others 1 2 3 4 
4. Trying new activities 1 2 3 4 
5 
5. Developing your own goals 
3 4 5 
The physical sensations it provides 
1 2 5 
6. 1 2 3 4 
7. You know physical activity 
is good 
for you 3 4 5 
Trying to be the best you can be 
1 2 
8. 1 2 3 4 
5 
4 5 
9. Improving your appearance 1 2 3 
10. Others looking up to you 5 
1 2 3 4 
11. Being better than others 
4 5 
1 2 3 4 5 
12. Being part of a group 1 2 3 
13 . Meeting new people 1 2 3 4 
5 
14. Directing your own activity 1 2 3 4 
5 
15. The physical environment where you 
participate 
3 4 5 of life 1 2 4 5 
}6 . Activity has always been part 1 2 3 4 5 
17. Weight control 1 2 3 
}8. Being respected by others 
5 
1 2 3 
4 
Participating with friends 2 3 4 5 }9. 1 
20. Winning 
2 3 4 
5 
Taking part in thrilling activities 1 4 5 
21. 2 3 Someone else directing your activity 1 4 5 
22. 2 3 
23, Beauty and grace of your activities 
1 4 5 
1 2 3 4 5 
24, Your friends are active 2 3 
25, Trying to reach personal goals 
1 
2 3 4 5 1 
26 , Being recognized by others 4 
5 
1 2 3 
27, Making new friends 2 3 4 
5 
28, Commitment or obligation to 
another 1 2 3 4 5 1 
29. Reducing stess or relieving 
tension 5 
1 2 3 4 
30. Meeting the goals of others 4 5 
1 2 3 
31. Competition 1 2 3 4 
5 
32 . Your family is active performance 1 2 3 
4 5 
33. Achieving consistency in your 1 2 3 4 
5 
34. Being watched by others 2 3 4 
5 
Commitment or obligation to others 1 
35. 
141 
Never lkassionally Sa!till!S Usually Always 
36. Increasing energy and vitality 1 2 3 4 
37. 5 Controlling your emotions 1 2 3 4 5 
38. Overcoming personal weaknesses 1 2 3 4 5 
39. Receiving special treatment 1 2 3 4 5 
40. Helping others 1 2 3 4 5 
41. Pushing yourself to your limits 1 2 3 4 5 
42. Disciplining your mind and body 1 2 3 4 5 
43. Improving your skills 1 2 3 4 5 
44. Receiving "freebies" like T-shirts 1 2 3 4 5 
and discounts 
45. Participating with family 1 2 3 4 5 
46. Maintaining/improving health and fitness 1 2 3 4 5 
47. Family encouragement 1 2 3 4 5 
48. Delaying effects of aging 1 2 3 4 5 
49. Working alone 1 2 3 4 5 
50. Coordination and flow of your activities 1 2 3 4 5 
Please circle the number that corresponds to how often each item is a source 
of enjoyment from your weekly sport and exercise activities. 
Never fassionally S.till!s Usually Allliys 
1. Feeling better about yourself 1 2 3 4 5 
2. Feeling admired by others 1 2 3 4 5 
3. Feeling you're just as good as others 1 2 3 4 5 
4. Feeling excitement 1 2 3 4 5 
5. Feeling responsible for yourself 1 2 3? 4 5 
6. How you feel during your activity 1 2 3 4 5 
7. Feeling satisfied with your amount 1 2 3 4 5 
of physical activity 
8. Feeling good about yourself 1 2 3 4 5 
9. Feeling respected by others 1 2 3 4 5 
10. Feeling of belonging 1 2 3 4 5 
11. Feeling more relaxed 1 2 3 4 5 
12. Feeling in control of your activities 1 2 3 4 5 
13. How you feel after you've finished 1 2 3 4 5 
14. Feeling driven to be active 1 2 3 4 5 
15. Feeling attractive 1 2 3 4 5 
16. Feeling recognition from others 1 2 3 4 5 
17. Feeling liked by others 1 2 3 4 5 
18. Feeling you are the best 1 2 3 4 5 
142 
19. Feeling of "time-out" from normal life 1 2 3 4 5 
20. Feeling controlled by someone else 1 2 3 4 5 
Never lkass iona lly S!atiES Usually Always 
21. Feeling graceful and beautiful 1 2 3 4 I 5 
22. Feeling comfortable with your friends 1 2 3 4 5 
23. Feeling a sense of accomplishment 1 2 3 4 5 
24. Feeling special 1 2 3 4 5 
25. Feeling supported by friends 1 2 3 4 5 
26. Feeling energized 1 2 3 4 5 
27. Feeling in control of yourself 1 2 3 4 5 
28. The thrill of competing 1 2 3 4 5 
29. Feeling comfortable with your family 1 2 3 4 5 
30. Feeling healthy and fit 1 2 3 4 5 
31. Feeling rewarded by others 1 2 3 4 5 
32. Feeling responsible for another 1 2 3 4 5 
33. Feeling challenged 1 2 3 4 5 
34. Feeling younger 1 2 3 4 5 
35. Feeling responsible for others 1 2 3 4 5 
36. Feeling discomfort 1 2 3 4 5 
37. Feeling supported by family 1 2 3 4 5 
38. Feeling free from others 1 2 3 4 5 
39. Feeling coordinated and flowing 1 2 3 4 5 
If you could do anything you wanted, how many hours a week would you like to: 
play a sport? ___ (hours/week) 
practice sports skills? ____ (hours/week) 
exercise? ____  (hours/week) 
PLEASE CHECK THAT YOU HAVE CIRCLED ONE ANSWER FOR EACH ITEM ON YOUR ANSWER 
SHEET. THANK YOU FOR YOUR TIME AND COOPERATION!!!! 
143 
ITEM MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR THE INITIAL 
MOTIVATION INVENTORY 
llm! ~an Standard Deviation 
20s 405 60+ 205 405 60+ 
You know physical activity is good 4,495 4.585 4.704 .727 .684 ?7 32 
for you 
*Maintaining/improving health and 4.284 4,366 4,420 .834 ?7 46 .788 
fitness 
*Trying to be the best you can be 4,232 3.951 4,024 ,856 1.029 1.065 
Developing your own goals 4,168 3,988 3. 704 .895 , 778 1.042 
*Trying to reach personal goals 4.126 3,939 3,683 .890 .934 1.087 
Activity has always been part of 4.084 3.829 3.927 1.182 1.184 1.109 
your life 
Inproving your appearance 4.053 4.085 3.683 l.025 ,878 1.143 
*Increasing energy and vitality 4,032 4.195 4.207 .818 .838 .828 
Being good at what you're doing 4.011 3.630 3.610 ,869 1.167 1.225 
The physical sensations it provides 4.000 4,146 3.902 .851 .931 1.213 
*Improving your skills 3,905 3,841 3,634 ,876 ,936 1.012 
*Pushing yourself to your limits 3,874 3.415 3,268 .981 1,077 1.166 
144 
Item Mean Standard Deviation 
20s 40s 60+ 20s 40s 60+ 
*Reducing stress or relieving 3,821 4.000 3,780 ,956 1.030 1.144 
tension 
*Disciplining your mind and body 3.789 3,732 3. 646 .977 1.031 .935 
*Participating with friends 3. 726 3.390 3.671 .856 1.086 1.228 
Achieving consistency in your 3.705 3,561 3.556 .988 1.055 1.129 
performance 
Trying new activities 3.695 3.110 2.738 .990 .930 1.088 
Taking part in thrilling activities 3.642 2.915 2,383 1.031 1.135 1.189 
*OVercoaing personal weaknesses 3.474 3.099 3,136 1.030 1.200 1.311 
Coordination and flow of your 3.474 3.136 3,531 1,019 1.069 1.050 
activities 
Helping others 3.421 2,427 3.259 1,190 1.155 1.282 
Keeping up with others 3.421 2,778 2.654 1.154 1.255 1.088 
Coapetition 3.337 2,451 2.366 1.243 1.219 1.347 
Your friends are active 3,326 3,037 3.122 1.046 1.048 1.211 
The physical enviro11Dent where you 3,316 3,611 3,886 1.460 .951 1.025 
participate 
Weight control 3,263 3,890 3,768 1.460 1.089 1.136 
145 
Item Mean Standard Deviatio.n 
20s 40S 60+ 20s 40s 60+ 
Directing your own activity 3,223 3.732 3. 963 , 941 1.078 1.018 
*Controlling your emotions 3.158 3,207 3,366 1.024 1.074 1.310 
*Meeting new people 3,137 2.866 3,280 1.068 1.141 1.210 
Winning 3.095 2. 354 2,463 1.131 1.221 1.229 
*Making new friends 3.084 3,024 3.402 ?9 64 1.111 1.121 
Being respected by others 3,074 2.642 3. 134 1.187 1.186 1.438 
*Being part of a group 3,011 2,878 3,280 1.144 1.159 1.345 
*Connitment or obligation to 3.011 2.476 3,074 1.153 1.219 1.349 
another 
*Being encouraged by your family 3.000 2. 768 3.525 1.220 1.250 1.283 
*Delaying the effects of aging 2,979 3,951 4.136 1.414 ,980 1.058 
*Your family is active 2,789 2,988 3.037 1.175 1.209 1.346 
Beauty and grace of your activities 2. 789 2.720 2. 646 1.061 1.168 1.201 
commitment or obligation to others 2,737 2.049 . 2.695 1.122 1.065 1.488 
*Others looking up to you 2. 726 2.341 2,305 1.106 1.080 1.224 
Working alone 2. 723 2.939 2.901 1.041 1.211 1.158 
*Participating with family 2. 710 2,688 2.962 1.128 1.086 1. 344 
146 
Item Mean Standard Deviation 
20S 40s 60+ 20s 40s 60+ 
*Being recognized by others 2.695 2,099 2,457 ,979 1.008 1.235 
Someone else directing your 2,684 1.951 2.375 .959 1.029 1.236 
activity 
*Being better than others 2,674 2.183 2.073 1.224 1.101 1.131 
*Being adnired by others 2.463 2.244 2.263 .987 1.013 1.188 
Meeting the goals of others 2,362 1.720 2.222 1.014 .893 1.285 
*Being watched by others 2.358 1.780 2.012 1.020 .875 1.105 
Receiving "freebies? like T-shirts 2.032 1.610 1.620 1.106 .913 .910 
Receiving special treatnent 1.947 1.671 1.927 .972 ?7 71 1.075 
Total 164.363 154. 297 157.152 25.605 27 .190 31.548 
*Total 78,849 75.429 78. 703 12. 703 14,074 16,426 
* Items retained in the stage one physical activity motivation scale 
147 
ITEM MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR THE INITIAL 
ENJOYMENT INVENTORY 
Item Mean Standard Deviation 
20s 40s 60+ 20s 40s 60+ 
*Feeling better about yourself 4,189 4.286 4,195 .829 '771 .922 
*Feeling good about yourself 4.149 4.122 4.171 .829 .807 .829 
Feeling healthy and fit 4.126 4. 305 4,195 .992 .765 .808 
*Feeling energized 4,126 4,329 4,122 ,802 .610 ,935 
Feeling in control of yourself 4.095 4.061 3. 951 ,957 ,907 , 993 
Feeling a sense of accomplishment 4,063 4.012 3,939 .810 .793 .998 
How you feel after you've finished 4.032 4.272 4. 263 .905 .725 .882 
Feeling responsible for yourself 3,979 4.012 4.293 ,899 1.138 ,824 
Feeling challenged 3. 916 3,732 3,232 .907 1.031 1.210 
How you feel during your activity 3.895 3.841 4.295 ?9 28 .962 .854 
*Feeling nore relaxed 3,842 3.976 4.110 .842 .889 .930 
Feeling in control of your 3,830 3.829 4.037 .838 1.016 ,949 
activities 
Feeling excitement 3.811 3.524 3.317 .891 1.178 1.323 
Feeling driven to be active 3.789 3,463 3.305 1.009 1.249 1.244 
148 
Item Mean Standard Deviation 
20s 40s 60+ 20s 40s 60+ 
*Feeling satisfied with your amount 3. 726 3,951 4.061 .950 ,835 .829 
of physical activity 
Feeling of "tine-out' from normal 3,660 3,512 3.220 1.032 1.168 1.334 
life 
Feeling attractive 3.484 3,146 2,877 1.147 1.238 1.249 
Feeling coordinated and flowing 3.411 3,451 3.638 1.198 1.102 1.070 
Feeling comfortable with your 3.400 3. 024 3. 561 1.134 1.227 1.198 
friends 
The thrill of competing 3.330 2. 716 2,598 1.290 1.334 1.413 
Feeling supported by friends 3.242 2,744 3.171 1.049 1.205 1.294 
Feeling you're just as good as 3.095 2,817 3. 012 1.073 1.287 1.346 
others 
*Feeling respected by others 3.074 2,537 3,012 1.084 1.167 1.291 
Feeling special 3,032 2.707 2.622 1.076 1.222 1.193 
Feeling of belonging 3.000 2.683 3,354 1.101 1.185 1.337 
*Feeling comfortable with your 2,936 3,099 3.642 1.397 1.338 1.316 
family 
Feeling free from others 2.894 2. 707 3,000 1.102 1.191 1.265 
149 
Item Mean Standard Deviation 
20s 40s 60+ 20s 40s 60+ 
*Feeling liked by others 2.874 2,390 2,890 1.074 1.119 1.333 
*Peeling recognition frOll others 2,779 2,195 2.524 1.023 .949 1.259 
*Peeling supported by your fanily 2. 768 2,610 3,450 1.292 1.255 1.440 
Feeling you are the best 2.758 2,341 1.988 1.261 1.288 1.212 
Peeling younger 2.745 3.543 3,378 1.191 1.162 1.292 
Peeling graceful and beautiful 2,674 2,329 2,280 1.056 1,248 1.147 
*Feeling admired by others 2,600 2.195 2.427 1.004 1.116 1.176 
*Peeling rewarded by others 2.500 2,049 2,476 1.013 1.110 1.279 
*Peeling responsible for another 2,372 2.037 2,805 1.026 1,138 1.290 
*Peeling responsible for others 2,287 2.061 2. 793 1.064 1.093 1.274 
Feeling disconfort 2,063 1.854 1.878 1.060 ?7 72 1.059 
Feeling controlled by soneone else 1.737 1.537 1.476 ,902 .892 ,805 
Total 127,640 121.649 126.833 21.570 23.854 25,239 
*Total 44,033 41.638 46,513 8,750 8.685 10,196 
* Items retained in the stage one physical activity enjoyment scale 
150 
APPENDIX B 
PAMS AND PAES SUB-SCALES AND ITEMS 
THE LEISURE MOTIVATION SCALE 
SHORT FORM OF THE LEISURE SATISFACTION SCALE 
CENTER FOR EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES DEPRESSION SCALE 
STAGE TWO QUESTIONNAIRE 
151 
PAMS AND PAES SUB-SCALES AND ITEMS 
Motivation Enjoyment 
Mastery and Autonomy Self Rewards 
1. Trying to be the best you can be 1. Feeling good about yourself 
2. Trying to reach personal goals 2. Feeling more relaxed 
3. Pushing yourself to your 1i mits 3. Feeling energized 
4. Improving your skills 4. Feeling better about 
yourself 
5. Disciplining your mind and body 5. Feeling satisfied with your 
amount of physical activity 
Social Recognition and Rewards 
1. Being admired by others 1. Feeling admired by others 
2. Others looking up to you 2. Feeling respected by others 
3. Being better than others 3. Feeling liked by others 
4. Being recognized by others 4. Feeling recognition from 
others 
5. Being watched by others 5. Feeling rewarded by others 
Affiliation Responsibility 
1. Being part of a group 1. Feeling responsible for 
another 
2. Participating with friends 2. Feeling responsible for 
others 
3. Meeting new people 
4. Making new friends 
5. Commitment or obligation to another 
152 
Famil y 
1. Participating with fami ly 1. Feeling su pported by 
fam i ly 
2. Family encouragement 2. Feeling comf ort able with 
your fam i ly 
3. Your family is active 
Hea lth and Fitness 
1. Increasing energy and vitali ty 
2. Maintaining/improving health and fitness 
3. Delaying effects of aging 
Emoti onal Contro l 
1. Reducing stress or relieving tension 
2. Controlling your emotions 
3. Overcoming personal weaknesses 
153 
LEISURE MOTI VATION SCALE 
Rating scale: 
1 Never true 
2 Se ldom true 
3 Somewhat true 
4 Often true 
5 Always true 
lead-in: One of my reasons for engaging in leisure activities is ... 
Sub-scales: 
Intellectual 
*l. to expand my interests. 
*2. to seek stimulation. 
*3. to make things more meaningful to me. 
4. to learn about things around me. 
5. to satisfy my curiosity. 
6. to explore new ideas. 
7. to learn about myself. 
8. to expand my knowledge. 
9. to discover new things. 
10. to be creative. 
*11. to be original. 
12. to use my imagination. 
Social 
*13. to be with others. 
14. to build friendships with others. 
15. to interact with others. 
16. to develop close friendships. 
17. to meet new and different people. 
*18. to help others 
*19. so others would think well of me for doing it. 
20. to reveal my thoughts, feelings, or physical skills to others. 
*21. to influence others. 
22. to be socially competent and skillful. 
23. to gain a feeling of belonging. 
24. to gain other's respect. 
Competency/Mastery 
*25. to get a feeling of achievement. 
*26. to see what my abilit ies are . 
27. to challenge my abilities. 
*28. because I enjoy mastering things. 
154 
29. to be good in doing them. 
30. to improve my ski ll and ab i lity in do ing t hem. 
*31 . to compete against others. 
32 . to be active . 
33 . to develop phys ica l ski lls and abil ities. 
34. to keep in shape physica lly . 
35. to use my physical abil ities . 
36 . to develop physical fitness . 
Stimulus Avoidance 
*37 . to be in a calm atmosphere. 
*38. to avoid crowded areas. 
39. to s low down. 
40. because I sometimes like to be alone . 
41. to relax physically . 
4423 ..  ttoo  arevloaixd  mtheen thalulsyt.l e and bustle of daily activities. 
44 . to rest. 
45. to relieve stress and tension. 
*46 . to do something simple and easy. 
*4487 ..  ttoo  ugents tarwucaytu frreo mm y thtiem ree. sponsibilities of my everyday life. 
*indicates items excluded from the short scale. 
155 
SHORT FORM OF THE SEISURE SATISFACTION SCALE 
Rating scale: 
1 Never true 
2 Seldom true 
3 Somewhat true 
4 Often true 
5 Always true 
Sub-scales: 
Psychological 
1. My leisure activities are very interesting to me. 
2. My leisure activities give me self-confidence. 
3. My leisure activities give me a sense of accomplishment. 
4. I use many different skills and abilities in my leisure 
activities. 
Educational 
5. MY leisure activities increase my knowledge about things around 
6. Mmye . leisure activities provide opportunities to try new things. 
7. My leisure activities help me to learn about myself. 
8. My leisure activities help me to learn about other people. 
Soc ial 
9. I have social interaction with others through leisure activities. 
IO. My leisure activities have helped me to develop close 
II. Trehlea tpieoonpslhe ipIs  mweeitth  ino thmey rsle. isure activities are friendly. 
12. I associate with people in my free time who enjoy doing leisure 
activities a great deal. 
Relaxation 
13. My leisure activities help me relax. 
14. My leisure activities help relieve stress. 
15. My leisure activities contribute to my emotional well-being. 
16. I engage in leisure activities simply because I like doing them. 
Physical Acti vity 
17. My leisure activities are physically challenging. 
18. I do leisure activities that develop my physical fitness. 
19. I do leisure activities that restore me physically. 
20. My leisure activities he lp me to stay healthy. 
156 
Aesthetic 
21. The areas or places I engage in my leisure activities are fresh 
and clean. 
22. The areas or places where I engage in my leisure activ ities are 
interesting. 
23. The areas or places where I engage in my leisure activ it ies are 
beautiful . 
24. The areas or places where I engage in my leisure activities are 
we 11 designed. 
157 
CENTER FOR EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES DEPRESSION SCALE 
Rating scale: 
1 less than one day per week 
2 1-2 days per week 
3 3-4 days per week 
4 5-7 days per week 
Sub-scales: 
Depressed Affect 
3. I felt that I could not shake off the blues even with help from my 
family or friends. 
6. I felt depressed. 
9. I thought my life haq been a failure. 
10. I felt fearful. 
14. I felt lonely. 
17. I had crying spells. 
18. I felt sad. 
Positive Affect 
4. I felt I was just as good as other people. 
8. I felt hopeful about the future. 
12. I was happy. 
16. I enjoyed life. 
Somatic and Retarded Activity 
1. I was bothered by things that don't usually bother me. 
2. I did not feel like eating; my appetite was poor. 
5. I had trouble keeping my mind on what I was doing. 
7. I felt that everything I did was an effort. 
11. My sleep was restless. 
13. I talked less than usual. 
20. I could not get "going." 
Interpersonal Affect 
15. People were unfriendly. 
19. I felt that people dislike me. 
* A simple total score is recommended as an estimate of the degree of 
depressive symptomatology. 
158 
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 
All information you provide in the following pages is ananymous and 
confidential. It will be reported as group data, not individual responses. 
Leisure refers to anything you choose to do in your "free" time. 
Sports refer to those physical activities in which you compete against an 
opponent or standard of achievement. Examples of sports include tennis, golf, 
racquetball, basketball, and volleyball. 
Exercise refers to structured, repetitive physical activity with the primary 
objective of improving or maintaining physical fitness. Examples of exercise 
include walking, jogging, running, biking, swimming, aerobics, and weight 
training. 
If you could do anything you wanted, how many hours a week would you like to 
participate in sports and exercise? 
hours/week 
159 
Please circle the number that corre sponds to how often each item below is 
important for your participation in your weekly sport and exercise act iv ities. 
Kever OccaSionally Soll!!ti.les usually Always 
3 4 5 l 2 
1. Others looking up to you 1 2 3 
4 5 
2. Disciplining your mind and body 3 4 5 1 2 
3. Reducing stress or relieving 
tension 5 
1 2 3 
4 
4. Participating with family 4 5 
1 2 3 
5. Trying to reach personal goals 
2 3 4 
5 
1 
6. Meeting new people 4 5 
1 2 3 
7. Being admired by others 5 
1 2 3 
4 
8. Maintaining/improving health 
and fitness 
1 2 3 
4 5 
9. Participating with friends 4 5 
1 2 3 
10. Controlling your emotions 
1 2 3 
4 5 
11. Your family is active 
1 2 3 
4 5 
12. Being part of a group 2 3 4 
5 
1 
13. Trying to be the best you can be 5 
1 2 3 
4 
14. Increasing energy and vitality 
1 2 3 
4 5 
15. Being watched by others 
1 2 3 
4 5 
16. Improving your skills 
1 2 3 
4 5 
17, Overcoming personal weaknesses 3 4 5 1 2 
18. Making new friends 2 3 4 
5 
1 
19. Being encouraged by your family 4 5 
1 2 3 
20. Being recognized by others 
1 2 3 
4 5 
21 . Commitment or obligation to another 
1 2 3 
4 5 
22. Being better than others 3 4 5 1 2 
23. De laying effects of aging 
1 2 3 
4 5 
24. Pushing yourself to your limits 
160 
Please circle the number that corresponds to how often each of the following 
items is true for you. 
Never Seldo1 Somewhat Often Always 
True True True True True 
1. My leisure activities increase my 1 2 3 4 5 
knowledge about things around me. 
2. My leisure activities are very interesting 1 2 3 4 5 
to me. 
3. I have social interaction with others 1 2 3 4 5 
through leisure activities. 
4. My leisure activities give me self- 1 2 3 4 5 
confidence. 
5. My leisure activities give me a sense of 1 2 3 4 5 
accomplishment. 
6. My leisure activities are physically 1 2 3 4 5 
challenging. 
7. I do leisure activities that develop my 1 2 3 4 5 
physical fitness. 
8. My leisure activities have helped me 1 2 3 4 5 
develop close relationships wi th ot hers. 
9. My leisure activities provide opportunities 1 2 3 4 5 
to try new things. 
10. The people I meet in my leisure activities 1 2 3 4 5 
are friendly. 
11. My leisure activities help me to relax. 1 2 3 4 5 
12. I do leisure activities that res tore me 1 2 3 4 5 
physically. 
13. My leisure activities help me learn about 1 2 3 4 5 
myself. 
14. The areas or places where I engage in my 1 2 3 4 5 
leisure activities are fresh and clean. 
15. The areas or places where I engage in my 1 2 3 4 5 
leisure activities are interesting. 
16. I use many different skills and abilities 1 2 3 4 5 
in my leisure activities. 
17. My leisure activities help me to stay 1 2 3 4 5 
healthy. 
18. The areas or places where I engage in my 1 2 3 4 5 
leisure activities are beautiful. 
19 . I associate with people in my free time 1 2 3 4 5 
who enjoy doing leisure activities a 
great deal. 
20. My leisure activities help me to learn 1 2 3 4 5 
about other people. 
21. My leisure activities help relieve stress. 1 2 3 4 5 
22. My leisure activities contribute to my 1 2 3 4 5 
emotional well-being. 
23. The areas or places where I engage in my 1 2 3 4 5 
leisure activiti es are well des igned . 
24. I engage in my leisure activit ies s imply 1 2 3 4 5 
because I like doing them. 
161 
INSTRUCTIONS FOR QUESTIONS: Below is a l ist of ways you might have felt or 
behaved. Please tell me how often you have felt this way during the past week 
by circling the number that corresponds to your response. 
Less than 1 day 1-2 days 3-4 days 5-7 days 
1. I was bothered by things that don't usual ly 1 2 3 4 
bother me 
2. I did not feel l ike eating; my appetite 1 2 3 4 
was poor 
3. I felt like I could not shake off the blues 1 2 3 4 
even with help from my family and friends 
4. I felt that I was just as good as other 1 2 3 4 
people 
5. I had trouble keeping my mind on what I 1 2 3 4 
was doing. 
6. I felt depressed. 1 2 3 4 
7. I felt that everything I did was an effort. 1 2 3 4 
8. I felt hopeful about the future. 1 2 3 4 
9. I thought my life had been a failure. 1 2 3 4 
10. I felt fearful. 1 2 3 4 
11. My sleep was restless. 1 2 3 4 
12. I was happy. 1 2 3 4 
13. I talked less than usual. 1 2 3 4 
14. I felt lonely. 1 2 3 4 
15. People were unfriendly. 1 2 3 4 
16. I enjoyed life. 1 2 3 4 
17. I had crying spells. 1 2 3 4 
18. I felt sad. 1 2 3 4 
19. I felt that people dislike me. 1 2 3 4 
20. I could not get "going." 1 2 3 4 
162 
Please circle the number that corresponds to how often each item is a source 
of enjoyment from your weekly sport and exercise activities. 
Never Occasionally SOletiES Usual! y Always 
1. Feeling supported by your family 1 2 3 4 5 
2. Feeling rewarded by others 1 2 3 4 5 
3. Feeling better about yourself 1 2 3 4 5 
4. Feeling more relaxed 1 2 3 4 5 
5. Feeling satisfied with your 1 2 3 4 5 
amount of physical activity 
6. Feeling responsible for others 1 2 3 4 5 
7. Feeling respected by others 1 2 3 4 5 
8 . Feeling admired by others 1 2 3 4 5 
9. Feeling recognition from others 1 2 3 4 5 
10. Feeling liked by others 1 2 3 4 5 
11. Feeling good about yourself 1 2 3 4 5 
12. Feeling energized 1 2 3 4 5 
13. Feeling responsible for another 1 2 3 4 5 
14. Feeling comfortable with your 1 2 3 4 5 
family 
163 
Please circle the number that corresponds to how often each statement i s true 
for you. 
One of my reasons for engaging in leisure activities is 
Never seldo1 Solellbat Often Always 
True True True True True 
1. to influence others. 1 2 3 4 5 
2. to avoid crowded areas. 1 2 3 4 5 
3 . to compete against others. 1 2 3 4 5 
4. to get a feeling of achievement. 1 2 3 4 5 
5. to make things more meaningful to me. 1 2 3 4 5 
6. to be in a calm atmosphere. 1 2 3 4 5 
7. to get away from the responsibilities 1 2 3 4 5 
of my everyday life. 
8. to see what my abilities are. 1 2 3 4 5 
9. to be with others. 1 2 3 4 5 
10. to expand my interests. 1 2 3 4 5 
11. to be original. 1 2 3 4 5 
12. to seek stimulation. 1 2 3 4 5 
13. so others would think well of me 1 2 3 4 5 
for doing it. 
14. to do something simple and easy. 1 2 3 4 5 
15. to help others. 1 2 3 4 5 
16. because I enjoy mastering things. 1 2 3 4 5 
164 
Please circle the number of your response or fill in the bla nk . 
I. Sex {l)Male (2)Female 
2. Age_ __ _ 
3. Race _________  
4. How many hours each week, on average, do you usually participate in 
sports and exercise? 
_ _ _ _ __ hours/week 
5. Since the age of 10, how long have you been participating in sport and 
exercise activities on a regular basis? 
(months) 
or 
(years) 
6. Please list your weekly sport and exercise activities from most to least 
freq uent and indicate where you do each one. 
165 
APPENDI X C 
FINAL PAMS AND PAES SUB-SCALES AND ITEMS 
STAGE TWO PAMS, PAES, LMS, LSS, AND CES-D SCALE AND SUB -SCALE MEANS 
166 
FINAL PAMS AND PAES SUB-SCALES AND ITEMS 
PAMS PAES 
Mastery and Autonomy Self Rewards 
1. Trying to reach personal goals 1. Feeling good about 
yourself 
2. Maintaining/improving health 2. Feeling more relaxed 
and fitness 
3. Trying to be the best you 3. Feeling better about 
can be yourself 
4. Increasing energy and vitality 4. Feeling energized 
5. Pushing yourself to your limits 5. Feeling satisfied with 
6. Improving your skills your amount of physical 
activity 
Social Recognition and Rewards 
1. Others looking up to you 1. Feeling liked by others 
2. Being admired by others 2. Feeling admired by others 
3. Being recognized by others 3. Feeling recognition from 
others 
4. Being better than others 4. Feeling respected by 
others 
5. Being watched by others 5. Feeling rewarded by others 
Affiliation Responsibility/Famil~ 
1. Meeting new people 1. Feeling responsible for 
another 
2. Participating with friends 2. Feeling responsible for 
others 
167 
3. Being part of a group 3. Fee ling comfortabl e with 
your family 
4. Mak ing new friends 4. Fee ling supported by your 
fami ly 
5. Commitment or obligation to another 
Famil y 
1. Participating with family 
2. Your family is active 
3. Being encouraged by your family 
Self -Control 
1. Reducing stress or relieving tension 
2. Controlling your emotions 
3. Delaying the effects of aging 
168 
STAGE TWO PAMS, PAES, LMS, LSS, ANO CES-0 
SCALE AND SUB-SCALE MEANS 
Scale and Sub-Scale Early Adu! thood Middle Adulthood Late Adulthood 
Males Females Kales Females Males Females 
PAMS 67.769 66.686 70.985 
68,000 67 .547 liJ.fil. 67. 932 70.861 71,138 
Mastery and Autonony 23.885 23,333 23.581 
23.882 23.887 22.762 23.867 24,417 22.789 
Social Recognition and 11.848 10. 299 11.590 
Rewards 12.519 11.189 10.548 10.067 11.421 11. 750 
Affiliation 14.343 14.046 16.074 
14.327 14. 358 13.619 14.444 15.132 16.907 
Fanily 7.779 8.690 8.792 
7.608 7.943 8.409 8,956 8.812 8,775 
Self-Control 9.800 10.442 10.810 
9.423 10 .170 10. 048 10.818 11.026 10 .610 
PAES 45.291 ~ 49. 974 
46.365 44.196 44.071 !hill 49.056 50.780 
Self Rewards 19.827 20,023 20.367 
19.750 19.904 19.643 20.395 20,639 20.139 
169 
I 
Middle Adulthood Late Adulthood 
Scale and Sub-Scale ~rly Adulthood 
Fem ales 
Fema les Males Fema 
les Males 
Males 
13. 207 16 .000 
Social Recognition and 14. 286 
12,762 13.622 14.842 
17.073 
15.192 13. 396 Rewards 
12,230 13. 402 ~ 
Responsibility/Family 11.096 
12,756 13 .105 13.659 
10,769 11.667 
11.423 
47 .361 
~ 46.32.2. 
48. 932 
lJ($ 
47,822 46,526 48,119 
!Llll 
i9,280 48. 604 
13 .ooo 13. 407 
13 .650 
Intellectual 12. 94 7 13,814 
12.286 13 .667 13,849 
13,440 
10,605 
9.218 
10.000 
Social 9,356 10,026 11.116 9,071 
10,077 9,924 
13,lll 
~ 13,126 
14.057 
CompetencyjMastery 13,089 13. 526 
12,744 
14. 231 13,887 
13,167 
10,146 
~ 10,977 
11,229 
Stimulus Avoidance 10,026 10,250 11,711 
10.943 10 .190 11,519 
2.Q..JU 
88. 265 
,M_.782 
LSS 91.676 
M.,_Q_ll 9-Q.i.ill 
~ 
,83,118 
iliill 15.167 
15.235 
15. 562 
Psychological 15,591 15,108 
15,219 
15,717 14 .854 
15. 404 
14 .146 
13. 267 
14,000 
Edu cational 13, 921 14,341 14,023 
14,170 12, 476 
13, 827 
170 
Kiddle Adulthood Late Adulthood 
Scale and Sub-Scale ~ar ly Adulthood 
Males Females Males 
Femal es 
Males Females 
13,929 14,886 
14,250 
Social 
14.165 13,944 15,674 13 .381 
14.118 14,377 
16,286 
- 16,477 
16,114 
Relaxation 
16,750 16,158 16,410 
15,808 16,415 
16.190 
15,895 
14,835 
15.107 
Physical Activity 
14,860 16,297 15,513 14,809 
15,392 14,827 
14,557 
14,430 
13,606 
Aesthetic 15,091 
14,773 13,886 
13,654 13,558 
14,071 
2,973 
1,965 
3,950 
CES?O 
2,721 2,823 
3,028 
1.146 
Ll1Q 4,320 
.506 
,353 
1,060 
Depressed Affect ,595 ,432 ,528 
.820 1.300 
.171 
1,630 
.686 
1,029 
Positive Affect 
,822 1,297 
1,909 
1.745 ,537 
(recoded low= high) ,981 
, 763 
,849 
1,641 
Somatic and Retarded 
1,267 ,765 
, 762 
1.538 1.745 
.390 
Activity 
.111 
,058 
.154 
Interpersonal Affect .108 .114 
.115 ,049 
,067 
.192 
171 
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