ABSTRACT 
Title of Dissertation: The Relationship of Stress and 
Coping to Emotions Among 
Adolescents with Disabled Siblings 
Ann swomley Harden, Doctor of Philosophy, 1994 
Dissertation directed by: Susan D. Holloway, Ph.D. 
Associate Professor 
Harvard Graduate School 
of Education 
This research investigated the relationship of stress 
and coping to emotions among adolescents with disabled 
siblings. Potentially, stress comes from three sources: 
the relationship between the disabled and nondisabled 
siblings, the relationship between the normal sibling and 
his parents, and the relationship between the normal 
sibling and the community-at-large. The strategies used 
to cope with these potential stresses affects the emotions 
that the normal sibling has about his disabled brother or 
sister. The sample consisted of 58 adolescents between 
the ages of 12 and 17. There were 33 females and 25 
males. 
The adolescents filled out three self-report 
questionnaires: Adolescent Perceived Events Scale, Coping 
Responses Inventory, and Emotional Response Scale. The 
research found that the most stressful aspects of life for 
adolescents with disabled siblings were network events and 
academics. The positive emotions of enjoyment and 
tolerance were felt to the greatest extent. Of the 
negative emotions, anger and fear were experienced most by 
these adolescents. The coping strategies of problem 
solving and logical analysis were used most with seeking 
guidance being the least used coping strategy. 
Additionally, the study found that adolescents who 
felt academic stress were unlikely to feel enjoyment and 
tolerance in their relationships with their disabled 
siblings. Adolescents who used more coping strategies 
were likely to feel anger, embarrassment, fear, neglect 
about their disabled siblings than those who used fewer 
coping strategies. Also, in spite of their coping 
efforts, adolescents who felt stress in the area of their 
boyfriend/girlfriend relationships were less likely to 
have positive emotions about their disabled siblings. 
Finally, adolescents who felt stress from family 
relationships were still likely to have negative emotions 
about their disabled siblings, even after taking into 
account their attempts to cope with their problems. 
Implications for policy and practice are discussed. 
7 
THE RELATIONSHIP OF STRESS AND COPING TO EMOTIONS 
AMONG ADOLESECNTS WITH DISABLED SIBLINGS 
by 
Ann Swom~i Harden 
c_ 
I 
C .(_ t\ l,U\\ ' ,. 
Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School 
of The University of Maryland in partial fulfillment 
of the requirements for the degree of 
Doctor of Philosophy 
1994 
Advisory Committee: 
Professor Jean Hebeler 
Associate Professor Charles Flatter, Advisor 
Associate Professor Susan Holloway, Chairperson 
Associate Professor Allan Wigfield 
Assistant Professor Kathryn Wentzel 
4 {_' I ,.) . 
@ Copyright by 
Ann Swomley Harden 
1994 
ii 
DEDICATION 
This dissertation is dedicated to my family who have 
taught me so much - to my brother, Steve, from whom I have 
learned compassion and tolerance, to my two children, Dave 
and Amy, who have instructed me as they have grown to 
maturity, and to my beloved husband, Dick, who has been my 
companion as we have searched for and found the meaning of 
life. 
iii 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 
As I journey through life, I am increasingly aware of 
the gifts that God has given me. Sometimes, these gifts 
appear as people to nurture me during stressful periods of 
my life. In my case, many gifts have been bestowed. One 
such gift during my doctoral work has been Dr. Susan 
Holloway, my advisor. Her presence and support have made 
the difficult process of graduate work and dissertation 
possible. 
Another person who has been a gift to me at critical 
times during my dissertation and studies has been my 
statistics advisor, Bill Connors. With great patience, he 
guided me through the murky waters of measurement and 
statistics. 
The Carroll County Public School System has been 
extremely supportive in allowing me to pursue this 
research of great interest, despite some of the potential 
problems. I am extremely grateful to Dr. Brian Lockard, 
Dr. Harry Fogel and Ms. Robin Farinholt for their help and 
e n c ouragement. 
The last person, who has been a gift to me for the 
last 10 years, has been my faithful friend and assistant, 
Theresa Mariner. She has endured my suffering as I have 
gone through all of the trials and tribulations of a 
doctoral program. 
iv 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
Section 
List of Tables vi 
Chapter 1 Introduction 1 
Stress 3 
Coping 9 
Emotions 12 
Research Questions 16 
Definition of Terms 17 
Chapter II Literature Review 18 
Stress 19 
Characteristics of Stressful Events 19 
Positive/Negative Changes 19 
Hassles Versus Life Events 21 
Controversy 24 
Interactions 26 
Role Relationship Between Siblings 26 
Social Engagement of Siblings 27 
Affective Tone Between Siblings 29 
Characteristics of Nondisabled Sibling 29 
Gender 30 
Age 31 
Age Spacing 32 
Relative Birth Order 33 
Characteristics of Disabled Sibling 34 
Type of Disability 35 
Severity of Disability 35 
Gender 36 
Age 37 
Place of Residence 37 
Onset and Prognosis 38 
Behavioral Characteristics 38 
Resources 39 
Social Support 39 
Family Size 41 
Family Social Support 41 
Positive Experiences 42 
Religion 43 
Socioeconomic Status 44 
Parental Life Stress 45 
Family Interactions 47 
Parental Reactions 47 
Coping 48 
Types of Coping 48 
Coping Strategies 49 
Influence on Adjustment 50 
Developmental Aspects 50 
V 1 
Emotions 52 
Negative Emotions 53 
Positive Emotions and Competencies 56 
Methodolical Issues 58 
Development of Instruments 58 
Adolescent Perceived Events Scale 59 
Problems of Previous Research 61 
Chapter III Method 63 
Subjects 63 
Procedure 70 
Measures 74 
Adolescents Perceived Events Scale 74 
Coping Response Inventory 77 
Emotional Response Scale 79 
Statistical Analysis 80 
Chapter IV Results 84 
Sources of Stress 84 
Emotional Response 86 
Relationship Between Stress and Emotions 90 
Coping Responses 95 
Relationship Between Coping and Emotions 100 
Relationship Between Stress, Coping, and 105 
Emotions 
Chapter V Discussion 110 
Discussion of Present Study 110 
Limitations of the Study 126 
Suggestions for Future Research 128 
Implications for Practice 130 
Appendix A Demographic Page 134 
Appendix B Permission Forms 135 
Appendix C Instructions to Siblings 141 
Appendix D Adolescent Perceived Events Scale 144 
Appendix E Coping Response Inventory 162 
Appendix F Emotional Response Scale 166 
References 168 
vi 
LIST OF TABLES 
Number 
1 - Demographics of Adolescents with Disabled 68 
Siblings Participating in the Research 
2 - Mean and Standard Deviation for Stress Subscales 85 
3 - Correlations Between Stress Subscales 86 
4 - Mean and Standard Deviation for Emotion Subscales 87 
5 - Correlations Between Emotions Subscales 88 
6 - Factor Loadings for Negative and Positive Emotions 89 
7 - Correlations of Stress to Emotional Response 91 
Subscales 
8 - Stepwise Regression Assessing Relationship 93 
Between Positive Emotion Composite and Areas of 
Stress 
9 - Simultaneous Multiple Regression Assessing 94 
Relationship Between Negative Emotion Composite 
and Areas of Stress 
10 - Stepwise Regression Assessing Relationship Between 95 
Negative Emotion Composite and Areas of Stress 
11 - Mean and Standard Deviation for Coping Subscales 97 
12 - Correlations Between Coping Response Subscales 98 
13 - Factor Loadings for Coping Composite Variable 100 
14 - Correlations Between Coping and Emotional 102 
Response Subscales 
15 - Multiple Regression Assessing Relationship 105 
Between Coping and Negative Emotion Composite 
16 - Stepwise Regression for Assessing Relationship 107 
Between Positive Emotions, Coping, and 
Areas of Stress 
17 - Stepwise Regressions for Assessing Relationship 109 
Between Negative Emotions, Coping, and Areas of 
Stress 
1 
Chapter I 
Introduction 
The sibling relationship is a powerful one which 
exerts great influence in the lives of the brothers and 
sisters. It is usually the longest and most enduring of 
the family relationships. The permanence of the 
relationship makes it possible for the two individuals to 
have considerable influence over each other throughout a 
lifetime of interactions (Seligman, 1989). In describing 
the sibling relationship, Bank and Kahn (1982) have 
stated, 
As long as one has a brother or sister alive, 
there is always another human being who has 
known one as a child, who has experienced one in 
a unique and intimate way over which one has had 
little control, who has been a mirror, however 
distorted of one's childhood and youth - someone 
in short, who has been a child of, and has 
shared the same parents. (p. 336) 
The sibling relationship develops, because there is high 
access between the siblings, a need for a meaningful 
personal identity, and insufficient parental influence 
(Bank & Kahn, 1982). 
The mobile and complex world of today has made a 
significant impact on contemporary family life in which 
the sibling bond may be even more important than in past 
decades. Because family size is decreasing with the birth 
2 
of fewer children, siblings may have more intense contact 
with each other. With the increase in longevity of the 
life span, the relationships may be a source of support 
for each person throughout the life cycle. Additionally, 
many siblings are confronted with the disintegration of 
the family through divorce and remarriage. This change 
has affected the nature of the sibling relationship. In 
families where there are frequent changes in location, 
which may affect the formation of friendships, siblings 
may rely on each other. Finally, parental stress with 
both people working may limit their availability to 
interact both physically and emotionally with their 
children (Bank & Kahn, 1992). With all of these factors, 
brothers and sisters may turn to each other for the 
stability and nurturing that is needed. 
However, the sibling relationship takes on an added 
dimension when one of the siblings is disabled. Then, 
siblings no longer have equal status within the family, 
because one of them is "special". There are a variety of 
issues that become pertinent under these circumstances. 
These include dealing with siblings who are different by 
society's standards, added caretaking and household 
responsibilities, and differing roles and lifestyles. 
This study investigates the relationship between the 
sibling and the "special" brother or sister. It will 
focus specifically on the stress, coping strategies, and 
emotions of the nondisabled sibling as the result of the 
3 
presence of a child with significant intellectual, 
physical, emotional, and behavioral delays in the family. 
An additional technical definition of "disabled" will be 
provided in the Methods section. The research on the 
issues surrounding the sibling who has a disabled brother 
or sister will be conceptualized within the stress and 
coping framework, which includes the characteristics or 
nature of stress, resources available to the sibling, 
methods of coping, and resulting emotions. 
Stress 
Stress has been conceived of as a transaction between 
the person and the environment, and it takes into account 
both the characteristics of the person and the nature of 
the environment and the stressor events. Psychological 
stress has been defined as "a particular relationship 
between the person and the environment that is appraised 
by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources 
and endangering his or her well- being" (Lazarus & 
Folkman, 1984, p. 19 cited in Gamble & Woulbroun, 1993). 
This judgment as to whether the interaction between the 
person and the environment is stressful hinges on 
cognitive appraisals, or the individual's own evaluation 
of what is stressful. Thus, a stressful event has 1) a 
cognitive component, the evaluation of what is happening 
in the environment and whether it is threatening to the 
individual, and 2) an affective component of the 
4 
individual's emotional response to the situation. These 
two components are essential ingredients of stress. 
Change is an inherent component of stress, and 
adolescence is a period which is characterized by changes 
on many different levels, including biological 
functioning, cognitive development, social roles, and 
social environment (Compas, Davis, & Forsythe, 1985). 
Thus far, the relationship of both major life events and 
daily stressors with a range of symptoms has been well 
documented in adults but is more limited in studies with 
children and adolescents (Compas, Davis, Forsythe, & 
Wagner, 1987). Although research in this area is 
expanding, little is still known about the daily 
activities and hassles that children and adolescents with 
disabled brothers and sisters go through, which presumably 
may give rise to emotional and behavioral problems (McHale 
& Gamble, 1989). 
In reviewing the literature on the relationship 
between the disabled and nondisabled siblings, certain 
themes prevail that could potentially be linked to the 
occurrence of stress for the nondisabled brother or 
sister. Potentially stress come from three sources: the 
relationship between the siblings, the relationship 
between the normal child and his parents, and the 
relationship between the nondisabled child and the 
community-at-large. In the relationship between the two 
siblings, stress possibly comes from several areas. The 
5 
first is the way in which emotions are expressed. The 
disabled child may not be capable of understanding or 
reciprocating appropriately to the emotions directed 
toward him. There may be parental expectations and 
sanctions that prohibit the expression of hostility. The 
extent to which the "normal'' sibling finds satisfactory 
means of expressing emotion may affect the degree of 
stress experienced. Secondly, the provision of direct 
services to the disabled sibling may be stressful. The 
additional household and child care responsibilities 
demand a maturity often beyond the nondisabled child's 
years, especially if these duties interfere with other 
activities that are appropriate for his or her years. 
Lastly, the sibling needs to deidentify himself to some 
extent from his disabled brother or sister and create his 
own identity and capabilities (Gamble & Woulbroun, 1993). 
The stressors which may be associated with the 
parent-child relationship revolve around the communication 
patterns of the family and the need for information by the 
sibling, the parents' discrepant expectations and 
perceptions, and the parents' personal adjustment. 
Siblings need information about the disabled child's 
handicap, but because of inhibited communication, they may 
be afraid to ask questions. They also need training in 
intervention strategies that will help them in their 
interactions with the disabled child as well as others in 
the community (Gamble & Woulbroun, 1993). 
6 
The parents may have differing views from the 
siblings as to the effect the disabled child has had on 
the family and the expectations for a near normal 
relationship. There is often a double standard for 
compliance with rules. There also may be an incorrect 
assumption on the part of the parents that the sibling is 
as involved in the needs and progress of the disabled 
child as they are, when, in fact, he has a broad range of 
interests (Gamble & Woulbroun, 1993). 
The parents themselves undergo a lifetime of 
adjustment with stresses as they cope with the "loss" of a 
normal child and go through the grief cycle. Their own 
emotional turmoil and added burden may translate into 
parenting that is neglectful or inconsistent with siblings 
(Gamble & Woulbroun, 1993). 
There are also possible stresses for the siblings 
with regard to their relationship with their friends and 
the community-at-large. They may be unsure of how to 
communicate the information to their peers and to those 
they are dating. They may not know how to deal with 
teasing that occurs or how to include the disabled sibling 
in peer interactions. They may also be concerned with the 
rejection by classmates or stigmatization when the 
disabled child attends the same school (Gamble & 
Woulbroun, 1993). Thus, the siblings experience a variety 
of possible stresses associated with having a disabled 
7 
brother or sister which impinge upon relationships both 
within and outside the family. 
A major research issue in the area of stress and 
coping has been whether stress emanates from major life 
events that take place in life or from the frustrations 
that occur on a daily basis. In a study Wagner, Campas, & 
Howell (1988) proposed a combination of the major life 
event and daily hassle into an integrative model. In 
their research, the hypothesis was substantiated that 
negative daily events mediated the relationship between 
major life events and psychological symptoms. In other 
words, major life events influence daily events, and daily 
events give rise to symptoms. In the relationship between 
two siblings in which one is disabled, a major life event 
is the birth of the disabled child. This impacts the 
nondisabled child in a number of ways, including hassles, 
such as additional caregiving and household 
responsibilities, an awkwardness in including the disabled 
sibling in peer relationship as well as a wide variety of 
other daily events. This study will be one of the first 
to use this integrative model of major life events and 
daily hassles to look at the sources of stress for 
siblings with disabled brothers and sisters. 
Adolescent girls are more distressed than boys in 
response to stressors affecting others in their social 
network (Campas & Grant, 1993; Wagner & Campas, 1990). 
8 
These findings are consistent with the literature on 
siblings of the disabled. Research indicates gender 
differences may be due, in part, to differing role 
expectations. Typically, sisters have more caregiving 
responsibilities than do brothers (Boyce & Barnett, 1993). 
These responsibilities include more sibling caregiving and 
greater involvement in household tasks (McHale & Gamble, 
1989). In general, females often have more extensive and 
long term involvement with the disabled sibling 
(Edmundson, 1985). Thus, older female siblings are 
usually the ones most negatively affected by the presence 
of the disabled child (Powell & Gallagher, 1993), because 
they assume the "other mother" role. 
With the increased caretaking responsibilities and 
thus greater involvement with the disabled child, females 
tend to have an increase in sibling conflict, a decrease 
in positive sibling interaction, and a decrease in peer 
interaction and activities outside the home (Stoneman, 
Brody, Davis, & Crapps, 1988). These factors may lead to 
a higher rate of depression, role tension and anxiety 
(Lobato, Barbour, Hall, & Miller, 1987), lower levels of 
self-worth (Gamble & McHale, 1989), and even an increase 
in psychiatric disorder (Gath, 1973, 1974). Thus, females 
seem to be more vulnerable than males regarding the 
negative impact they experience when having a disabled 
brother or sister. An interest of this study is on the 
gender differences associated with the various sources of 
9 
stress and the feelings that adolescents have concerning 
their disabled brothers and sisters. 
The potential stress that the normal sibling 
experiences is related to the disabled child's direct and 
indirect impact on the relationships within the family as 
well as those outside of the family. The stress may 
affect the feelings that the nondisabled sibling has about 
his disabled brother or sister. In fact, stress may 
intensify the negative feelings so that little pleasure is 
derived from the relationship because of the day-to-day 
hassles. On the other hand, the sibling may be dealing 
well with the stress because of adequate coping skills and 
feel that having a disabled child in the family is a 
worthwhile experience. 
Coping 
When confronted with possible stressors in the 
relationship with their disabled brother or sister, 
parents or the community-at-large, siblings will attempt 
to cope with them in some manner. These include changing 
their perceptions of the situation or regulating the 
emotional distress; these are termed emotion focused 
strategies (Folkman, Lazarus, Dunkel-Schetter, DeLongis, & 
Gruen, 1985). However, they may endeavor to change the 
situation itself using problem focused strategies 
(Folkman, Lazarus, Dunkel-Schetter, DeLongis, & Gruen, 
1985). Thus, coping is a process whose function is to 
resolve a problem and/or regulate the emotional distress. 
10 
Research has suggested that children as young as six-
years-old can describe their own efforts to cope, which 
includes responding to everyday events (Band & Weisz, 
1988; Elwood, 1987). Studies show that children use a 
wide variety of responses and different forms of coping 
over time. It seems as if children take an active 
approach to dealing with stress in their lives (Gamble & 
Woulbroun, 1993). However, the nature of their coping 
responses may depend on the available resources as well as 
their ability to apply these resources to the problem 
(Crnic & Leconte, 1986). 
Studies have shown that children and adolescents use 
a variety of coping strategies that fit into either the 
emotion-focused or problem-focused categories. These 
include support seeking in which the person talks to a 
friend or parent about the problem, physical aggression or 
verbal aggression, which may be either problem-focused or 
emotion-focused, and direct problem solving, including 
information selection, direct behavioral actions, and 
cognitive efforts to solve the problem. Children use 
other coping mechanisms, including avoidance/distraction, 
doing nothing, physical exercise, and cognitive 
restructuring/self-soothing, such as trying to see the 
good side of things (Band & Weisz, 1988; Elwood, 1987; 
Gamble & Woulbroun, 1993). The management of emotions 
aroused by the stressors is often included in the 
conceptualizations of coping (Gamble & Woulbroun, 1993). 
11 
Possibly, the kind of coping responses used may be a 
missing link in the understanding of the effect of the 
stress which is associated either directly or indirectly 
with disabled siblings. There are a variety of responses 
that adolescents may use when confronted with some of the 
daily hassles, such as the pressure to get good grades in 
school or the frustrations of caregiving. Some coping 
strategies will bring about changes that are beneficial to 
the adolescents while other types of coping strategies may 
only exacerbate an already difficult situation. The 
success of their coping responses may certainly have an 
effect on the way that the adolescents feel about their 
sibling relationship. Therefore, it is important to 
understand both the kinds of stressful events that the 
adolescents encounter and the coping skills which are most 
effective in dealing with them. 
In a recent study, Gamble & McHale (1989) focused on 
coping with the stress involved in the relationship of 
children with disabled and nondisabled siblings. There 
was no significant difference found in the composite 
stress score, although there were differences in several 
of the subscales. As far as coping strategies, self-
directed cognitions were found to be positively related to 
well-being whereas environment-directed cognitions were 
negatively related to these measures. Additionally, all 
children with disabled siblings and girls with normal 
siblings reported using environment-directed cognitions, 
12 
such as thoughts about the people and situation, more 
frequently than did children with nondisabled siblings and 
boys. 
Research needs to expand the impact of stressors 
beyond the sibling interaction to include those associated 
with other family members, peers, and the community-at-
large. Additionally, there are a wide variety of emotions 
possible which may be the result of the relationship 
between the disabled and nondisabled siblings, and studies 
need to address other feelings in addition to anger such 
as neglect, embarrassment, and enjoyment. 
Emotions 
Adolescence has traditionally been described as a 
period of turmoil, identity confusion, and stress, 
accompanied by an intense range of emotions. Empirical 
studies have refuted this idea to some extent and instead 
have emphasized the continuity of development from 
childhood through adulthood. However, most everyone 
agrees that adolescence, in general, is a period of great 
physical, social, and emotional change with early 
adolescence, in particular, being a time of developmental 
transition (Siegel & Brown, 1988). 
Within stress research dealing with the period of 
adolescence, stress has most often been characterized as a 
depressed mood and/or anxiety. Current research supports 
the belief that negatively rated circumstances are 
important contributors to depressed mood and anxiety 
13 
(Cohen, Burt, & Bjorck, 1987; Compas & Grant, 1993; Siegel 
& Brown, 1988). Compas, Howell, Phares, Williams, & 
Guinta (1989) also found that stress is associated with 
internalized problems of anxiety and depression and, 
additionally, with externalized behavior problems. This 
may have been due, in part, to the inclusion of daily 
stress as well as major life events. Swearington & Cohen 
(1985) have suggested that the rapidly occurring 
developmental changes in early adolescence may influence 
the ability of the adolescent to place chronic strain in 
perspective. 
Chronic stress may indeed be a part of the life of an 
adolescent with a disabled brother or sister, resulting in 
a range of feelings. The emotional involvement of the 
nondisabled teenager with the disabled sibling is a 
complex one and appears to involve a variety of negative 
as well as positive emotions. While research findings in 
this area are only beginning to emerge, anecdotal accounts 
suggest that the following emotions may exist for the 
nondisabled sibling. There is a feeling of neglect at all 
of the time and attention that the parents give to the 
disabled child (Crnic & Leconte, 1986; Dyson, Edgar, & 
Crnic, 1989; Hannah & Midlarsky, 1985; Pearson & 
Sternberg, 1986; San Martino & Newman, 1974; Schild, 
1971). Embarrassment may be felt at the obvious 
differences between the disabled child and normal brothers 
and sisters and by the unusual things that the disabled 
14 
sibling does (Featherstone, 1980; Meyer, Vadasky, & 
Fewell, 1985; Pearson & Sternberg, 1990). There may be a 
feeling of anger at the alterations in family roles and 
lifestyles (McHale & Gamble, 1989; Pearson & Sternberg, 
1986; Seligman, 1989; Wilson, Blacher, & Baker, 1989). 
Guilt may be the result of wondering why they are normal 
when their sibling is disabled (Trevino, 1979) and 
questioning if they contributed to the child's 
disabilities (Crnic & Leconte, 1986; Meyer, Vadasky, & 
Fewell, 1985; San Martino & Newman, 1974; Schild, 1971; 
Seligman, 1989; Trout, 1983). The siblings may feel 
pressured to compensate for the disabled child and have to 
deal with excessively high parental expectations (Crnic & 
Leconte, 1986; Dyson, Edgar, & Crnic, 1989; Hannah & 
Midlarsky, 1990; Schild, 1971; Trevino, 1979). Because 
there are no "real" brothers or sisters to share life 
experiences with, there may be feelings of loneliness and 
isolation from the community-at-large at the differentness 
of the family (Featherstone, 1990; Meyer, Vadasky, & 
Fewell, 1985; Seligman, 1989). There may also be a sense 
of fear in catching the disability (Pearson & Sternberg, 
1986) and of ridicule from others about the disabled 
sibling. 
There are, however, some positive feelings that may 
be derived from the sibling relationship. The siblings 
may enjoy being with their disabled brothers and sisters 
(Wilson, Blacher, & Baker, 1989) and feel a sense of pride 
15 
in their accomplishments, especially if they have played a 
part in the mastering of skills (Lobato, Barbour, Hall, & 
Miller, 1987; Meyer, Vadasky, & Fewell, 1985). There may 
be a feeling of competence in their ability to do things 
the disabled child is unable to do (McHale & Gamble, 
1989). Importantly, the sibling may gain a sense of 
tolerance and compassion as they develop insight into 
human differences and similarities (Carr, 1988; Crnic & 
Leconte, 1986; Grossman, 1972; Seligman, 1989). Lastly, 
the sibling may feel that his life and the life of his 
family have been enriched as the family has mobilized 
resources to deal with the disabled child (Carr, 1988; 
Fischer & Roberts, 1983; Grossman, 1972; Lobato, Barbour, 
Hall, & Miller, 1987; Wilson, Blacher, & Baker, 1988). 
These emotions have been derived in large part from 
conversations with small groups of siblings who are 
involved in support groups. Further research needs to be 
done to establish the generalizability of these feelings 
and the relationship that they have with stress and 
coping. Many siblings with disabled brothers and sisters 
share similar circumstances, but they cope with them in 
different ways and, therefore, have different emotional 
reactions. No one has sorted out how different coping 
mechanisms mediate the relationship between the stressors 
and these emotions. 
16 
Research Questions 
The present study is designed to address the 
following research questions: 
Question 1. To what extent are various sources of 
stress experienced by adolescents with disabled siblings? 
Question 2. To what extent are a variety of emotions 
felt by adolescent siblings about their disabled brothers 
and sisters? 
Question 3. Is there a relationship between the 
various sourc es of stress experienced by adolescents and 
the feelings they have about their disabled siblings? 
Question 4. To what extent are a variety of coping 
strategies used by adolescents with disabled siblings? 
Question 5. Is there a relationship between the 
coping strategies used by adolescent siblings and the 
feelings they have about their disabled brothers or 
sisters? 
Question 6. To what extent do the coping strategies 
used by adolescents with disabled brothers and sisters 
moderate the relationship of the various sources of stress 
to the feelings that they have about their disabled 
siblings? 
17 
Definition of Terms 
Coping: "A stabilizing factor that may help individuals to 
maintain psychological adaptation during stressful 
periods" (Holahan & Moos, 1987, p. 946) or "Any effort at 
stress management or the things that people do to avoid 
being harmed by life's strains" (Holahan & Moos, 1987, p. 
946) . 
Handicapped Students: "Those students who have been 
determined through appropriate assessment as having 
temporary or long-term special education needs arising 
from cognitive, emotional, or physical factors, or any 
combination of these. Their ability to meet general 
educational objectives is impaired to a degree whereby the 
services available in the general education program are 
inadequate in preparing them to achieve their educational 
potential (Code of Maryland Regulations, Supplement 10~ p. 
122) . 
Stress: "A particular relationship between the person and 
the environment that is appraised by the person as taxing 
or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his or 
her well-being (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984, p. 19 cited in 
Gamble & Woulbroun, 1993). 
18 
Chapter II 
Literature Review 
From the time Roger began going to physicians 
and consultants, it seemed to me that I carried 
a five-hundred-pound lead weight around in front 
of my brain. Never out of my mind was the idea 
that my brother was special, needed special 
attention, needed special care, and I had to 
provide some of it. 
Powell & Gallagher, 1993, p. 3. 
Having a disabled sibling is a significant source of 
possible stress across the lifespan (Crnic & Leconte, 
1986). The siblings have the potential of a triple burden 
- stress generated from their sibling relationship with 
increased responsibility for the disabled sibling (Hannah 
& Midlarsky, 1985), stress generated from their 
relationship with their parents and decreased parental 
support, and stress generated from the relationship with 
the community-at-large. In the literature on siblings of 
the disabled, research has tried to determine the 
reactions of siblings to a disabled brother or sister and 
what characteristics may account for the differences in 
their adjustment. studies has often been directed at 
certain variables that include the characteristics of the 
disabled sibling, characteristics of the nondisabled 
sibling, and the characteristics of the parents and 
family. Although the stress and coping model has not been 
19 
used in actually formulating much of the research that has 
been done in the past on the issues that are relevant to 
the siblings of disabled children, this theoretical 
framework will be used to interpret the findings to date. 
Recent efforts in the research on stress have focused on 
the following directions: characteristics or nature of 
stressful events, resources available, efforts at coping, 
and emotional impact. 
Stress 
Characteristics of Stressful Events 
Positive/Negative Change 
The first component of stress research is the 
characteristics of the life events which may influence the 
degree of stressfulness and therefore may be associated 
with potential disorder for the individual. There was an 
initial feeling that life change per se, whether it was 
positive or negative, required readjustment. Early 
studies showed that the greater the number of life events 
and the greater the degree of personal adjustment required 
by the events, the higher the risk of illness. Life 
events, whether desirable or undesirable, were conceived 
of as life change requiring adjustment and thus producing 
stress. Stress was viewed as a condition of perceived 
imbalance between the demands of the change and the 
capability of the individual to meet these demands 
(Rawlinson & Felner, 1988). Studies like that of Rutter 
(1981), which dealt with stress, coping, and development, 
20 
investigated the effect of hospitalization, birth of a 
sibling, and parental divorce. They based on the premise 
that any change, either good or bad, produced stress. The 
Coddington Scales that were developed in the mid-seventies 
pursued this belief that both positive and negative events 
required adjustment and were therefore stressful 
(Swearingtom & Cohen, 1985). Even today more popular 
psychology books written on stress and the child promote 
the idea that any change, whether positive or negative, is 
a source of stress (Hart, 1992). Other studies found that 
negative life events, not positive life events, account 
for the variance between life events and dysfunction 
(Rawlinson & Felner, 1988; Vinokur & Selzer, 1975). A 
study was done on whether response biases could account 
for the relation between negative events and psychological 
symptoms. This was not substantiated, giving further 
credence that negative life events play a significant role 
in symptom development (Lakey & Heller, 1985). 
The birth of a baby is usually considered a positive 
event. It changes family life for everyone and possibly 
produces some short term stress. However, this stress 
often dissipates as family members integrate the child 
into the family, resulting in pleasure. In contrast, the 
birth of a disabled child is considered a negative life 
event and often produces stress that intensifies as the 
child grows older. 
21 
Hissles Versus Life Events 
Another characteristic of stress under investigation 
is the relative contribution of the two possible sources 
of stress, major life events and the ongoing strains of 
t~ily hassles. Many of the earlier studies have dealt 
wi th the issue of whether stress emanates from the major 
events that occur in one's life or from the frustrations 
that take place on a daily basis. Major events can be 
described as "events that have had a large effect on your 
life or led to changes in how you feel about yourself, 
your health, your well-being or your relationship with 
other people'' (Compas, Davis, Forsythe, & Wagner, 1987, p. 
S35). A related term that is less frequently used is 
"distal", meaning that these events often require 
extensive change in an individual's life, require 
prolonged adaptation (Rowlinson & Felner, 1988), are less 
psychologically immediate, and are a major life event 
(Wagner, Compas, & Howell, 1988). 
Hassles are described as "events that irritate, annoy 
or upset you and can cause problems, difficulties or 
pressures" (Compas, Davis, Forsythe, & Wagner, 1987, p. 
535). They are also defined as "irritating, frustrating, 
distressing demands and troubled relationships that plague 
us day in and day out" (Dohrenwend, Dohrenwend, Dodson, & 
Shrout, 1984, p. 223). A related term is "proximal", 
those events in which there is an ongoing level of stress 
22 
in the environment (Rowlinson & Felner, 1988) and are 
manifested in the immediate context of thought, feeling, 
and action (Wagner, Compas, & Howell, 1988). There has 
been some dispute as to what makes a daily event or a 
major life event. In the Wagner, Compas, & Howell (1988) 
research, frequency was the deciding factor. Major events 
were perceived as having low frequency and high impact 
whereas daily events were seen as having low impact and 
high frequency. 
In research on the impact of major life events and 
daily hassles, Rowlinson & Felner (1988) found that daily 
hassles remained significantly related to the outcome of 
stress, even after the effect of major life events had 
been removed. There was a direct association between 
daily hassles and adjustment difficulties over and above 
those that could be attributed to major life events. 
Thus, a distinct correlation between major life negative 
events and an increase in daily hassles was confirmed. 
Wagner, Compas, & Howell (1988) combined the issues 
of daily hassles and major life events into an integrative 
model of psychosocial stress. Measures of major life 
events, daily hassles, and psychological symptoms were 
administered to 58 older adolescents three times during 
the transition from high school to college. The 
hypothesis was substantiated that negative daily events 
mediated the relationship between major life events and 
psychological symptoms. Results indicated that the 
23 
pathway from major life events to daily events and from 
daily events to psychological symptoms were significant, 
but the direct pathways from major events to symptoms were 
not significant at any point. Major life events 
influenced daily events and daily events gave rise to 
symptoms. Major life events led to an increase in daily 
stress which in turn led to increased psychological 
symptoms. Daily events are simultaneously a dependent and 
an independent variable. Furthermore, there is a cyclical 
quality to all of this. symptoms and daily stress may be 
reciprocally related. Psychological symptoms may 
exacerbate or change the meaning of ongoing daily events 
or actually give rise to new events which, then, intensify 
the symptoms. 
In a later study, Campas, Howell, Phares, Williams, & 
Ledoux (1989) extended the work on this issue and assessed 
major and daily stressful life events and psychological 
symptoms in a sample of young adolescents and their 
parents. Studying stress processes between individuals in 
a family was believed to be important. The relation 
between major life events and symptoms was mediated by 
daily stressors for parents and their young adolescent 
children. Children's emotional and behavioral problems 
were associated with fathers' psychological problems but 
not with mothers symptoms. Both mothers' and fathers' 
symptoms were associated with their sons' daily stressors, 
24 
but girls' daily stressors were related only to mothers' 
symptoms. 
In recent research, Compas & Grant (1993) studied the 
effects on adolescents when parents were diagnosed with 
cancer. Adolescent girls reported more total major and 
minor stressful events than adolescent boys at the time of 
their parents' diagnosis. Adolescent boys and girls did 
not differ in their reports of social network, intimacy, 
or academic stressors, but girls did report more family 
stressors related to increased responsibilities and 
burdens. This is consistent with other findings 
suggesting that adolescent girls are more distressed than 
boys in response to stressors affecting others in their 
social network (Wagner & Compas, 1990). Compas believes 
that the model used could be applied to understanding the 
impact of other acute stressors faced by children and 
adolescents, such as parental divorce, as well as the 
source of chronic stressors in families, such as parental 
conflict. This model could also be extended to include 
the chronic stress in families where there is a disabled 
child. 
Controversy 
There was an ongoing argument between several key 
researchers in this field in the mid-1980s as to whether 
the items in the inventories that were being used to 
measure stress were confounded. It revolves around the 
basic issue of whether stress should be measured simply in 
25 
environmental terms or whether it lies in the appraisal of 
the individual involved. After polling 371 psychologists, 
Dohrenwend, Dohrenwend, Dodson, & Shrout (1984) found that 
there were items on the inventories being used that could 
be symptoms of physical or mental illness. Thus, the 
presence of these items confounded the measurement of 
stress with the measurement of health outcomes. 
Lazarus, DeLongis, Folkman, & Gruen (1985) responded 
that the appraisal process cannot be removed from the 
measurement of psychological stress. Stress lies not in 
the environment but in the person's appraisal of the 
situation. In their estimation, stress refers to the 
"operation of many variables and processes in situations 
in which the demands tax or exceed the person's resources, 
and the person appraises the encounter as relevant to 
well-being, engages in coping processes, and responds 
cognitively, affectively, and behaviorally to feedback 
about what is happening" (Lazarus, Delongis, Folkman, & 
Greun, 1985, p. 777). 
In rebuttal, Dohrenwend & Shrout (1985) wanted to 
measure stress in pure environmental events, 
uncontaminated by perceptions, appraisals, or reactions. 
The key question is whether stress is determined by the 
objective characteristics of the event and situation as 
opposed to personal variables or some complex interaction 
between the two. Thus, it appears it would be important 
to measure the objective characteristics of the events and 
2 6 
the social situations related to them, the individual's 
perceptions of these events, and the relevant personality 
variables. 
Interactions 
The interactions between siblings are an important 
aspect of the relationship and provide many opportunities 
for hassles to occur as roles change and caregiving 
increases. The interactions have certain characteristics 
that are important to understand in the disabled-
nondisabled relationship. The patterns of interaction 
between the two siblings include role relationships, 
social engagement, and affective tone. 
Role relationship between siblings. 
An important aspect of the sibling interactions is 
role relationship. Role relationships between individuals 
differ in their degree of symmetry. In general, sibling 
role relationships during childhood are asymmetrical with 
older brothers and sisters having a more powerful and 
dominant role than younger brothers and sisters. With 
age, these role relations between siblings grow 
increasingly symmetrical, becoming more like that found 
between peers and friends. However, when one of the 
sibling pair has a disability this normal pattern becomes 
skewed (Stoneman & Brody, 1993). The research done by 
Stoneman, Brody, Davis, & Crapps (1989) with older 
siblings of children with mental retardation found that 
the role relations for these children became less and not 
27 
more symmetrical as the years progressed. Older siblings 
frequently assumed the teacher, helper, and manager roles. 
This probably leads to adult relationships that are 
dominated by the nondisabled siblings (Zetlin, 1986). 
When the nondisabled sibling is the younger one, 
there is a ''role crossover" that occurs when the younger 
sibling becomes more competent than the older one with 
mental retardation. The parents often assign roles, such 
as caregiving, for these younger children whose siblings 
are disabled (Brody, Stoneman, Davis, & Crapps, 1991; 
Stoneman, Brody, Davis, Crapps, & Malone, 1991). In dyads 
where there was one Down's syndrome child, the nondisabled 
child led the interactions whether they were the older or 
the younger (Miller & Cantwell, 1976). This was 
demonstrated as early as the preschool years where sisters 
had more childcare responsibilities (Lobato, Barbour, 
Hall, & Miller, 1987). Thus, the change in the normal 
role relationships provide fertile ground for possible 
stress. 
Social engagement of siblings. 
Another component of the sibling interaction is 
social engagement, which is defined as the amount of time 
that siblings spend in play or other activities with each 
other or the frequency of visits or phone contact between 
adult siblings (Stoneman & Brody, 1993). In current 
research, siblings were actively involved with each other, 
and normal siblings were adept at choosing activities or 
28 
toys that could be shared with the disabled siblings in a 
meaningful way (Stoneman & Brody, 1993; Stoneman, Brody, & 
Crapps, 1987). 
Further research found that while siblings with and 
without disabled children in the family spent the same 
amount of time in sibling activities, children with 
disabled siblings spent more time in caregiving activities 
and less in play (Gallagher & Powell, 1989; McHale & 
Gamble, 1989; Powell & Gallagher, 1993; Wilson, Blacher, & 
Baker, 1989). Determining factors in time spent 
caregiving were the amount of help required and the 
siblings' self-esteem (Hannah & Midlarsky, 1990). 
Siblings can also be used as teachers in a variety of 
settings (Gallagher & Powell, 1989). Siblings can be 
involved in structured programs as therapists for their 
disabled siblings with positive results. They can help to 
teach new skills and provide consistency by creating a 
united front with parents and teachers (Miller & Cantwell, 
1976). With the siblings focused on appropriate behavior, 
there is an increase in positive interactions, self-
esteem, and pride in the accomplishments of the disabled 
brothers or sisters (Hannah & Midlarsky, 1985). However, 
the added caregiving and possible teaching roles create 
opportunities for frustrations for the nondisabled 
sibling. 
29 
Affective tone between siblings. 
The final aspect of the sibling relationship is the 
affective tone. In some of the research there were few 
differences found in the relationships between siblings in 
which one had mental retardation and comparison pairs. 
This was true in both positive and negative interactions 
and during naturalistic, in-home studies and 
semistructured observations (Brody, Stoneman, Davis, & 
Crapps, 1991; Stoneman, Brody, & Crapps, 1987; Stoneman, 
Brody, & Davis, 1989). 
However, some studies have shown that sibling 
interactions were more positive when one of them was 
disabled. Parents rated their older siblings as kinder 
when the younger brother or sister was disabled. This 
positive affect was seen as a reflection of the siblings 
feeling of involvement with the disabled child (Gallagher 
& Powell, 1989). In another study, there was an affect 
neutrality with less intimacy, less competition, less 
perception of similarity, and less admiration. It is hard 
to be intimate with someone with a limited language 
ability (Begun, 1989). Although the affective tone may be 
more positive, there may be underlying pressures which 
prohibit the nondisabled siblings from expressing the 
negative emotions they have. 
Characteristics of the Nondisabled Sibling 
The nature of stress that is specific to the impact 
of a disabled child on a sibling includes both the 
30 
characteristics of the nondisabled sibling and the 
characteristics of the disabled sibling. The following 
characteristics of the nondisabled sibling appear to be 
relevant: gender, age, age spacing, and relative birth 
order. 
Gender 
Of particular interest in previous research, 
especially that of Compas, are the findings about the 
vulnerability of females. Gender of the nondisabled 
sibling has been the most frequently investigated 
variable. There are differences in reactions to the 
"special" brother or sister which may be due in part to 
gender role expectations. It has been found in several 
studies that older female siblings were the ones most 
negatively affected by having a disabled child in the 
family (Gath, 1973, 1974; Powell & Gallagher, 1993). They 
may be exposed to greater domestic and caregiving 
responsibility than others their age (Boyce & Barnett, 
1993), often relieving parents of some of the supervision 
(Fischer & Roberts, 1983). This occured even at the 
preschool age (Lobato, Barbour, Hall, & Miller, 1987). 
Older sisters' responsibilities are associated with an 
increase in observed sibling conflict, a decrease in 
positive sibling interaction, and a decrease in peer 
contact and activities outside the home (McHale & Gamble, 
1989; Stoneman, Brody, Davis, & Crapps, 1988). 
31 
However, brothers of persons with disabilities also 
perform caregiving (Boyce & Barnett, 1993). Although they 
did not spend a comparable amount of time as girls with 
disabled siblings, boys did spend as much time in 
caregiving as girls with nondisabled siblings. In some 
ways then, boys who have a disabled brother or sister are 
encouraged to engage in nontraditional activities (McHale 
& Gamble, 1989). In general, female siblings often have 
more extensive and long term involvement with the disabled 
sibling (Edmundson, 1985). They maintain a close 
relationship with the disabled brother or sister and often 
choose helping careers. Males, on the other hand, who 
have limited contact during childhood and lack information 
about the sibling's disability are fearful of producing a 
retarded offspring of their own (Zetlin, 1986). Thus, it 
appears that females experience more possible stress due 
to the added caregiving and household responsibilities. 
Age 
There are some indications that developmental stage 
affects the reactions of siblings (Boyce & Barnett, 1993). 
Adolescent sisters reported more conflicts with their 
brothers and sisters with mental retardation than did 
adult sisters (Begun, 1989). Also, middle age siblings 
with stable life styles were better supporters of their 
mentally retarded siblings than young adults who were away 
at college or who lived "free" lifestyles (Zetlin, 1986). 
32 
There seems to be a difference in how younger or 
older siblings adjust to their sibling situation. Older 
school age children have fewer psychological problems 
while younger children of preschool and kindergarten age 
have more problems, perhaps because of their lack of 
understanding of sibling's disability. Younger children 
are also more dependent on the family for stability and 
happiness and have not developed outside contacts and 
interest (Lobato, 1990). On the other hand, as the circle 
of children widens to include awareness of peers, 
neighbors, and the world, then shame, hostility, and 
embarrassment may increase (Hannah & Midlarsky, 1985). In 
general, there may be especially adverse reactions in 
developmental periods when conformity is valued 
(Featherstone, 1980). 
Age Spacing 
Some research has demonstrated that the closer in age 
the disabled and the nondisabled child are the greater the 
adjustment problems will be. The wider the age 
difference, the greater the likelihood that the sibling 
will be well-adjusted (Schreiber & Feeley, 1965; Trevino, 
1979). Breslau, (1982) also found that as the differences 
in age increased, there were fewer indications of 
adjustment problems. This was especially true for males. 
The closeness in age spacing may cause identity problems, 
because siblings must adjust their identities to a person 
33 
who does not act age appropriate (Powell & Gallagher, 
1993). 
Relative Birth Order 
Social stressor has been defined as any set of 
circumstances that requires a change in the individual's 
life style. In families a stressor is a crisis provoking 
situation for which the family has little or no 
preparation (Gallagher, Beckman, & Cross, 1983). It seems 
that families of disabled children are particularly 
vulnerable to stress. The birth of a child certainly 
produces change for everyone in that family, and if the 
baby is disabled, the event can certainly be classified as 
a negative one. It is plausible that there would a 
difference in the effect on siblings, depending on whether 
they were older and a part of the family, or younger and 
not a part of the family when the disabled child was born. 
There have been mixed findings on the effect of 
relative birth order on siblings of the disabled. The 
younger could possibly be more vulnerable because of the 
need for more parental time and attention, while the older 
may be more responsible for additional caretaking and 
household responsibilities and feel the disruption to 
family life (French, 1984). One study found no increased 
risk for those who were born earlier than the disabled 
child with the exception of the oldest female (Gath, 
1973). However, there was an additional risk for those 
children born after the disabled child, apparently because 
34 
they were expected to make up for the disappointment of 
the child and were exposed to greater parental pressure 
(Gath, 1973). In a subsequent study, no effect of birth 
order was seen in boys (Gath, 1974). However, Breslau 
(1982) found an interaction effect of gender and birth 
order. Males who were younger than the disabled child 
showed greater psychological impairment than those older, 
but females who were older were at greater risk. These 
results were contrary to those found in another study in 
which younger females and older males were more at risk 
(Hannah & Midlarsky, 1985). 
In more recent research, relative birth order did not 
influence the outcome measures of self-concept (Boyce & 
Barnett, 1993), overall time use (Boyce & Barnett, 1993), 
attitudes toward children with mental retardation (Boyce & 
Barnett, 1993), or vulnerability to deviant behavior (Gath 
& Gumley, 1987). Additionally, this characteristic did 
not affect sibling acceptance, hostility, support, or 
embarrassment as reported by the mother (Boyce & Barnett, 
1993). There was one exception in that the younger 
siblings felt greater rejection of their disabled brother 
or sister than did older siblings (Boyce & Barnett, 1993). 
Characteristics of the Disabled Sibling 
The characteristics of the disabled sibling which may 
impact the stress on the ''normal" sibling include the type 
and severity of the disability, age, gender, place of 
35 
residence, onset and prognosis, and behavioral 
characteristics. 
Type of Disability 
Type of disability does not seem to be a crucial 
factor in the adjustment of siblings. Age, sex, and 
parental attitudes may affect the sense of well-being of 
the siblings more than the type of disability (Powell & 
Gallagher, 1993). However, one exception may be that in 
high SES families, siblings seem less well-adjusted when 
the brother's or sister's disability is ambiguous or 
undefined (Gallagher & Powell, 1989). 
Severity of Disability 
The severity of the disability may be defined as the 
amount of help a child needs in toileting, eating, 
dressing, and mobility (Hannah & Midlarsky, 198 5 ). Some 
researchers found that siblings were more adversely 
affected when the child's disability was severe and thus 
required more care (Gath & Grumley, 1987). They may feel 
a sense of neglect and pressure to achieve (Hannah & 
Midlarsky, 1985). This is affected by the socioeconomic 
condition of the family in which lower SES families had 
less resources. They had less money for sitters, respite 
care, and special camps, and therefore, more burden fell 
on the siblings for care (Gallagher & Powell, 1989; Powell 
& Gallagher, 1993). 
However, other research did not substantiate this 
with findings that there was no connection between the 
36 
level of severity of disability and the well-being of the 
sibling. In fact, one study found that siblings had a 
more difficult time adjusting when there was a mild 
disability. The child may not appear to be disabled, and 
thus, the extra time and attention was regarded as 
favoritism (Hannah & Midlarsky, 1985). When the child 
with the disability was higher functioning, the sibling 
relationship was closer but more competitive (Begun, 
1989), and the sibling may be more likely to identify with 
the disabled brother or sister (Crnic & Leconte, 1986). 
McHale & Gamble (1989) found no direct connection between 
the level of competence of the disabled child and sibling 
well-being as measured by depression, anxiety, and self-
competence. Because of the conflicting evidence, there 
are probably additional factors that interact with 
severity to account for the difference in adjustment 
(Lobato, 1990). 
Gender 
While the gender of the nondisabled child is an 
important variable in adjustment, the gender of the 
disabled child per se does not have the same impact. More 
importantly, the issue is whether the siblings are of the 
same sex. It appears that same sex siblings may be more 
vulnerable to adjustment problems (Ferrari, 1984; Gath & 
Grumley, 1987; Grossman, 1972; Trevino, 1979). Siblings 
were more embarrassed when the disabled child was of the 
same sex and close in age (Grossman, 1972). 
37 
Additionally, the developmental stage of the child 
with the disability appears to have an influence on the 
adjustment of the sibling. As the disabled child grows 
older, the discrepancy between the chronological age and 
the cognitive/functioning age increases. The differences 
between the siblings become more obvious. The disabled 
child may also become increasingly more difficult to 
manage behaviorally and with self-care skills, leading the 
sibling to have slightly higher levels of adjustment 
problems (Gallagher & Powell, 1989; Lobato, 1990; Powell & 
Gallagher, 1993). 
Place of Residence 
Times have changed as to the philosophy of placing 
disabled children in institutions. With all of the 
educational and other supportive services, parents are 
keeping children at home who once would have been 
institutionalized. Early studies had conflicting results 
as to whether residential placement was favorable for the 
siblings. Some research failed to support the idea that 
residential placement was the better option for the 
nondisabled brother or sister (Lobato, 1990). Younger 
siblings may wonder if they too will be institutionalized 
(Fischer & Roberts, 1983). Male siblings who spent more 
time outside the home may receive greater attention from 
their parents, thus creating tension (Fischer & Roberts, 
1983). Others hypothesized it may benefit female siblings 
--
38 
who helped to care for the disabled brother or sister 
(Fischer & Roberts, 1983). With fewer children being 
placed in institutions full time, the real issue today may 
be the residentially placed child who reappears in the 
home on weekends and holidays (Lobato, 1990). 
Onset and Prognosis 
The time of detection of an illness or disability is 
one of intense stress and turmoil for the family. If the 
siblings were a part of the family at that time, they may 
have experienced some problems before the initial shock 
gave way to a more predictable routine (Grossman, 1972; 
Lobato, 1990). As to the prognosis of the disability or 
disease, the very limited research did not show any 
difference in siblings who faced a fatal illness as 
compared to those whose brothers or sisters had more 
predictable, less threatening problems (Ferrari, 1984; 
Lobato, 1990). 
Behavioral Characteristics 
Generally children who cope well with their 
disability tend to have siblings who do so as well. on 
the other hand, disabled children who have symptoms of 
poor adaptation, such as behavioral problems, are more 
likely to have siblings who have similar characteristics 
(Gath, 1992, 1993; Gath & Grumley, 1987; Lobato, 1990). 
In conclusion, the nature of stress has some overall 
characteristics that research had addressed which include 
the issues of change in general versus negative 
39 
experiences, daily hassles versus major life events, and 
measurement in environmental terms versus personal 
appraisal. It also has some specific characteristics that 
are related to the demographic characteristics of the 
nondisabled and disabled siblings such as age, gender, 
relative birth order, type and severity of disability. 
How the siblings deal with the stress that is indigenous 
to their particular situations may depend in part upon the 
resources available to them. 
Resources 
The second area of interest in the stress research 
are the resources, the personal and situational variables 
that are believed to make an impact on life stress. There 
are a wide variety of resources, but those that are most 
relevant to this study are social support, positive 
experiences, and parental life stress. 
Social Support 
Social support has been a key variable, because it 
may buffer the negative effects of stress (Hart, 1992; 
Rawlinson, 1988). Social support provides emotional 
support, tangible assistance, and informational guidance. 
The presence of social resources are associated with 
physical and mental health, the likelihood of remaining 
healthy when under stress, and the speed of recovery from 
illness (Holahan & Moos, 1987). In studies on stress 
resistance, Holahan & Moos findings were consistent with 
the idea that family support is important, especially for 
40 
children and women, whereas avoidance coping is more 
important for men. Family support along with the feelings 
of self-confidence, an easy going disposition, and not 
using avoidance coping operate jointly to protect 
individuals from the negative psychological consequences 
of life stress (Holahan & Moos, 1985, 1986, 1987). These 
factors function prospectively as coping resources by 
fostering positive beliefs about the ability to deal 
successfully with the experience, and providing a context 
for exploring options and evaluating effectiveness 
(Holahan & Moos, 1990). 
It is important to look at the network of people who 
provide the support and the conditions under which it is 
activated (Dohrenwend, Dohrenwend, Dodson, & Shrout, 1984; 
Sandler & Barrera, 1984). There seems to be a positive 
effect when people perceive that they are receiving the 
appropriate amount of support. Additionally, the sheer 
quantity of support may not be the critical feature of 
social support but rather whether there is a conflicted or 
unconflicted network (Sandler & Berrera, 1984). A large 
network does not compensate for having those who are 
nonsupportive in the network (DeLongis & Folkman, 1988). 
An important issue may be the individual's ability to use 
the assistance effectively (Sandler & Berrera, 1984) and 
when it is to be activated. The support network is more 
likely to be activated when the individual requires 
information but less likely in those instances i nvolving 
41 
possible loss of self-esteem for the person (Folkman, 
Lazarus, Dunkel-Schetter, & DeLongis, 1985). 
Although social support has acquired a prominent 
place as a moderating variable, it has failed to receive 
confirmation in some studies. The discrepancy may be due 
to the differing aspects of social support that are being 
measured (Sandler & Barrera, 1984). In a study of 
adolescents, it was found that both the direct and stress 
buffering effects of social support were inconclusive. 
Family Size 
Social support for siblings of disabled children may 
take two forms: other siblings within the family and 
family social support. Siblings from larger families were 
better adjusted than those from smaller families provided 
that there were adequate financial resources (Gallagher & 
Powell, 1989; Lobato, 1990; Powell & Gallagher, 1993). 
When siblings had at least one other "normal" child with 
whom they could relate as companions, then they were less 
likely be affected. In families with only two children, 
there was an increase in risk, perhaps because the one 
normal child had to bear the burden of the parents' hopes 
(Gath 1973). 
Family Social Support 
Support by the family's social network is assumed to 
serve as a protection against stress and in general a 
moderator of life stress. Holahan & Moos (1987) did find 
that family support is important for children. Most 
42 
relevant to the siblings is the social support provided by 
the grandparents and other relatives. There seems to be a 
negative correlation between the support given with 
siblings' self-perception of anxiety. However, excessive 
support from the same resources reduces self-confidence in 
physical appearance and academic ability (Dyson, Edgar, & 
Crnic, 1989). When parents perceived little support from 
their partners, extended family, or friends, they were 
more likely to show signs of depression and fatigue, which 
impacted upon their relationship with their children 
(Lobato, 1990). An earlier study found that the most 
important variable in families where there was a disabled 
child was the number of parents in the home. However, the 
social support of outside relationships, such as friends, 
relatives, and parents of other disabled children, were 
the means through which the parents could perceive 
acceptance or rejection (Gallagher, Beckman, & Cross, 
1983). It is clear that extended family and friends can 
be a major source of support for siblings and families. 
Positive Experiences 
Along with social support, positive experiences are 
another resource that act as a possible buffer. The 
hypothesis is that positive experiences serve as a buffer 
by generating positive feelings that facilitate adaptation 
to stress and improve the person's ability to cope by 
providing a breathe~ from negative experiences (Siegel & 
Brown, 1988). The accumulation of stressful circumstances 
43 
with the interpretation of few positive experiences was 
found to be related to poor physical and mental health 
(Siegel & Brown, 1988). Another study found the stress 
protective role of positive events only with respect to 
girls' self-esteem (Cohen, Burt, & Bjorck 1987), but 
Swearington and Cohen (1985) in their work with young 
adolescents did not find this effect longitudinally. 
However, their study did not include a self-esteem 
measure. 
Developmentally there may be a difference in the way 
in which adults and adolescents deal with the effect of 
positive experiences. For adults who have some real 
control over their environment, positive experiences may 
induce an active, success oriented, cognitive set that 
improves coping ability. This may not be true for 
children and adolescents who have less control over the 
events surrounding their lives (Swearington & Cohen, 
1985). In a study of personal causation and life events, 
it was found that people with many prior negative 
experiences greatly benefitted from positive experiences 
they had initiated, both in terms of increased 
pleasantness and reduced distress (Reich & Zautra, 1981). 
Religion 
Within the context of families with disabled 
children, religious beliefs may be a positive experience 
that offers a buffer against possible stress. The birth 
of a child with a disability usually means a crisis in the 
44 
family at which time the parents evaluate their 
theological beliefs. Religious beliefs affect the 
parents' responses to the birth of a disabled child which 
in turn may affect the adjustment of the siblings. There 
has been a moderate but positive correlation between the 
religious background and acceptance of the disabled child. 
catholic families tended to be more accepting of a 
mentally retarded child than either Jewish or Protestant 
families, perhaps because of the explicit definitions 
supporting home and family that the Catholic Church has. 
A recent study found that mothers who were more involved 
in religious activities used more coping strategies for 
dealing with the stress involved with a disabled child 
(Powell & Gallagher, 1993). 
socioeconomic Status 
There is an effect of socioeconomic status on the 
resources of a family which in turn affects the sibling 
relationship. Siblings whose families were from a lower 
socioeconomic class were at a greater risk because of more 
limited financial resources (Gath, 1973; Grossman, 1972; 
Powell & Gallagher, 1993). These families had to rely 
more on resources within the family for caretaking and 
other practical responsibilities (Featherstone, 1980; 
Lobato, 1990; Seligman, 1989; Wilson, Blacher, & Baker, 
1988). Middle class families had greater resources to 
utilize outside services, such as medical, educational, 
and recreational for the disabled child and for themselves 
45 
(Fischer & Roberts, 1983). More educated parents placed 
fewer responsibilities on the siblings and encouraged 
greater participation in outside activities (Powell & 
Gallagher, 1993). 
Parental Life Stress 
Still another resource that offers a potential buffer 
for adolescent stress is parental life stress or lack of 
it. Parental life stress may serve as a significant 
predictor of psychological functioning of the adolescent. 
Again, there are conflicting results. Holahan & Moos 
(1987) found parental dysfunction, especially maternal 
risk factors, to be significantly related to distress in 
children, but Cohen, Burt, & Bjorck (1987) did not find 
the expected relationship between parental life stress and 
young adolescents' self-reports of depression, anxiety, or 
self-esteem. Compas, Howell, Phares, Williams, & Guinta 
(1989) did not find a significant relationship between 
parents' stressful events and children's self-reports of 
emotional and behavioral problems. However, the emotional 
and behavioral problems were mediated by the level of 
psychological symptoms displayed by the parents, 
especially the father. Their own self-reported stressful 
events impacted the emotional and social behavior of their 
sons and daughters. In a later study Compas & Grant 
(1993) found that adolescent girls were more distressed 
than boys in response to stressors affecting others in 
their social network. This is consistent with an earlier 
46 
study (Wagner & Compas, 1990) in which females experienced 
more stress than males related to negative events in the 
lives of others. Similarly, Thomson & Vaux (1986) did not 
find an association between parents' reports of daily 
stressors and children's depression or affect, but they 
did find a significant relation between paternal major 
life events and children's affective balance. 
In families where there is a disabled child, the 
parents are going through a cycle of grief similar to 
those who have lost a child through death. However, their 
loss is for the "normal" child whom they will never have 
(Post-Kammer & Nickolai, 1985). The manner in which the 
parents deal with the grief and potential stress will 
impact upon the rest of the family through attitudes and 
interactions. In considering hypothetical paths of 
causative effect of childhood disability on normal 
siblings, two paths have been proposed. One involves the 
physical and mental health of the mother, which may affect 
the relationship of the mother with the normal sibling. 
Breslau & Prabucki (1987) suggested that the mothers' 
psychological distress might be the mechanism which 
connected the chronic stress in the family to their 
children's problems. The other alternative is that the 
normal sibling may be directly affected in the form of 
body image and learned behavior (Ferrari, 1984). The 
stress may affect the child by giving rise to emotional 
problems (Breslau & Prabucki, 1987; McHale & Gamble, 1989) 
47 
or lower psychosocial behavior (Breslau & Prabucki, 1987; 
Lobato, Barbour, Hall, & Miller, 1987). 
Family Interactions 
Families who have positive modes of interacting, 
including good communication, affection, adequate means of 
conflict resolution, and tolerance will foster good 
psychological adjustment for normal siblings. These 
families offer a critical buffer for the stress that is 
involved in having a disabled brother or sister (Dyson, 
Edgar, & Crnic, 1989; Lobato, 1990) while less family 
cohesion and expressiveness are related to adjustment 
problems (Dyson, Edgar, & Crnic, 1989). 
Parental Reactions 
Siblings' attitudes and feelings tend to be similar 
to those of their parents (Fischer & Roberts, 1983; 
Lobato, 1990; Powell & Gallagher, 1993). Children model 
the behavior of their parents in many areas of their lives 
and acceptance/rejection of the disabled child is one of 
them. If parents are warm and accepting or resentful and 
depressed, siblings pick up on these attitudes which will 
then affect their responses to the disabled child (Lobato, 
1990). Siblings of middle class families had a range of 
positive and negative feelings that were reflective of 
their parents' attitudes. Middle class families also had 
problems lowering their expectations for their disabled 
child (Powell & Gallagher, 1993). 
48 
Coping 
Coping processes are a central aspect of contemporary 
theories of stress. Coping has been defined in a variety 
of ways. It is a "stabilizing factor that may help 
individuals to maintain psychological adaptation during 
stressful periods." (Holahan & Moos, 1987, p. 946) or "any 
effort at stress management or the things that people do 
to avoid being harmed by life's strains" (Holahan & Moos, 
1987, p. 946). Coping is further defined as "efforts, 
both action oriented and intrapsychic to manage (master, 
tolerate, reduce, minimize) environmental and internal 
demands and conflicts among them which tax or exceed a 
person's resources" (Rutter, 1981, p. 336). 
Types of Coping 
Research in coping has fallen in two general areas: 
types of coping processes and influence of coping 
processes on adjustment. Coping can be classified in a 
number of ways for adults. There are those problem-
focused approaches that are active in nature and oriented 
toward confronting the problem (Holahan & Moos, 1987). 
These may also be called primary control coping (Band, 
1988). Those approaches that reduce tension by avoiding 
dealing with the problem may be called relinquishment 
(Band, 1988; Holahan & Moos, 1987). Emotion-focused 
strategies or secondary control coping attempt to regulate 
the emotional distress by lowering expectations so as to 
minimize future disappointment or reinterpret negative 
49 
events to try to find meaning in them (Band, 1988; Holahan 
& Moos, 1987; Taylor, 1983). It is thought that successful 
coping may depend on flexibility, adaptability, and using 
a variety of strategies to deal with life's stress 
(Rutter, 1981). 
Gamble & McHale (1989) conducted a study on coping 
with stress in the sibling relationship. In comparing the 
two groups of siblings, those with and without disabled 
brothers and sisters, the researchers found that all 
children with disabled siblings and girls with normal 
siblings reported using coping strategies of cognitions 
about other people or the situation more frequently, such 
as placing blame. There were no significant differences 
found for the composite stress score on the Sibling 
Relationship Measure. comparisons on the measure of 
anger, which was the only emotion measured, revealed that 
the siblings of the disabled were angry more often when 
the child was sick or hurt. In contrast, the children with 
nondisabled siblings became more angry when their siblings 
were physically aggressive toward them. 
Coping Strategies 
In a classification of coping strategies available to 
children and adolescents, the following coping categories 
have been identified: support seeking from peers and 
parents, physical aggression and verbal aggression, which 
may be problem-focused or emotion-focused, direct problem 
solving, which includes information selection, direct 
50 
behavioral actions, and cognitive efforts to solve 
problems, avoidance/ distraction, doing nothing, physical 
exercise, cognitive structuring/self-soothing, which may 
include fantasy and relaxation activities (Band & Weisz, 
1988; Elwood, 1987; Gamble & Woulbroun, 1993). 
Influence on Adjustment 
Within these categories of coping it has been found 
that adaptive coping is positively related to higher 
socioeconomic status, self-confidence, and family support. 
Avoidance coping is associated with fewer personal and 
environmental resources. In fact, the use of avoidance 
coping over time may be harmful and is one of the risk 
factors for stress along with negative life events. For 
children, there is the additional risk factor of parental 
emotional and physical distress. Active and avoidance 
coping are both positively associated with stressful life 
events, positive and negative ones, but avoidance coping 
is only related to negative life events (Holahan & Moos, 
1987). Resilience develops from confronting stressful 
experiences and coping with them effectively. The process 
of dealing with stress may broaden a person's perspective, 
promote new coping skills, and lead to new personal and 
social resources (Hallahan & Moos, 1989) 
Developmental Aspects 
There seems to be a developmental aspect to the 
coping strategies used. Children as young as elementary 
school report that they do cope with stress, usually with 
51 
active coping and use few relinquishment strategies. 
Their coping is influenced by the situation and their 
cognitive development. The styles of coping differ 
depending upon the situation, with events, such as school 
failure, evoking primary coping and other events I such as 
medical stress, involving secondary coping. With increase 
in age, there is an increase in secondary coping and a 
decrease in primary coping. This is consistent with the 
view that secondary coping tends to be hidden from view 
and more abstract, and therefore demands more cognitive 
maturity (Band & Weisz, 1988). In the development of a 
stress and coping scale, Elwood (1987) found that children 
in Grade 7 described more responses that were dependent on 
cognitive functioning, such as systematizing and 
rationalizing, while children in Grade 4 described more 
avoidant responses. This is compatible with the pattern 
of developing intellectual functioning in children. 
Rutter (1981) was interested in the developmental aspect 
of stress and coping in children and felt it was probable 
that the long term outcome of stress in children's lives 
was determined by whether the results of coping with 
stressful events such as hospitalization, divorce, or the 
birth of a sibling, were successful or not. 
The siblings of disabled children potentially have 
stress in their lives that emanates from a variety of 
sources: the relationship with their disabled brothers or 
sisters the relationship with their parents, and the 
I 
52 
relationship with the community-at-large. The stress for 
the "normal" siblings originates with the birth of the 
disabled child in the family as a major life event and 
then translates into daily hassles, such as feeding their 
disabled brother or sister, dealing with discrepancy in 
rules by their parents, or tolerating teasing by their 
peers because of a "retard" brother. The stress from the 
presence of a disabled child in the family impacts on the 
way in which the nondisabled siblings feel about their 
brothers or sisters. If the normal siblings can manage 
the daily hassles effectively, then they may feel more 
positively about the relationship and view it with a 
degree of maturity. However, if they are overwhelmed by 
the day-to-day responsibilities, then they may feel that 
they have an unfair burden and experience a host of 
negative emotions about the relationship. A key factor 
will be the coping strategies that are employed. The 
types of coping and their effectiveness at moderating the 
stress may have a definite relationship to the emotional 
component of the sibling interaction. Thus, stress, 
coping, and feelings are intertwined and appear to be an 
integral part of the relationship between nondisabled and 
disabled siblings. 
Emotions 
The final component of the stress framework is 
emotions. There is a variety of feelings that the sibling 
of a disabled brother or sister may have regarding their 
53 
sibling situation. These feelings can be conflicting in 
some situations. 
Negative Emotions 
The negative emotions that the nondisabled brother or 
sister may have include the following: neglect, 
embarrassment, anger, guilt, pressure, fear, loneliness, 
jealousy. 
There is great competition for parents' attention and 
resources among siblings in general (Crnic & Leconte, 
1986). In families where there is a disabled child, 
parents may overlook the needs of the normal child in 
deference to the more obvious needs of the disabled 
sibling (Carr, 1988; Dyson, Edgar, & Crnic, 1989; Pearson 
& Sternberg, 1986; San Martino & Newman, 1974). The 
normal child may suffer from a lack of time, attention, 
and participation in special events (Hannah & Midlarsky, 
1985; Schild, 1971). 
Siblings may be embarrassed by some of the obvious 
differences between their own disabled sibling and other 
people's brothers and sisters. There also may be 
embarrassment by some of the things the disabled siblings 
do, especially out in public (Featherstone, 1980; Meyer, 
Vadasky, & Fewell, 1985; Pearson & Sternberg, 1990). 
The alterations in family roles, such as extra 
caregiving responsibilities, may give rise to anger and 
lead to conflict with parents (McHale & Gamble, 1989). 
Anger may also surface, because the disabled child 
54 
receives the majority of attention, and the nondisabled 
sibling needs to be a model child to win parental 
attention (Pearson & Sternberg, 1986). Siblings may 
experience anger more intensely and more often than other 
siblings. This will depend on a number of factors: extent 
to which the sibling is held responsible for the disabled 
brother or sister; extent to which the disabled brother or 
sister takes advantage of the sibling; extent to which 
there are restrictions on social life; and the extent of 
time taken by care of the disabled child (Seligman, 1989). 
Siblings may even respond to the anger with guilt (Wilson, 
Blacher, & Baker, 1989). In general, the child feels 
angry at their parents, at the disabled child, at the 'I 
wider world, and at God (Featherstone, 1980). 
Guilt is a major but invisible characteristic of the 
nondisabled sibling, who may feel some sense of 
responsibility for causing the illness or disability in 
the first place. This is especially common among younger 
children (Crnic & Leconte, 1986; Meyer, Vadasky, & Fewell, 
1985; Trevino, 1983). They may have a sense of survivor's 
guilt over the fact that they are normal and able to 
participate in many things while their disabled brother or 
sister cannot (Schild, 1971; Seligman, 1989; Trevino, 
1979). Their feelings of rivalry toward a disabled child, 
who has special needs, may even increase the guilt (McHale 
& Gamble, 1989). 
55 
There is pressure to compensate for the disabled 
child, because they cannot achieve (Crnic & Leconte, 1986; 
Dyson, Edgar, & Crnic, 1989; Hannah & Midlarsky, 1985; 
Trevino, 1979). The "normal" sibling may feel the burden 
of excessively high aspirations by the parents (Schild, 
1971), especially in the area of school achievement. 
Fear may take several forms. The siblings may have a 
fear of catching the disability (Pearson & Sternberg, 
1986). They may be fearful of what others may do or say 
about their disabled brother or sister and feel a sense of 
responsibility and protectiveness (Pearson & Sternberg, 
1986). There is also a fear of what the future may bring 
to the family, if, for example, the parents can no longer 
care for the disabled child (Meyer, Vadasky, & Fewell, 
1985). 
The siblings may experience loneliness as a result of 
not having a "real" brother or sister to share life 
experiences with (Featherstone, 1980; Meyer, Vadasky, & 
Fewell, 1985). Additionally, they may feel isolated 
within the family because of a lack of communication. 
They sense that certain subjects are taboo and keep their 
worries and concerns to themselves (Seligman, 1989). 
Because parents are often over involved with their 
disabled children, there may be jealousy on the part of 
the nondisabled child about the disproportionate attention 
given to their disabled brothers and sisters (French, 
1992; Meyer, Vadasky, & Fewell, 1985; Trevino, 1979). 
56 
Positive Emotions and Competencies 
There are also many positive emotions and 
competencies that may result from the presence of a 
disabled child in the family. These include maturity, 
pride, compassion and tolerance, family solidarity, 
responsibility, and competence. 
Siblings learn many things that make them wiser and 
stronger than their peers (Crnic & Leconte, 1986; Meyer, 
Vadasky, & Fewell, 1985; "What About Me?", 1990). They 
may feel that they have learned valuable lessons and that 
their lives have been enriched (Lobato, Barbour, Hall, & 
Miller, 1987). 
Siblings feel a sense of pride in the accomplishments 
of their disabled brothers or sisters, because they know 
the time and effort involved in the mastering of different 
skills (Meyer, Vadasky, & Fewell, 1985). 
Siblings gain compassion and a feeling of tolerance 
for all people with disabilities (Carr, 1988; Gallo, 
Breitmayer, Knafl, & Zoeller, 1991; Grossman, 1972; Meyer, 
Vadasky, & Fewell, 1985). They develop an insight into 
human similarities and differences (Crnic & Leconte, 1986; 
Seligman, 1989). These qualities may influence the choice 
of careers. The continuous act of caring for a disabled 
brother or sister may become internalized to the extent 
that it influences career decisions in the direction of a 
helping profession (Seligman, 1989; "What About Me?", 
1990). 
57 
The presence of the disabled child may exert an 
integrative effect on the family, mobilizing the resources 
of the members and bringing a sense of closeness (Carr, 
1988; Fischer & Roberts, 1983; Lobato, Barbour, Hall, & 
Miller, 1987). The siblings may feel a strong sense of 
loyalty to the disabled child and to the family (Wilson, 
Blacher, & Baker, 1988). 
Siblings may learn to assume a high degree of 
responsibility for their disabled brother or sister ("What 
About Me?", 1990; Wilson, Blacher, & Baker, 1989). 
Additionally, important family roles may foster maturity 
and competence in the nondisabled child (McHale & Gamble, 
1989). Because of the position of being the sibling of a 
disabled person, the nondisabled child has the satisfying 
subidentity of being the normal and competent person (Bank 
& Kahn , 19 8 2 ) . 
Thus, there are a range of positive and negative 
emotions that may be experienced by the nondisabled 
siblings. The emotional response of the "normal" siblings 
depends on the amount of stress in their lives, the 
resources that are available to them, and the ways in 
which they cope with the stress. 
58 
Methodological Issues 
Development of Instruments 
Because of a belief that there is a divergence in the 
manner in which children and adults view the same set of 
life events, it is challenging to adequately describe the 
stressful experiences of children and adolescents. 
Yamamoto & Felsenthal (1982) found that professionals 
tended to overestimate the stressfulness of certain 
experiences for children, such as going to the dentist or 
having a new baby in the house, and underestimated the 
other responses, such as receiving a bad report card or 
being caught stealing. 
In an effort to develop an instrument that is 
relevant to the population which will use it, several 
inventories have been developed. An early inventory was 
developed by Sarason, James, & Siegel (1978), the Life 
Experiences Survey. It rested on the premise that life 
change requires adaptation on the part of the individual, 
and persons experiencing a marked degree of life change in 
the recent past are susceptible to physical and 
psychiatric difficulties. It was developed for both the 
general and student population and eliminated certain 
shortcomings of some previous stress measures by taking 
into account both positive and negative life experiences. 
Swearington & Cohen (1985) developed The Junior High 
Life Experiences Survey, which was a 39 item self-report 
59 
measure with both positive and negative life experiences 
designed for young adolescents. 
Elwood (1987) developed an inventory which was 
designed to elicit a child's perception of experienced 
stress rather than the adult's perception of it. The 
research felt that the lack of major stressors in a 
child's life did not provide a stress free existence, but 
inventories needed to take into account daily hassles in 
order to accurately measure strain experienced by 
children. 
Adolescent Perceived Events Scale 
In reviewing the measures that had been developed to 
assess life events during childhood and adolescence, 
Campas found that most of the existing measures, such as 
the Coddington and the swearington & Cohen survey, focused 
almost exclusively on major life events and failed to meet 
the following 4 criteria: 
1. The domain of potentially relevant events for the 
population under study should be adequately sampled and 
represented. 
2. some form of subjective appraisal should be 
obtained to account for individual differences in the 
perception of the events. 
3. scale must be adequately reliable. 
4. concurrent and predictive validity must be 
established. 
60 
The development of the Adolescent Perceived Events 
Scale by Campas, Davis, & Forsythe (1985) represents an 
improvement in the assessment of life events during 
adolescence. In the development of the scale several 
studies were conducted. In study 1, 658 adolescents 
answered an open-ended questionnaire about daily hassles 
and major events in their lives. In study 2, 71 college 
students were asked to categorize the events as to daily 
hassles or major events, positive or negative value, and 
the content category. The researchers found that 
adolescents were clearly aware of events that had occurred 
recently in their lives. Data indicates that the 
adolescents may differ in the degree to which they are 
influenced, not by the objective characteristics of the 
events, but by their own cognitive appraisal. 
Several other studies were done before the Adolescent 
Perceived Events Scale (APES) was finalized in 1987, 
including the assessment of the reliability and validity. 
The APES has been used in research in which the 
relationship between adolescent stress to behavior 
problems and psychological symptoms has been addressed. 
It has also been utilized in an investigation of the role 
of daily stressors as mediators of the relation between 
major life events and psychological symptoms as well as 
the role of parental stress due to cancer in the lives o f 
adolescents. 
61 
Problems of Previous Research 
Although much has been written about the relationship 
between disabled and nondisabled siblings, most of the 
work has been highly fragmented. studies which apparently 
focused on the same topic varied considerably in 
theoretical framework, outcome variables, and measures 
used to operationalize variables (Barnett, 1993). Many of 
the studies were not embedded in any conceptual framework, 
but they simply looked at characteristics that might 
influence the degree of adjustment. Some of the articles 
were based on conversations with small groups of 
nondisabled siblings, or observations of the interactions 
between the nondisabled and disabled siblings. However, 
the limited numbers and skewed samples often drawn from 
clinical populations leave doubts as to how much of the 
reactions and activities can be generalized. If, indeed, 
there was a conceptual framework, few studies explored the 
it with any depth or follow through on previous research. 
Furthermore, there were shortcomings in research 
design as far as operationalizing the variables. Outcome 
variables were often taken as measures of well-being, such 
as depression or a lower self-concept, but the 
relationship between well-being and what was being studied 
was infrequently made clear. The measures used to 
operationalize the variable were inconsistent across the 
studies done. This leads to the conclusion that there was 
a meager array of instruments available to measure the 
62 
important constructs which are involved when there is a 
disabled child in the family. 
Few studies on the relationship between a nondisabled 
and disabled sibling have been done within the stress and 
coping framework. The one most closely associated 
conceptually was the Gambel & McHale study in 1989. 
However, the inventory used only dealt with the stress 
directly related to the interactions of the two siblings 
and did not try to assess the impact of that relationship 
on others, both inside and outside the family. 
Furthermore, the research did not explore any emotions 
other than that of anger when there are a wide variety of 
other possible feelings. 
The most important question that research in this 
area needs to answer is "Why do some siblings feel that 
having a disabled brother or sister has been a positive 
experience while others do not?" The nature and number of 
stressors experienced by the siblings who have disabled 
brothers and sisters and their efforts to cope with the 
stressors will play a vital role in their adjustment. 
These factors will ultimately impact how they feel about 
their sibling relationship. It is these important issues 
that this research will address. 
63 
Chapter III 
Method 
Subjects 
The sample consisted of 58 adolescents between the 
ages of 12 and 17. There were 33 females and 25 males. 
They were siblings of students who were disabled and 
attended school in a county in central Maryland. There 
were two prerequisites for participating in the study: 
the adolescents must be between the ages of 12 - 17, and 
they must live at home, either part time or full time, 
with their disabled siblings. The disabled brothers and 
sisters were students receiving special education services 
through the public school system. The settings for their 
special education included: Level 2, regular classroom 
with special education services up to 5 hours per week; 
Level 4, special class within a general education 
facility; Level 5, special class or wing within a general 
education facility, or a day school; Level 6, instruction 
in a residential setting with 24 hour personal care 
(Disabled students whose siblings participated in the 
study went home for the weekends.); Level 7, home 
instruction (Code of Maryland Regulations, 1992). Because 
of the limited subject pool, it was not possible to secure 
an equal distribution. 
The disabled students, who had siblings participating 
in the research, had a variety of disabilities. Many were 
mentally retarded, which is defined as "significant 
64 
subaverage intellectual functioning existing concurrently 
with deficits in adaptive behavior, and manifested during 
the developmental period" (Heward & Orlansky, 1980, p. 
34). Of those students who were retarded, some were 
either moderately or severely/profoundly retarded. 
Moderate retardation is a level of intellectual 
functioning between three and four standard deviations 
below the mean with concurrent deficits in adaptive 
behavior (Code of Maryland Regulations, 1992). 
Significant delays in development are usually manifested 
during the preschool years. Education for these children 
usually focuses on self-care, communication, and social 
skills. Severe/profound retardation refers to those who 
are unable to perform basic skills, such as walking, 
eating, and toileting. They need instruction in basic 
self-help, motor, perceptual, social, cognitive, and 
communication skills (Heward & Orlansky, 1980). 
Others disabilities included autism, orthopedically 
impaired, other health impaired, specific learning 
disabilities, speech and language impaired, multi-
handicapped and are defined in the Code of Maryland 
Regulations, 1992. Autism refers to "children with a 
developmental disability that significantly affects verbal 
and nonverbal communication and social interaction, that 
is generally evident before the age of three, and that 
adversely affects educational performance" (Code of 
Maryland Regulations, 1992, p. 123). 
65 
Orthopedic impairment means a severe orthopedic 
impairment which adversely affects a chi' ld's e d ucational 
performance. It includes impairments caused by congenital 
anomaly, disease, and other causes, such as cerebral palsy 
(Code of Maryland Regulations, 1992). 
Other health impairment refers to an unlimited number 
of physical and health conditions which limit strength, 
"' 
vitality, or alertness, due to chronic or acute health I!: II I 
"I 
II ' 
"I 
problems and adversely affect a child's educational "I 
?? ?I 
In this !,,I  
performance (Code of Maryland Regulations, 1992). 
study, other health impaired included two rare syndromes 
with moderate retardation; injuries due to a car accident 
with below average cognition; mild cerebral palsy with 
speech/language deficits and mild retardation; primary 
hearing impairment with some mild mental retardation; and 
a surviving twin with three open heart surgeries and 
chronic lung disease. 
specific learning disability is "a disorder in one or 
more of the basic psychological processes involved in 
understanding or in using language, spoken or written, 
which manifests itself in an imperfect ability to lis ten, 
think, speak, read, spell, or do mathematical 
calculations" (Heward & orlansky, 1980, p. 77). 
speech and language impairment refers to a 
communication disorder, such as stuttering, impaired 
articulation, a language or voice impairment, which 
66 
adversely affects a child's educational performance (Code 
of Maryland Regulations, 1992). 
Multihandicapped means concomitant impairments ' such 
as mentally retarded-blind, mentally retarded-
orthopedically impaired, which causes severe educational 
problems so that the child cannot be accommodated in 
special education programs which have been developed for 
just one impairment (Code of Maryland Regulations, 1992). 
There were two restrictions regarding the family 
situation: the family could not be a foster family, and 
the disabled student must live at home, either all or part 
If there was more than one sibling in the family 
time. 
between the designated ages of 12 - 17, the availability 
and willingness of the participating sibling was the 
In a pilot study two years ago, some of 
deciding factor. 
the adolescents with brothers and sisters attending the 
Education center, a Level V school, answered a preliminary 
version of the questionnaire on emotions. Because of the 
limited subject pool of siblings at the Level V school, 
these adolescents were included in the study as long as 
they had not participated in an intervention program since 
the administration of the first questionnaire. 
Demographic information was obtained including that 
pertaining to socioeconomic status (father's and mother's 
educational 1evel and occupation), marital status of 
parents, presence of step parents, age, gender, and grade 
of disabled sibling as well as the adolescent, and the age 
67 
and gender of other siblings in family. The birth order 
of the adolescent sibling to the disabled child was coded 
from the given information, as well as the difference in 
age between the disabled and target sibling, and the 
similarity or difference in gender. 
Socioeconomic status was computed using the 
Hollingshead Four Factor Index of Social Status. The 
educational and occupational levels for each parent were 
calculated, then the index for the individual parents were 
summed, and divided in half to obtain an index of the 
socioeconomic status of the family (x = 41.79, S. D. = 
12.81). There was a wide range of educational levels, 
from attending high school to completing doctorates, and a 
wide range of occupations, from truck drivers and 
waitresses to pharmacists and college professors. 
Additionally, information regarding the disabled 
student was coded, including level of special education 
services, type of disability, and a social/behavioral 
factor. The information for the social/behavioral factor 
was obtained from the IEP (Individual Education Plan) and 
the disabled student's teacher. The information was coded 
into problems mentioned on the IEP, problems mentioned by 
the teacher, and overall compliance/cooperation. A copy 
of the demographics page of the questionnaire has been 
included in the Appendix A. 
Subjects were drawn from a county in Maryland area, 
which is in a slow transition from rural to bedroom 
68 
community of Baltimore and Washington. It is composed of 
a predominantly white population. All but 5 of the 58 
adolescents were Caucasian. Table 1 gives an overview of 
the characteristics of the adolescents who participated in 
the research. 
Table 1 
Demographic Characteristics of Adolescents with 
Disabled Siblings Participating in the Research 
II''' 
I' 
Characteristics 
" 
Nondisabled Sibling " IJ 
" 
Gender Males: 25 Females: 33 
Age Mean: 13. 81 SD: 1. 57 
Grade Mean: 8.77 SD: 1. 59 
Middle/High School Middle: 31 High: 27 
Birth Order Mean: 1.60 SD: . 79 
Older/Younger Older: 40 Younger: 18 
Differences in Ages Mean: 3.60 SD: 2. 20 
Same/Different Gender Same: 37 Different: 21 
Disabled Sibling 
Age Mean: 12.03 SD: 3.96 
Gender Male: 26 Female: 32 
Level of Service Mean: 4.31 SD: . 88 
Level II: 3 
Level IV: 33 
Level V: 16 
Level VI: 1 
69 
Table 1, continued Level VII: 2 
Missing Data: 3 
Disability Code 01 (Mentally retarded): 19 
04 (Speech/Language Impaired): 1 
07 (Orthopedically Impaired): 2 
08 (Other Health Impaired): 6 
09 (Learning Disability): 6 
10 (Multihandicapped): 18 
14 (Autistic): 3 
Missing Data: 3 
Behavioral/Social 1 (Problems Mentioned on IEP):6 
Rating 2 (Problems Mentioned from 
Teachers Comments): 4 
3 (Compliant) 35 
Missing Data: 3 
Family 
Total No. of Children Mean: 2.86 SD: .93 
Socioeconomic Status Mean: 41.79 SD: 12.81 
Family Structure Mean: 1.59 SD: .94 
Biological: 40 
2-parent: 2 
Single: 12 
Extended: 3 
Lives with Mother Yes: 54 No: 4 
Lives with Father Yes: 45 No: 13 
Lives with Stepmother Yes: 1 No: 57 
Lives with Stepfather Yes: 2 No: 56 
70 
Procedure 
Permission was obtained from the county's public 
school system to conduct this study. Class lists, 
including names and addresses of all students within Level 
IV and Level V classes, were obtained from the principals 
or special education coordinators of the individual 
schools in which such classes existed. Letters were sent 
home to the families of these students to explain the 
purpose of the study and to ask if they had teenagers 
within the 12 to 17 age range who would be willing to 
participate in the study. In a few instances, the 
coordinators looked over the files and sent only the names 
of students whose families would not be offended by 
receiving such a letter. Self-addressed stamped envelopes 
were included for the parents to return the permission 
forms stating whether they had adolescents who were 
willing to participate in the study. See Appendix B for 
permission forms. 
In addition to a mass mailing to all students 
receiving Level IV and V services, calls were made by the 
researcher to parents of current and former students 
requesting help in the project. They were asked if they 
knew of any families which fit the criteria of the 
research. calls were made to follow up on these leads, 
and these parents were asked to recommend other families 
who might qualify. Additionally, people in the community 
who were involved in recreation programs with disabled 
71 
s tudents, such as the Therapeutic Recreation Council, were 
c ontacted as to recommendations for families. These 
s uggestions were also followed up with calls. In most 
instances, parents had received the general mailing that 
explained the study but had not responded. Because of the 
personal contact and explanation, all but two of the 75 
families contacted, who had adolescents, agreed to 
participate in the study. The personal element of the 
phone call was a key ingredient in securing 47 subjects 
for the research. 
In the mass mailing, there was a total of 355 letters 
sent out to students in 16 schools, 86 to high school 
students, 93 to middle school students, 153 to elementary 
school students, and 23 to regional school students. Of 
these letters, 11 were returned stating that they had 
teenagers within the designated ages willing to 
participate in the study. There were 5 letters returned 
with no permission given for their teenagers to 
participate. Several parents included reasons, such as 
taking the questionnaires would enhance already existing 
rivalry, and the learning disabled sons were viewed as a 
gift. A number of letters, 34, were returned stating that 
there were no children within the 12 - 17 age range. 
Also, there were 14 letters returned by the post office 
with incorrect addresses. Between the mass mailing and 
the personal contact, there were disabled students from 21 
72 
schools involved in the study, plus 2 students on home 
teaching. 
When parental permission was obtained, either from a 
signed consent form or phone conversation, arrangements 
were made to meet with the student at a convenient time 
and place. Parents were encouraged to bring their 
teenagers to the Education Center, the Level V school for 
the severely disabled, for the administration of the 
questionnaires. However, if this was not possible, 
' 
1",  
another location was agreed upon. Of the 58 meetings with 
the adolescents, 39 occurred at the Education Center, 8 at 
fast food restaurants, such as McDonalds and Roy Rogers, 2 
at the local library, 8 at the home of the subject, and 1 
in the cafeteria of another school on a weekend. After 
several families forgot the scheduled appointments, calls 
were made on the evening prior to the meeting as a 
reminder. In some cases, it was a simple phone call to 
set up the meeting. In other cases, repeated phone calls 
were necessary in order to accommodate busy, changing 
schedules. 
When the parents arrived with the adolescents, they 
were asked for permission to go into the confidential 
files of disabled students to look at the IEPs' and 
psychologists' reports. If that permission was given, 
then the parents signed additional permission forms. If 
permission to enter the confidential files was withheld, 
the adolescents were still eligible to participate in the 
73 
study. However, the information was listed as missing. 
All but three parents signed permission forms for entry 
into the confidential folders. 
The issue of confidentiality was a crucial one for 
the county public school system. Under the system's 
guidelines, only the names, but not the addresses, of 
students receiving special education services were public 
information. The guidelines were adjusted so that the I 
' 
I '1 
I 
researcher could obtain the names and addresses of I 
1 
students receiving Level IV and v services. However, 
information as to the number and ages of siblings was not 
available. During the course of the study, the school 
system did receive a written letter of complaint from a 
parent who felt that their confidentiality had been 
violated. The deputy superintendent and supervisor of 
special education of the school system replied to the 
parent to explain the reason for the information being 
given and to support the research. However, the 
researcher was asked to proceed cautiously with the study. 
After an initial warm up conversation, including a 
brief overview of the study, the adolescent was given the 
demographics page to fill out. After checking this page 
for completion, the interviewer gave the questionnaires to 
the subject to complete. The teenager filled out the 
questionnaires in a self-report format. Please see 
Appendix C for instructions. The interviewer remained 
with the sibling and was available to answer questions as 
J 
74 
It took 
the subject proceeds through the questionnaires. 
between 30 - 60 minutes for the 3 questionnaires to be 
filled out, with the average length of time being 45 
minutes. The questionnaires were administered in the 
following order: stress (APES), coping (Coping Response 
Inventory) and feelings (Emotional Response scale). When 
possible, the questionnaires were administered to several 
adolescents at a time for the sake of efficiency. 
However, most of the time they were given on an individual 
basis. When the situation permitted, the siblings were 
given a short break to get a soft drink after the first 
questionnaire, which was the longest. 
Measures 
Adolescent Perceived Events scale. 
The Adolescent Perceived Events Scale or the APES was 
developed to measure stressful events during adolescence. 
Please see Appendix D for a copy of the scale. This 
instrument was used to measure the daily hassles and life 
events of the siblings of disabled children. There are 
three versions: one for junior high students, one for 
senior high students, and one for adolescents who have 
gone to college. The first two, which were the versions 
used, were slightly modified by deleting several items 
related to sexual activity due to the conservative nature 
of the school system. Additionally, the impact and 
frequency ratings of the high school version were removed 
at the suggestion of or. Bruce compas, the developer of 
75 
APES, so that the junior high and senior high scales would 
be parallel. The junior high version had 159 items, and 
the senior high had 197 items. 
There were six subcategories in the scale: network 
(events involving a wider circle of family and 
acquaintances); intimacy (events surrounding boyfriend/ 
girlfriend relationships); family (aspects of family life 
and relationships); peer (events taking place with 
friends); academic (events having to do with actual 
homework and teachers in the school environment); autonomy 
(events involving greater independence for the 
adolescent). Not all of the items fit into one of the 
subscales. The response options as to the desirability of 
the event ranged from -4 which was "extremely bad" to +4 
Which was "extremely good". rt was a 9 point scale, 
including a o which was neither good nor bad. Each event 
was marked to indicate whether or not it had occurred in 
the last four months. 
In scoring the APES, subscale scores were derived by 
summing the negative events, which represented actual 
stress in the lives of the adolescents, within each of the 
6 stress areas. Any ratings of Oto +4 reflecting neutral 
or positive events were not used in any calculations. 
Only the negative scores were used to compute the stress 
subscales. Thus, several events that were checked as 
having occurred in the life of the subject within the last 
three months and given slightly undesirable ratings would 
76 
be given the same score as one event which was given a 
very undesirable rating. The means for each subscale was 
computed by adding together the total number of negative 
scores for each subject, summing the individual totals, 
and dividing by the total number of subjects. 
Development of the scale by compas and associates 
involved four separate studies. The first two included 
identifying an item pool of events that were drawn from 
open-ended reports of adolescents and identifying a 
cognitive appraisal scale on which the identified events 
could be assessed. A third study was conducted to 
determine the scale's psychometric properties which was a 
two step process. In the first step, the consistency of 
reports on the occurrence or nonoccurrence of individual 
items at a 2 week interval was assessed; correlations 
ranging from .74 to .89 were obtained. In the second 
step, the measure was divided into thirds, and scores on 
each section were compared to scores on the other two. 
The percentage of agreement was 81% or more for each 
segment, indicating that there was no significant decrease 
in reliability as a function of the order of items. 
The fourth study was the determination of the 
Validity. It was made through the comparison of subjects' 
self-reports of recent life events to reports of subjects' 
life ? f i'ndi'viduals in close 
events obtained rom 
relationships with them. The rates of agreement between 
subjects' and others' reports can be used to corroborate 
77 
the occurrence and appraisal of events. The percent of 
agreement for event reports by the two sources was 82%. 
The percentage of agreement for ratings of desirability, 
impact, and frequency of events was 87%, 90%, and 91% 
respectively. 
The APES has been administered individually and to 
small groups of adolescents from 10 - 20 in school 
settings. Youngsters as young as 11 can complete the 
measure with little problem. The APES was generated from 
an item pool from surveys of adolescents in Vermont and 
may be biased toward stressors experienced by white, 
middle to low SES, rural and suburban population. 
stressors that are confronted by adolescents in other 
environments, such as minority or urban areas, were not 
included. The area in which the APES was used is similar 
to that in which the instrument was developed and was 
therefore appropriate for the population. 
Coping Responses rnventorY-
Coping responses were measured by the coping 
Responses Inventory-Youth Form (Moos, 1993). Please see 
Appendix E for a copy. The CRI - Youth can be used with 
adolescents between the ages of 12 - 18. This inventory 
was administered in a self-report format. The inventory 
is a measure of eight different types of coping responses, 
which are grouped into two main categories of approach 
coping and avoidance coping. Approach coping contains the 
subscales of logical analysis, positive reappraisal, 
78 
seeking guidance and support, and problem solving. 
Avoidance coping responses include cognitive avoidance I 
acceptance or resignation, seeking alternative rewards I 
and emotional discharge. The first two subscales in each 
set (logical analysis, positive reappraisal, cognitive 
avoidance, acceptance or resignation) reflect cognitive 
coping strategies, and the third and fourth subscales in 
each set (seeking guidance and support, problem solving, 
seeking alternative rewards, emotional discharge) reflect 
behavioral coping strategies. Each of the eight subscales 
is composed of six items in which the adolescent describes 
how frequently he or she used a particular coping strategy 
in response to a recent focal stressor dealing with their 
disabled sibling. There is a four point scale of o - 3 
from "not at all" to "fairly often". Subscale scores were 
derived by summing the relevant items. If only one, two, 
or three items within the subscale were completed, no 
score was provided for that subscale. If four or five 
items were completed, then the values were summed and 
weighted by a correction factor. 
The CRI - Youth was developed in five stages: 
1. identification of coping domains, development and 
reduction of an initial item pool; 2. construction of a 
preliminary inventory; 3. revision of the inventory based 
on pilot interviews; 4. the first wave of field trials and 
further revision on the inventory based on data obtained 
from a sample of 315 youth, including healthy youth, 
79 
depressed youth, youth wi th co n d uct disorders, and youth 
with rheumatic diseases ; 5 . t h e second wave of field 
trials with readministration of the revised inventory to 
254 of the 315 youth in a 1 2-1 5 month follow-up. 
The internal consist e ncy a measured by Cronbach's 
alpha ranged from . 55 - . 72 for the total score for boys 
and from . 59 - .79 for the t otal score for girls. The 
findings of a validation s tudy examining coping profiles 
of youth exhibiting a variety of psychiatric symptoms were 
that depressed youth rely more h eavily on avoidance coping 
responses of Cognitive Avoida nce , Acceptance/Resignation, 
and Emotional Discharge than do the control group; youth 
with conduct disorder rely mor e on the avoidance coping 
responses of cognitive Avoidance, Seeking Alternative 
Rewards, and Emotional Di scharge than do youth with 
rheumatic disease; and youth with rheumatic disease were 
comparable to the controls in both approach and avoidance 
coping. The consistency of the f indings with other 
research provides evidence in s upport of the construct 
validity of the CRI-Youth . 
Emotional Response Inventory. 
The Emotional Response I nventory was developed two 
years ago by the researcher a nd piloted on a group of 25 
siblings of disabled students. The original scale 
consisted of 20 items, 16 of wh ich were "yes", "no", 
"don't know" answers and 4 op n-ended questions. The 
subscales of emotions were a nger , embarrassment, neglect, 
80 
fear, pressure, and enjoyment. The questionnaire had an 
internal consistency of .73. It was believed that the 3 
point scale did not allow for enough variability in the 
answers. 
The revised inventory included 6 subscales of four 
questions each. Four of the subscales deal with negative 
em 0 t'i ons: fear, anger, embarrassment, neglect, and two 
with positive emotions: enjoyment, compassion/tolerance. 
There we re no open-ended questi? ons. Re sponses were 
i ndicated on a four point scale, including "always", 
II often", "sometimes", and "never". Subscale scores were 
deriv e d by summing the relevant i. tems. For m.i ssi. ng i. tems, 
a mean substitution within the given subscale was 
calculated. The Emotional Response scale was the last of 
the three questionnaires to be administered in a self-
report format. Please see Appendix F for a copy of the 
inventory . 
.statistical Analysis 
A statistical analysis was done for each of the 
research questions. The following three questions were 
answered in a similar manner. 
Question . To what extent are various sources of 
1
stress experienced by adolescents with disabled siblings? 
Question . To what extent are various emotions felt 
2
by adolescent siblings about their disabled brothers or 
sisters? 
81 
Question 4. To what e xtent are a variety of coping 
strategies used by ado lescents with disabled siblings? 
In each questionnai r e , i tems were summed within 
appropriate subs cales . In the Emotional Response Scale 
and Coping Response I nve ntor y, subscales were checked for 
internal reliability u s ing Cronbach's alpha. Descriptive 
statistics were obta ine d f o r each subscale variable, 
including mean and sta ndard deviation. T-tests were used 
to test the signific ance of g ender and school level 
differences in the areas o f s tressors, coping strategies 
used, and feelings e xpe rienced. Bivariate correlations 
were computed among all the s ubscale scores; correlations 
between the demographic v a ri a bles and the subscale scores 
were also calculated. Highly correlated subscales were 
combined in order to reduce the number of variables used 
in multivariate analys i s . The composite scales were 
checked for internal c on s i s t e ncy using Cronbach' alpha, 
and correlations with the d e mographic variables were 
computed. 
Question 3. Is the r e a relationship between the 
various sources of s tress e xperienced by adolescents and 
the feelings that they have about their disabled sibling? 
A series of multipl e r e gressions were done in which 
the feelings composites var iables were regressed on the 
stress subscales var i ables , c ontrolling on family 
demographics variables . Th e outcome variables were the 
composite feelings v a ri a bl es . The predictor variables 
82 
were the stress variables, and the control variables were 
designated demographics variables. The designated 
demographic variables were dropped from the regression 
equation, because there were no significant predictors. A 
stepwise regression was done with the stress subscales 
that most highly correlated with the positive and negative 
emotion composite variables. 
Question 5. Is there a relationship between the 
coping strategies used by adolescent siblings and the 
feelings they have about their disabled brothers and 
sisters? 
A series of multiple regressions were done in which 
the feeling composite variables were regressed on the 
coping composite variable, controlling on family 
demographics. The outcome variables were the feelings 
composites variables, the predictor variable was the 
composite coping variable, and the control variables were 
the designated demographic variables. The designated 
demographic variables were dropped from the equation, 
because they were not significant predictors. 
Question 6. To what extent do the coping strategies 
used by the adolescent siblings moderate the relationship 
of the various sources of stress to the feelings that they 
have about their disabled brothers and sisters? 
A series of stepwise regressions were done with three 
sets of variables: outcome variables of feeling composites 
variables, predictor variables of stress variables, and 
l . 
83 
control variables of demographics and coping composite 
variable. The designated demographic variables were 
dropped from the equation, because of there being no 
significant predictors. Stepwise regressions were done, 
controlling on the coping composite variable, with the 
stress subscales that were most highly correlated with the 
positive and negative emotion composites. 
84 
CHAPTER IV 
Results 
Question 1. To what extent are various sources of 
stress experienced by adolescents with disabled siblings? 
The means and standard deviations of the six stress 
subscales of the Adolescent Perceived Events Scale were 
examined. The six subscales are: academics (events having 
to do with actual class work and teachers in the school 
environment); a utonomy (events involving greater 
independence for the adolescent); family (aspects of 
family life and relationships); intimacy (events 
surrounding boyfriend/girlfriend relationships); network 
(events in a wider circle of family and acquaintances); 
peers (events taking place with friends). 
The most stressful aspects of life for adolescents 
with disabled brothers and sisters were network events (x? 
= 9.72, SD = 9.94) and academics (x = 8.26, SD = 7.69). 
Stress in the areas of peers (x = 6.74, SD = 7.15) and 
family (x- = . 72 , SD= 6.09) were felt to a similar 6
degree. The areas in which stress were least experienced 
were intimacy (x? = 3.72, SD = 4.25) and autonomy (i = .43, 
SD 1.80). Table 2 presents the means and standard 
deviations for the subscales. 
To test for differences between males and females, 
and between s tudents in middle school and high school for 
sources of stress, t-tests were conducted. In the area of 
network events females( -;= 12.00, SD = 10.95, ~ = - 2 .06, 
, 
85 
p < .0 5 ) experienced a greater degree of stress than did 
males (x = 6.72, SD = 7.62). High school adolescents with 
disabled siblings felt greater stress in the area of peers 
(x = 9.93, SD = 8.71, ~ = -3.46, p < .001) than did those 
in middle school (x = 3.97, SD = 3.76). Also, high school 
adolescents felt more stress academically (x = 11.37, SD = 
8.16, ~ = -3.08, p < .01) than did adolescents in middle 
school (x = 5. 55, SD = 6.20). 
Table 2 
Mean and Standard Deviation for Stress Subscales 
Stress Subscales Mean Standard Deviation 
Network 9.72 9.94 
Academics 8.26 7.69 
Peer 6.74 7.1 5 
Family 6.72 6 .09 
I ntimacy 3.72 4.15 
Autonomy .43 1.8 
Note. n = 58 
The autonomy subscale was dropped from subsequent 
analyses, because few adolescents experienced stress in 
that area. No factor analysis was done on the stress 
subscales. The developer of the scales reported that the 
items responded to in the inventory only reflected whether 
the events had taken place in the lives of the 
adolescents. Therefore, consistency of response, as 
reflected by an alpha, was not an issue. 
86 
In order to examine assoc?i ati?o ns among the various 
sources f s t ress, Pearson product-moment correlations 0 
were c omputed among the subscales. As seen in Table 
3 , 
significant correlations were found among all the 
Subscales. 
Table 3 
Correlations of stress subscales 
Stress 
Subscales correlations 
Peer 
Network Intimacy Family 
Network 
Intimacy .63** 
Family .61** .66** 
Peer .48** .61** 
.73** 
.57** .55** 
Academics .29* .46** 
Note. n = 58 
*n < .o5 **n < .01 ***n < .001 
Correlations were performed between all of the 
demographic variables and the stress subscale variables. 
Only 13 of the 90 demographic variables were significant 
at the .05 level or higher. There was no pattern to the 
correlations that were significant. 
Question 2. To what extent are various emotions felt 
by adolescent siblings about their disabled brothers and 
sisters? 
The means and standard deviations of the six emotion 
SUbscales of the Emotional Response scale were examined. 
87 
The subscales consisted of two positive emotion subscales 
I 
enjoyment and tolerance, and four negative emotion 
subscales, anger, embarrassment, fear, and neglect. 
Adolescents with disabled siblings felt the two positive 
emotions of tolerance (x = 11.28, SD = 2.61) and enjoyment 
(x = 11.05, SD= 3.14) to the greatest extent. Of the 
negative emotions, anger was experienced most (x = 8.66, 
SD = 3.25) with fear next (x = 7.62, SD = 2.32). The 
other two negative emotions, neglect (x = 6.35, SD = 
2. 59) and embarrassment (x? = 6.28, SD = 2.41), were 
experienced least. Table 4 presents the means and 
standard deviations for the subscales. 
To test for differences between males and females, 
and between students in middle school and high school for 
emotional responses, t-tests were conducted. No 
differences were found among the various emotions due 
either gender or school level (middle versus high school). 
Table 4 
Mean and Standard Deviation for Emotion Subscales 
Emotion Subscales Mean Standard Deviation 
Tolerance 11. 28 2 . 61 
Enjoyment 11.05 3.14 
Anger 8.66 3.25 
Fear 7.62 2.32 
Neglect 6.35 2. 59 
Embarrassment 6.28 2 .41 
Note. n = 58 
88 
In order to examine associations among the various 
subscales of emotions, Pearson product-moment correlations 
were computed among the subscales. As seen from Table 5, 
adolescents who felt enjoyment also tended to feel 
tolerance but did not feel embarrassment. As for negative 
emotions, adolescents who felt anger, embarrassment, fear, 
or neglect were likely to feel the other three negative 
emotions as well. 
Table 5 
Correlations for Emotions Subscales 
Emotion 
Subscales Correlations 
Enjoyment Tolerance Anger Fear Neglect 
Enjoyment 
Tolerance .64*** 
Anger -.18 .08 
Fear .15 .25 .38** 
Neglect -.07 -.09 .47*** .39** 
Embarrassment -.26* -.10 .54*** .40** .29* 
Note. n = 58 
*2 < .05 **2 < .01 ***2 < .001 
Reliability coefficients were examined for each 
subscale. Coefficient alphas for the subscales were: 
enjoyment .85, tolerance .66, anger .74, fear .39, 
embarrassment .74, neglect .75. Because of the low alpha, 
the fear subscale was examined and found to have one 
question that correlated poorly with the other three 
89 
questions. This question, number 4, was removed and a new 
alpha was obtained for the fear subscale, which was .51. 
In order to create composite variables, factor 
analysis (orthogonal rotation) was performed on the 
emotion subscales. The negative emotions of fear, anger, 
neglect, and embarrassment loaded above the .5 level on 
Factor 1. The eigenvalue was 1.81. The positive emotions 
of compassion and tolerance loaded above the .5 level on 
Factor 2. The eigenvalue was 1.43. Table 6 contains the 
factor loadings for the positive and negative emotions. 
Table 6 
Factor Loadings for Negative and Positive Emotions 
Emotion Subscales Factor 1 Factor 2 
Fear .61 .39 
Neglect .54 .02 
Anger .79 .05 
Embarrassment .68 -.10 
Enjoyment -.25 .82 
Tolerance -.03 .77 
Two composite variables were created based on the 
findings from the factor analysis. A positive emotion 
composite was created by summing two items: tolerance and 
enjoyment. The positive emotion composite variable had an 
alpha of .84. A negative emotion composite was created by 
summing four items: anger, fear, embarrassment, neglect. 
The negative emotion composite variable also had an alpha 
of .84. The demographic variables were correlated with 
90 
the positive and negative emotion composite variables. 
There were no significant correlations. 
Question 3. Is there a relationship between the 
various sources of stress experienced by adolescents and 
the feelings that they have about their disabled siblings? 
Pearson product-moment correlations were computed 
between the 5 stress subscales of network, intimacy, 
family, peer, academics, and the Emotional Response 
Subscales of fear, neglect, anger, embarrassment, 
enjoyment, tolerance. Adolescents who experienced stress 
in network events tended to feel fear in their 
relationship with their disabled siblings. Adolescents 
who felt stress in their relationships with boyfriends/ 
girlfriends were likely to feel fear, anger, and 
embarrassment with their disabled brothers and sisters, 
but not enjoyment. Those who felt stress from their 
family interactions were probably experiencing fear, 
neglect, and embarrassment about their disabled siblings 
while those who felt stress with their peers tended to 
feel fear. Teenagers who felt stressed about school were 
less likely to express enjoyment or a feeling of tolerance 
about their siblings. Table 7 presents these 
correlations. 
91 
Table 7 
Correlations of stress to Emotional Response Subscales 
Emotional Response Subscales 
Stress 
Enjoy Toler 
Subscales Fear Neglect Anger 
Embarras 
.19 -.17 -.11 
Network .42*** .12 .14 
-.31* -.20 
Intimacy .28* .18 .30* 
.45*** 
.31* .25 .36** 
-.24 -.23 
Family .31* 
.08 .20 -.15 -.09 
Peer .27* .26 
.03 .11 -.28* -.27* 
Academic .04 .05 
Note. n = 58 
.001 
*2 < .05 **2 < 
.01 ***2 < 
Embarras: Embarrassment 
Toler: Tolerance 
The first set of multiple regressions was designed to 
examine the predictors of adolescents' positive emotions. 
The analysis plan was to create two initial models. In 
Model 1, three demographic variables that have emerged as 
important predictors in previous literature about disabled 
siblings were to be entered as predictors. These included 
age and gender of nondisabled sibling, and family 
socioeconomic status. In Model 2, the demographic 
variables plus the 5 stress subscale variables were to be 
entered as predictors. The difference in variance 
accounted for by these two models could then be examined, 
along with the significance of individual predictors. 
When Model was run, the model did not reach 
1 
significance (F = _
1 28
, n.s.), and none of the demographic 
-~----~? -
92 
variables were significant predictors. Because of the 
relatively small sample a nd l ar~e number of substantively 
important predictors to be tested, the demographic 
variables were dropped from further models of positive 
emotions. 
For Model 2, the 5 s tress subscale variables of 
academics, network, peer, intimacy, and family were 
entered simultaneously. The overall equation was not 
significant (F = 1.45 , n. s .). In order to reduce the 
number of predictors, and con cerve degrees of freedom, the 
stress subscale variables mo s t highly correlated with 
positive emotions - academics and intimacy - were selected 
and entered as predictors in a stepwise multiple 
regression analysis (Mode l 3 ) . As seen in Table 8, when 
the academic subscale variabl e was entered as a predictor, 
the equation was significant (F = 4.96, p < .05). Thus, 
adolescents who felt stress in the area of school were 
unlikely to feel positive emotions of enjoyment and 
tolerance. The other variable, intimacy, did not meet the 
.20 criterion for entry. 
93 
Table 8 
Stepwise Regression Assessing Relationship Between 
Positive Emotion Composite and Areas of Stress 
Non- Standard 
Standardized Error of Significance of 
Variable Beta Beta T T 
Academics -.20 .09 -2.22 .03 
Intimacy -.18 -.17 -1.25 .22 
R-Square for Model = .09 
Note. The stress subscale ''intimacy" did not reach the 
.20 criterion for entry into the model. 
The next set of multiple regressions was designed to 
examine the predictors of adolescents' negative emotions. 
The analysis plan was to create two initial models. In 
Model 1, three demographic variables that have emerged as 
important predictors in previous literature of disabled 
siblings were to be entered as predictors. These included 
age of nondisabled sibling, gender of nondisabled sibling, 
and family socioeconomic status. In Model 2, the 
demographic variables plus the 5 stress subscale variables 
were to be entered as predictors. The difference in 
variance accounted for by these two models could then be 
examined, along with the significance of individual 
predictors. 
When Model 1 was run, the model did not reach 
significance (F .75, n.s. ), and none of the demographic 
variables were significant predictors. Because of the 
94 
relatively small sampl e s i ze a nd large number of 
substantively important pre di c t ors to be tested, the 
demographic vari a bles we re d r opped from further models of 
negative emotions. 
For Model 2 , the 5 s tress subscale variables of 
academics, network, pee r, int i macy, and family were 
entered simultaneously. As Ta ble 9 indicates, the overall 
equation was significant ( F = 3 .71, p < .01). 
Table 9 
Simultaneous Multiple Regression for Assessing 
Relationship Between Ne ga tive Emotion Composite and Areas 
of Stress 
Non- St a nda rd 
Standardized Error cf Significance of 
Variable Beta Be t a T T 
Academic -. 25 .1 6 -1. 55 .13 
Network -.0 9 . 1 3 - .6 7 . 5 0 
Peer - . 1 7 . 21 -.79 .43 
Intimacy . 67 . 3 1. 94 .06 
Family .66 . 27 2 .43 .02 
R-Square for Mode l = . 27 
In order to reduce the number of predictors, and 
conserve degrees of f r eedom, the stress subscale variables 
that were most highly c orrela t c with negative emotions 
were selected and entered as p r dictors in a stepwise 
multiple regress ion a n a lysis (M odel 3). As seen in Table 
10, the family s tress v ar i a bl e entered the equation fir s t, 
95 
explaining 18% of the variance in negative emotions. The 
beta for the family stress variable was significant at the 
.oo1 level. The intimacy stress variable entered in step 
2 , accounting for an additional 3% of the variance. The 
beta was not significant for the intimacy stress variable. 
The other variable - network - did not meet the .20 
criterion for entry. The overall F for the equation was 
6.84, p < .002. Thus, adolescents with disabled siblings 
Who felt stress in the area of their family relationships 
Were likely to feel negative emotions. 
Table 10 
.s._tepwise Regression Assessing Relationship Between 
N.?.gative Emotion composite and Areas of Stress 
Non- standard 
Standardized Error of Significance of 
Y....ariables Beta Beta T. T. 
Step 1 
Family .55 .16 3.38 .001 
R-Square Change for step 1 = .18 
Step 2 
Intimacy .44 .31 1. 43 .16 
R-Square Change for step 2 = .03 
furt_g. Intimacy did not meet the . 20 criterion for entry . 
Question 4 _ To what extent are a variety of coping 
strategies used by adolescent siblings with disabled 
brothers and sisters? 
96 
The means and s t a ndard devia tions of the eight 
subscales on the Coping Response Inventory were examined. 
The subscales included logical a n alysis, positive 
reappraisal, seeking guidance a nd support, problem 
solving, cognitive avoidance, acceptance/resignation, 
seeking alternative rewards, a nd emotional discharge. The 
first four subscales (logica l a n a l ysis, positive 
reappraisal, seeking guidance a nd support, problem 
solving) relate to s trategies that are approach coping, 
and the last four strategies ( cognitive avoidance, 
acceptance/resignation, seek i ng a ~ternative rewards, 
emotional discharge) are r e l a t ed to avoidance coping. 
Reliability coefficients were examined for each of 
the subscales. Coeff i cient a lphas for the subscales were: 
logical analysis .75, positive reappraisal .74, seeking 
guidance .57, problem so lving . 66, cognitive avoidance 
.55, acceptance/resigna tion . 40 , seeking alternative 
rewards .77, emotional discharge .68 . 
Adolescents with disabled brothers and sisters used 
the coping response o f probl e m s o l ving most frequently( ~ 
= 9.21, SD 3 .96) followed by logical analysis(~= 8. 5 3, 
SD = 4.08). The five copi ng re s ponses of cognitive 
avoidance (~ - = 7.84, SD = 3 . 5 1 ) , positive reappraisal ( ~ = 
7.81, SD = 4.14), seeking al t erna tive rewards (x 7.77, 
SD = 4.82), acceptance / resignation(~ 7.77, SD 4.82), 
and emotional discharge (x = 7 .1 6 , SD = 3.83) were all 
used to a similar ext e nt. The o ping response that was 
-- =-,_,c- ---- -
97 
least used was seeki ng guid a nce (x = 5 .09, SD = 3.28). 
Table 11 presents the me ans a nc standard deviations for 
the coping s ubscales . 
To test for di ffere nces between males and females, 
and between students in middl e school and high school for 
coping strategie s, t - t es t s were conducted. Among 
adolescents with di sabl e d sibl :ngs, females used coping 
-
strategies of logica l a n a ly s i (x = 9.72, SD = 4.24, 
~ = - 2 .47, p < .0 5 ) t o a great er extent than males 
(x = 7.08, SD 3 .5 5 ). Ad o l escent females also used seeking 
guidance (x = 5 . 94, SD 3 . 25 , ~ = 2.12, p < .05) more than 
adolescent males ( x = 4 .0 4 , SD 3.24). No differences 
were found due to sch oo l l e v e l for coping strategies. 
Table 11 
Mean and Standard Devi a tion f or Coping Subscales 
Subscales Mean Standard Deviation 
Problem Solving 9 . 21 3.96 
Logical Analys i s 8 . 53 4.08 
Cognitive Avoidanc e 7 . 84 3. 51 
Positive Reappra isal 7 . 81 4.14 
Seeking Alter Rewards 7 . 77 4.82 
Acceptance/Res igna t ion 7 . 59 3.29 
Emotional Disc harge 7 .1 6 3.83 
Seeking Guidanc e 5 .0 9 3. 28 
Note. n = 5 2- 56 
In order to e xam i n e a ssoc Lations among the various 
coping strategies, correlat io ns were c omputed among the 
98 
subscales. As seen in Table 12, significant correlations 
Were found among all the subscales with the exception of 
Positive reappraisal and emotional discharge. 
Table 12 
Qorrelations Between Coping Response Subscales 
~ubscales Correlations 
Log Pos Seek Prob Cog Accept Seek 
Ana Reap Guid Solv Avoid Resig 
Log Reward 
Ana 
Pos . 64*** 
Reap 
Seek .52*** .31* 
Guid 
Prob .52*** .50*** .37** 
Solv 
Cog .46*** .30* .30* .32* 
Avoid 
Accept .50*** .40** .44*** .30* .53*** 
Resig 
Seek .46*** .49*** .36** .55*** .32* .45*** 
Reward 
Emot .40** .15 .38** .38** .56*** .35* .44*** 
Disc 
.NQ.tg. n = 57-58 
*Q < .05 **Q < .01 ***Q < .001 
99 
Log Ana: Logical Analysis 
Pos Reap: Positive Reappraisal 
Seek Guid: Seeking Guidance and Support 
Prob Solv: Problem Solvi ng 
Cog Avoid: Cognitive Avoidance 
Accept Resig: Acceptance or Resignation 
Seek Reward: Seeking Alte rnative Rewards 
Emot Disc: Emotional Discharge 
A factor analysis was don e on the coping subscales 
scores. It was found that all the subscales loaded above 
the .5 level on Factor 1. Th e eigenvalue was 3.47. 
Therefore, all items were comb i ned into a single 
composite; it had a c oefficient alpha of .90. The single 
composite of total coping conta ined all of the coping 
strategies, including a pproach coping and avoidance coping 
strategies. Table 13 c ontains the factor loadings for the 
total composite variable. Correlations were performed 
between the demographi c variabl sand the coping composite 
variable. No significant correlations were found. 
100 
Table 13 
Factor Loadings for Coping Composite Variable 
Variables Factor 1 
Logical Analysis .79 
p osi' t'i ve Reappraisal .69 
Seeking Guidance .58 
Problem Solving .65 
Cognitive Avoidance .62 
Acceptance/Resignation .65 
Seek Alternative Rewards .67 
Emotional Discharge .61 
Question 5. rs there a relationship between the 
coping strategies used by adolescent siblings and the 
feelings they have about their disabled brothers and 
sisters? 
Pearson product-moment correlations were computed 
between the coping Response subscales of logical analysis, 
positive reappraisal, seeking guidance, problem solving, 
cognitive avoidance, acceptance/resignation, seeking 
alternative rewards, emotional discharge, and the feelings 
subscales of anger, enjoyment, embarrassment, fear, 
neglect, tolerance. As seen in Table 14, adolescents who 
used the coping skills of logical analysis tended to feel 
fear and tolerance about their disabled siblings, while 
those who used positive reappraisal were likely feeling 
Adolescents who 
fear neglect, enjoyment, and tolerance. ' 
used the strategy of seeking guidance probably felt fear, 
101 
neglect, anger a bout their disa bled brothers and sisters, 
while those who u sed proble m soJving may have experienced 
anger. Those who u sed cogn i t ive avoidance tended to feel 
fear, neglect, a nd a nger a bout their sibling relationship, 
and adolescents with the c opi ng skill of acceptance/ 
resignation like ly fe lt fear . 1eenagers with disabled 
siblings who u s ed seek i ng a lter native rewards tended to 
feel anger about the i r b ro thers and sisters, and those 
using emotiona l d ischarge t e nded to use neglect and anger. 
Correlations were a lso perfo r rn ec between the coping 
composite vari a ble a nd the e rno t jon composite variable. As 
seen in Table 14, those adol escents who used coping 
strategies were like ly t o h ave feelings of fear, neglect 
and anger. 
102 
Table 14 
.Qorrelations Between Coping and Emotional Response 
S..ubscales 
.Qoping Subscales Emotional Response Subscales 
Fear Neglect Anger Embarras Enjoyment Tolerance 
Log .45*** .19 .14 -.04 .18 .26* 
Ana 
Pos .28* .29* .17 -.15 .28* .28* 
Reap 
Seek .2 9* .35** .37** .18 .08 .05 
Guid 
Prob . 06 .16 .32* -.09 .01 .13 
Solv 
Cog .32* .29* .26* .01 -.13 -.08 
Avoid 
Accept.48*** .17 .26 .12 .16 .17 
Resig 
Seek .14 .07 .29* -.14 .03 .17 
Reward 
Emot .13 .33** .32* .06 -.22 -.12 
Disc 
Total .39** .32* .37** -.03 .07 .16 
Coping 
N.Qtg__._ n = 57-58 
*Q < .05 **Q < .01 ***Q < .001 
Log Ana: Logical Analysis 
Pos Reap: Positive Reappraisal 
103 
Seek Guid: seeking Guidance 
Prob Solv: Problem Solving 
Cog Avoid: Cognitive Avoidance 
Accept/Resig: Acceptance or Resignation 
Seek Rewards: seeking Alternative Rewards 
Emot Disc: Emotional Discharge 
Total coping: coping composite 
Correlations were performed between all of the 
demographic variables and the coping composite variable. 
None of them had any significant correlations with the 
emotion composite variables or coping composite variable. 
However, because of the role played by age and gender of 
e nondisabled sibling in previous literature, these 
th
variables plus family socioeconomic status were included 
in the multiple regression. 
The first set of multiple regression were designed to 
examine the predictors of adolescents' positive emotions. 
The analysis plan was to create two initial models. In 
Model 1, the three demographic variables were to be 
entered as predictors. In Model 2, the demographic 
variables plus the coping composite variable were to be 
entered as predictors. The difference in variance 
accounted for by these two models could then be examined, 
along with the significance of the individual predictors. 
When Model 1 was run, the model did not reach 
significance (F ~ _ , n.s.), and none of the demographic 
1 28
variables were significant predictors. Because of the 
104 
relatively small sample size and large number of 
substantively important predictors to be tested, the 
demographic variables were dropped from further models of 
positive emotions. In Model 2 the coping composite 
variable was entered as the sole predictor. This equation 
did not reach statistical significance (F = .57, n. s.). 
The second set of multiple regressions were designed 
to examine the predictors of adolescents' negative 
emotions. The analysis plan was to create two initial 
models. In Model 1, the three demographic variables 
emerging from previous literature were to be entered as 
predictors. In Model 2, the demographic variables plus 
the coping composite variable were to be entered as 
predictors. The difference in variance accounted for by 
these two models could then be examined, along with the 
significance of the individual predictors. 
When Model 1 was run, the model did not reach 
significance (F = .75, n.s.), and none of the demographic 
variables was a significant predictor. Because of the 
relatively small sample size and substantively important 
predictors to be tested, the demographic variables were 
dropped from further models of negative emotions. Model 
2, therefore included only one predictor, the total 
' 
coping composite. As indicated in Table 15, the overall 
equation was significant (F = 7.67, p < .01). Although 
counterintuitive, adolescents who used more coping 
strategies were likelY to feel negative emotions about 
105 
their disabled siblings than those who used fewer coping 
strategies. 
Table 15 
Multiple Regression Assessing Predictors of Negative 
Emotions 
Non- Strndard 
Standardized Error of Significance of 
Variable Beta Beta T T 
Coping .13 ? 0 ~. 2.77 .008 
R-Square for Model .1 3 
Question 6. To what extent do the coping strategies 
used by the adolescent siblings moderate the relationship 
of the various sources of stress to the feelings that they 
have about their disabled brothers and sisters? 
The first set of stepwise regression analyses were 
designed to examine whether the sources of stress remained 
significant predictors of ado ~escents' positive emotions 
after controlling on the use of coping strategies. The 
analysis plan was to create tvo initial models. In Model 
1, the three demographic variables that have emerged as 
important predictors in previous literature on disabled 
siblings were to be entered as predictors. These included 
age of nondisabled sibling, gender of nondisabled sibling, 
and family socioeconomic status. In Model 2, the 
demographic variables plus coping composite variable were 
to be entered as a block, fol ~owed by the stress scale 
106 
V , 
ariables that were most highly correlated with positive 
emotions. 
When Model 1 was run, the model did not reach 
significance (F 1.28, n.s.), and none of the demographic 
variables was a significant predictor. Because of the 
relatively small sample size and large number of 
substantively important predictors to be tested, the 
demographic variables were dropped from further models of 
positive emotions. 
In Model 2, the total coping composite variable was 
entered first, followed by the two stress subscale 
variables, academics and intimacy. As Table 16 reveals, 
the coping composite variable was not a significant 
Predictor (beta = .02, n.s.). The intimacy stress 
subscale variable entered on Step 2 and was significant 
(beta = -.34, p < .02). The academic stress subscale 
Variable was not significant (beta = -.20, n.s.) but 
entered the equation on step 3. The overall equation 
reached significance (F = 2.87, p < .05). Thus, in spite 
of their coping efforts, adolescents who felt stress in 
the area of their relationships with boyfriends and 
girlfriends were less likely to have positive feelings 
about their disabled siblings. 
107 
Table 1 6 
Stepwise Re gressi?o n Assessing Relationship Between 
Positive Emotions, Coping, and Areas of Stress 
Non- Standard 
Standardized Error of Significance of 
Variables Beta Beta T T 
.Qoping .02 .03 .75 .45 
R-Square Change for step = .01 
Step 2 
Intimacy -.41 .17 -2.44 .02 
R-Square Change for step = . 10 
~3 
Academic - . 13 .10 -1 . 38 .17 
R-Square Change for step = .03 
The second stepwise regression analyses were designed 
to examine whether the sources of stress remained 
significant predictors of adolescents' negative emotions 
after controlling on the use of coping strategies. The 
analysis plan was to create two initial models. In Model 
1 , the three demographic variables that have emerged as 
important predictors in previous literature on disabled 
Siblings were to be entered as predictors. These included 
age of the nondisabled sibling, gender of nondisabled 
sibling, and socioeconomic status of the family. In Model 
2 , the demographic variables plus the coping composite 
Variable were to be entered as a block, followed by the 
108 
stress scale variables that were most highly correlated 
with negative emotions. 
In Model 1, no significant correlations were found 
between the three designated demographic variables and the 
negative emotion composite, which had an F = .75, n.s. 
Because of the relatively small sample size and large 
number of substantively important predictors to be tested, 
the demographic variables were dropped from further models 
of negative emotions. 
In Model 2, the total coping composite variable was 
entered first, followed by the three stress subscale 
variables (family stress subscale, network stress 
subscale, and intimacy stress subscale). From Table 17 it 
can be seen that the coping composite variable was a 
significant predictor (beta= .13, p < .01). The family 
stress subscale variable entered on step 2 and was 
significant (beta= .47, p, .01). The overall F for the 
equation was 8.68 at the .01 level. The other two stress 
subscales variables, network stress subscale and intimacy 
stress subscale, did not meet the .20 criterion for entry 
into the model. Thus, adolescents who felt stress from 
family relationships were still likely to feel negative 
emotions about their disabled siblings, even after taking 
into account their attempts to cope with their problems. 
Therefore, while coping did enter the equation as a 
significant predictor, it did not moderate the 
relationship between family stress and negative emotions. 
109 
Table 17 
.9_tepwise Regression Assessing Relationship Between 
Negative Emotions, coping, and Areas of Stress 
Standard 
Standardized Error of Significance of 
Y._ariables T T 
Step 1 
Coping .13 .05 2.77 .008 
R-Square Change for step = .13 
Step 2 
Family .47 .16 2.93 .005 
R-Square Change for Step 2 = .13 
110 
Chapter V 
Q.iscussion 
The final chapter of this research will include three 
sections, a discussion of the major findings of the study, 
limitations of the study, and suggestions for further 
research plus implications for practice. 
Discussion of the Present study 
Question 1 addresses the degree to which stress is 
in various areas in the lives of the adolescents with 
felt? ? 
disabled siblings. 
In this study, adolescents with disabled siblings 
felt the greatest stress coming from the areas of network 
and academics, an intermediate amount of stress coming 
from peer and family, and the least amount of stress 
coming from intimacy and autonomy. Very few adolescents 
experienced stress regarding autonomy, and it was 
eliminated from further analyses. The comparison of these 
stress subscales based on means should be approached 
cautiously, because of the different number of items in 
each subscale. 
The greatest amount of stress for the adolescents who 
participated in this research was in the area of network, 
which included events such as family member or relative 
having an emotional problem or a brother/sister getting 
engaged or married. Females experienced a much larger 
degree of stress in this area than did males. This i s 
consistent with recent findings that adolescent girls are 
111 
moredi' stressed than boys regarding negative events 
affecting others in their social network (Compas & Grant, 
The differences may be ' 
1993??  Wa gner & compas, 1990). 
i ndeed, in part due to gender role expectations (Boyce & 
Barnett, 1993). 
The adolescents in this study felt stress coming from 
e area of academics, with high school students feeling 
th
greater stress than middle school students. Academics 
included those events that directly related to classes in 
school, such as understanding homework, doing poorly on 
tests, having good classes or teachers, and did not 
involve any extracurricular activities. The teenagers may 
feel pressured to compensate for their disabled sibling 
who cannot achieve. They may have to deal with 
excessively high expectation from parents, which confirms 
e suggestions of previous literature (Crnic & Leconte, 
th
l986; Dyson, Edgar, & crnic, 1989; Hannah & Midlarsky, 
90; Schild, 971; Trevino, 1979)- students in high 
19 1
school may feel greater stress academically than those in 
middle school, because of impending decisions about 
college placement or work situations. 
The adolescents felt an equal amount of stress from 
the ?1 peer included events such 
areas of peer and fam1 Y? 
as talking on the phone, change in relationship with 
friends, having few or no friends, talking or sharing 
feelings with friends, while family involved pressures or 
expectations by parents, getting punished by parents, not 
112 
spending enough time with family members. High school 
students felt greater pressure in the area of peers than 
middle school students. 
stress that emanates from the area of peers may be 
due to a a variety of circumstances. They may be unsure 
of how to communicate the information about their disabled 
sibling to their friends and may not know how to deal with 
teasing. Also, they may be concerned about possible 
rejection by classmates or stigmatization by teachers if 
the disabled student attends the same school (Gamble & 
woulbroun, 1993). They may be embarrassed about bringing 
friends home or not know how to include the disabled 
sibling in activities with peers. 
High school adolescents felt greater stress in the 
area of peer events than those in middle school. It may 
be that middle school students are still involved in the 
life of the family where as high school students have a 
greater desire to broaden their independence from their 
families. They may tend to look to their peers for 
support at a time when the family may need their 
increasing help with the disabled child, thus causing 
conflict. 
It has been a prevailing belief that the family is a 
source of stress for siblings when there is a disabled 
child in the family. There is often an increase in 
burdens and responsibilities, which may affect females to 
a greater extent than males. Although the family did 
113 
there were 
provide a source of stress for the adolescents ' 
ese in ings of no gender 
no gender differences found. Th f' d' 
are contrary to the results 
of research done 
differences 
females experiences where 
by Wagner & Compas (1990) 
in which a parent 
in families 
greater stressors than males 
had J'ust been di? agnosed with cancer. 
Intimacy was the source of least stress for these 
adolescents. Intimacy included events having to do with 
romance and boyfriend/girlfriend situations, such as 
arguments with a boyfriend/girlfriend and falling in love. 
The finding that intimacy was the source of least stress 
is contrary to the suggestion that possible stress 
emanates from the dating situation, especially about 
communicating information about the sibling's disability 
to a potential boyfriend or girlfriend. (Gamble & 
It is reasonable that once the 
Woulbroun 1993). ' 
information is communicated and accepted by the person the 
adolescent is dating, it is no longer a source of stress. 
In recent research bY compas and associates (Campas & 
Grant, 19 ; wagner & compas, 1990), there was a similar 
93
Pattern to the amount of stress experienced by adolescents 
in the different areas- Among adolescents with parents 
Who had recently been diagnosed with cancer, network was 
the area of greatest stress for both males and females. 
Stress from the area of intimacy was experienced least by 
femal was 1east felt by males. (Peer 
es, and family stress In another 
was not among the areas of stress reported.) 
114 
study with a general population of adolescents, network 
events were the greatest source of stress for junior high 
males and females and for high school females. Intimacy 
events were the source of least stress for both males and 
females in junior high and high school. 
The stress subscales were all intercorrelated so that 
if the adolescents felt stress in one area, they were 
likely to feel stress in all areas. It is possible that 
the effect of the disabled child on the sibling and family 
was so pervasive that stress invaded all areas. However, 
events in the stress inventory were not specifically 
related to situations involving a disabled brother or 
sister. Therefore, it is not possible to draw firm 
conclusions as to whether the stress was directly related 
to the presence of the disabled sibling or emanated from 
other sources. 
Question 2 deals with the extent to which a variety 
of emotions are felt by adolescent siblings about their 
disabled brothers and sisters. 
The study found that the two positive emotions of 
tolerance/compassion and enjoyment were felt to a greater 
extent than any of the negative emotions. Generally, past 
literature has concentrated on the negative aspects of the 
sibling relationship and the inherent negative emotions, 
such as anger or neglect. This research demonstrates that 
positive emotions of enjoyment and tolerance are an 
important part of the relationship between "normal" 
115 
siblings and their disabled brothers and sisters. 
Pre vi? ous research has mentioned that positive emotions 
play a role (Carr, 1988; Gallo, Breitmayer, Knafl, & 
Zoeller, 1991; Grossman, 1972; Meyer, Vadasky, & Fewell ' 
), but not to the extent that this study demonstrates. 
1985
The siblings have developed a sense of compassion and 
tolerance for those with disabilities and for all people 
with differences, which is in agreement with others (Crnic 
& Leconte, 1986; Seligman, 1989). This quality may even 
influence career decisions in the direction of a helping 
profession (Seligman, 1989; "What About Me?", 1990). In 
general, the adolescents felt that the positive gains from 
having disabled siblings outweighed the negatives and that 
their lives have been enriched (Carr, 1988; Fischer & 
Roberts, 1983; Grossman, 1972; Lobato, Barbour, Hall, & 
Miller, 1987; Wilson, Blacher, & Baker, 1988). 
Enjoyment was the other positive emotion that was 
felt to a great extent. The adolescents liked to help 
with their disabled siblings, play with them, teach them 
new skills, and even take them places. This agrees with 
past literature that siblings may enjoy being with their 
disabled brothers and sisters (Wilson, Blacher, & Baker, 
1989) and feel pride in their accomplishments, especially 
if they have been a part of the mastery process (Lobato, 
1983; Lobato, Barbour, Hall, & Miller, 1987; Meyer, 
Vadasky, & Fewell, ). interestingly, correlations 
1985
revealed that enjoyment and embarrassment were negatively 
116 
related so that those siblings who enjoyed helping, 
playing, teaching their siblings did not feel 
Intuitively, it seems logical that those 
embarrassment. . . . 
ings who choose to be with their disabled brothers and 
sibl' 
sisters are not embarrassed by them. 
This study also revealed that the negative emotion of 
The 
anger was the most prevalent with fear being next. 
siblings were angry about the burdens, such as extra jobs 
not spending enough time with friends, and the 
at home 
' 
inequality of treatment in areas of punishment and 
assistance required. This confirms past literature that 
e siblings may feel anger at the alterations in family 
th
roles and lifestyles (McHale & Gamble, 1989; Pearson & 
ernberg, 1986; Seligman, 1989; Wilson, Blacher, & Baker, 
st
1989) . 
Also, fear was felt bY the adolescents in this study, 
fear of others making fun of their disabled sibling, fear 
of getting angry with the disabled sibling because of what 
parents might say, and fear of the future when parents may 
not be able to care for the disabled child. This confirms 
suggestions made in previous 1iterature (Meyer, Vadasky, & 
Fewell, 1985; Pearson & sternberg, 1986). 
Neglect and embarrassment were the 1east felt 
emotions w'i th . t lY one-third of the adolescent 
approx1ma e 
reporting that they never experienced these feelings. 
Some f fai' led to feel that they did not 
o the adolescents 
get , attention, or material 
their fair share of time, 
117 
, an emotion which had been suggested by others 
resources ? ? 
(Carr, 1988; Dyson, Edgar, & Crnic 1989; Hannah & 
s Y, 1985; Pearson & Sternberg, 1986; San Martino & 
Midlar k 
Newman, 1974; Schild, 1971). Many of the adolescents 
( 7 0 %) who participated in this research came from two 
parent, intact families, and this may contribute to not 
feeling neglect. This confirms an earlier study that the 
most important variable in families where there was a 
disabled child was the number of parents in the home 
(Gallagher, Beckman, & cross, 1983). Also, adolescents 
may be at a stage that they do not desire as much parental 
involvement in their lives, and thus do not resent any 
perceived lack of attention. 
To a great extent these adolescents did not feel 
embarrassed by the actions of their disabled siblings or 
about having friends come to the house, which had been 
implied in past articles (Featherstone, 1980; Meyer, 
Vadasky, & Fewell, 1985; pearson & Sternberg, 1990). They 
also would not feel embarrassed if their disabled sibling 
attended the same school. rt is possible that the 
increased exposure of disabled students to regular schools 
and community situations haS lessened the feelings of 
embarrassment for "normal" siblings- However, in another 
sense, this lack of embarrassment seems unusual, because 
teenagers are at a point where they wish to conform and 
look to their peers for approval. 
118 
Question 3 deals with the relationship between the 
o s ress experience y t e adolescents 
various sources f t ? db h 
a nd the feelings that they have about their disabled 
brothers and sisters. 
None of the demographic information consistently 
correlated with any of the stress, coping, or emotion 
variables used. The demographic variables included those 
relating to the nondisabled sibling: age, grade, gender, 
middle versus high school, birth order, older/younger than 
disabled sibling, differences in ages, same/different 
gender. Also, the demographic variables included 
information about the disabled sibling: age, gender, level 
of service, disability code, behavioral/social rating. 
Additional demographic information of interest related to 
the family: total number of children, parental 
occupations, family structure, presence of parents/ 
stepparents. 
Up until this point, much of the research has dealt 
with the characteristics of the family, characteristics of 
the nondisabled sibling, and characteristics of the 
disabled sibling. However, in this research, none of 
thes d to have any bearing on the 
e characteristics appeare 
issues of stress, coping, or emotions- It has been 
suggested that family factors may be more predictive of 
sibl' the ?ndi'vidual characteristics. 
1
1ng outcomes than 
Fam?1? f complex systems of relationships 
t 1 1es are comprised o h The "personality" of 
hat mutually influence one anot er-
119 
the family , its mode of communication, nurturing, and 
a ffection, may be an important element in the adjustment 
of the siblings. 
The study found that adolescents who felt stress in 
the area of school were not likely to feel positive 
emotions of enjoyment and tolerance about their disabled 
siblings. This confirms past literature that siblings 
with disabled brothers and sisters are pressured to 
compensate for them and to excel academically. Since 
their disabled siblings can not achieve in school, the 
"normal" sibling feels he has to succeed. 
An important finding in this research is that 
adolescents who felt stress in the area of family were 
likely to express negative emotions about their disabled 
siblings. Many researchers believe that the family is a 
primary source of stress for siblings who have disabled 
brothers and sisters. Potential stress can come from the 
interactions of the siblings, especially if the demands of 
the disabled sibling places an extra burden on the 
adolescent. Stress may be generated by the interactions 
of the parents with the nondisabled sibling, especially if 
there is a lack of meaningful communication about the 
issues involved in the family. Parenting may be 
inconsistent or neglectful as they go through their own 
grief cycle to cope with the loss of a "normal" child 
(Gamble & Woulbroun, 1993; Post-Kammer & Nickolai, 1985). 
Not only does this cycle fluctuate as the parents work 
120 
through many difficult issues, but it is affected by the 
s tage in life of the disabled child. 
Question 4 deals with the extent to which coping 
s trategies are used by adolescents with disabled brothers 
and sisters. 
In filling out the Coping Responses Inventory, the 
adolescents had to target a problem that they had with 
their disabled sibling. These problems included: health 
related issues, such as seizures (7); inability of the 
disabled sibling to do certain things, such as read (3); 
violation of personal or family things, such as taking 
things that do not belong to them (11); interference with 
social plans, such as the need to baby-sit when the 
adolescent wanted to go out (4); inappropriate behavior, 
especially in public, such as undressing in front of 
people (5); parental attitudes, such as a lack of 
attention (4); and personal disposition of the disabled 
sibling, such as being stubborn, argumentative, aggressive 
( 24). 
Problem solving and logical analysis were the two 
most frequently employed strategies with seeking guidance 
used least by the adolescents in this research. Logical 
analysis and problem solving are both approach coping 
responses. In general, approach coping is problem focused 
and covers both cognitive and behavioral efforts to master 
or resolve life stressors. It is active in nature and 
oriented toward confronting the problem. Logical analysis 
__ ____..,,..-~--
121 
is an example of a cognitive type of approach coping while 
problem solving is an example of a behavioral type of 
approach coping. In the CRI - Youth, logical analysis 
strategies included: thinking of different ways to deal 
with the problem; trying to step back from the problem a nd 
thinking about it. Problem solving strategies included: 
deciding on one way to deal with the problem and doing it; 
knowing what had to be done and trying hard to make things 
work. Approach coping is positively related to high 
socioeconomic status, self-confidence, and family support, 
while avoidance coping is associated with fewer personal 
and environmental resources (Holahan & Moos, 1987). The 
findings of this study confirm previous research. Many of 
these adolescents are from intact families (70 %) and may 
have a lot of family support. 
The least used strategy was also approach coping of a 
behavioral nature, seeking guidance. Past research has 
shown that people seek less social support in encounters 
involving their self-esteem. This may be due to shame or 
embarrassment (Folkman, Lazarus, Dunkel-Schetter, 
DeLongis, & Gruen, 1985). Although embarrassment was not 
one of the emotions strongly felt, perhaps some of the 
adolescents were embarrassed by situations involving their 
disabled siblings, such as undressing in front of 
strangers. They may have decided not to seek out other 
people, who may not understand their situation. In this 
study, females used logical analysis and seeking guidance 
122 
more than males. The use of the seeking guidance strategy 
by females confirms past studies that there is a gender 
difference in relation to going to other people for help. 
Women tend to seek guidance, whereas men tend to withdraw. 
This may be a function of conventional patterns of sex 
roles in our society (Holahan & Moos, 1985). 
When the adolescents used one coping strategy they 
tended to use them all. This is consistent with Rutter 
(1981) who suggested that successful coping may depend on 
flexibility, adaptability, and using a variety of 
strategies to deal with life stresses. Coping studies 
have revealed that children and adolescents identify a 
wide variety of coping responses and use different coping 
responses over time (Gamble & Woulbroun, 1993). However, 
the use of a wide variety of responses is contrary to 
other research in which one type of coping response was 
used extensively. 
Question 5 deals with the relationship between coping 
strategies and emotions for these adolescents with 
disabled siblings. 
This study found that adolescents who used more 
coping strategies were likely to feel negative emotions 
about their disabled siblings than those who used fewer 
coping strategies. Although this appears to be 
c ounterintuitive, it is possible that those adolescents 
who used more coping strategies had greater amounts of 
stress in their lives to deal with than those who used 
123 
fewer coping strategies. Even after coping with the 
stress, they still had negative emotions about their 
disabled siblings. It is also possible that the coping 
strategies used only served to accentuate the stress 
rather than to decrease it. Perhaps the strategies chosen 
were inappropriate or ineffective for the stressful 
situations and did nothing to allay the negative feelings 
the adolescent had about the disabled sibling. 
This research also found that adolescents with 
disabled siblings who felt anger, embarrassment, fear, and 
neglect used a variety of approach and avoidance coping 
strategies. These findings are a reminder of early 
controversy in the stress and coping literature in which 
any change, whether positive or negative, was believed to 
be a source of stress. However, later studies, including 
one with adolescents (Siegel & Brown, 1988) found that it 
was negatively rated circumstances that caused stress . 
Logically, it appears that stress probably leads to the 
use of coping responses. 
The model that has been used in this research assumes 
that coping is a response to the stressful circumstances 
in the lives of the adolescents with disabled siblings. 
This coping then leads to certain emotions, either 
negative or positive. In this study though, stress, 
coping, and emotions are being measured at the same time. 
It is possible that adolescents with disabled siblings, 
who feel very emotional, tend to use certain types of 
124 
coping strategies or a greater amount of coping to deal 
with the stress. Thus, the emotional component of the 
model is not the result of the stress and coping, but 
rather plays a greater role in the decision of what coping 
strategies are to be used and to what extent. 
Question 6 The last research question deals with the 
relationship of stress, coping, and emotions among 
adolescents with disabled siblings. 
This study found that in spite of their coping 
efforts, adolescents who felt stress in their 
relationships with boyfriends and girlfriends were less 
likely to have positive feelings of enjoyment and 
tolerance about their disabled siblings. Past literature 
has suggested that there may be stress involved with 
dating, because of the difficulties in explaining a 
disabled sibling to a new person. Although not suggested 
elsewhere in literature, it may be that the adolescents 
over invest emotionally in a dating relationship to 
compensate for the lack of attention at home. 
It is interesting to note the effect of coping on the 
areas of stress and emotions in this final question. 
Coping did not enter the equation as a significant 
predictor of adolescent's positive emotions about their 
disabled siblings, but it seemed to have an affect on 
which of the stress variables were significant. In the 
simpler model, academics entered as a significant 
predictor of positive emotions, but intimacy was not 
125 
significant. However, when coping entered the equation, 
intimacy became a significant predictor, but academics did 
not. In the relationship between areas of stress and 
negative emotions, family stress was a significant 
predictor of anger, fear, embarrassment, and neglect. 
When coping entered the equation, it was a significant 
predictor, but it did not moderate the relationship 
between family stress and negative emotions. In 
subsequent research, the role of coping in moderating the 
relationship between stress and emotions needs to be 
clarified. 
An important finding of the research was that the 
family was the primary source of stress for these 
siblings. Adolescents who felt stress from family 
relationships were still likely to feel negative emotions 
of anger, embarrassment, fear, and neglect about their 
disabled siblings, even after taking into account attempts 
to cope with their problems. It was the relationship with 
family members that was a major contributor to the stress 
of adolescents with disabled siblings and resulted in the 
negative emotions explored in this study. Issues involved 
may be discrepant expectations, lack of communication, 
double standards for compliance with rules, and a need for 
further information. Although these issues were not 
specifically tapped in the stress inventory, they may 
cause stress within the family. This stress then spills 
126 
over to more general events, such as arguments with 
not spending enough time with family members. 
parents and 
Limitat?i ons of the study 
The findings and conclusions of this study should be 
cautiously for several reasons. First, the study 
regarded 
was limited by the biases and confounding factors that are 
self-report data. The data are vulnerable in 
inherent i'n 
a ways: the tendency by some adolescents to respond 
sever 1 
ocially desirable manner, a tendency in some of the 
in as . 
adolescents to respond carelessly, and the overall 
onses being affected by the variations in willingness 
resp 
of the  adolescent to participate. 
Secondly, the generalizability of the findings is 
limited by the small sample size and the type of 
respondents. Although an effort was made to contact every 
lly who had students in Level IV and Level V setting in 
faro ? 
e county, families with siblings who participated in the 
th
research shared some qualities- They were all volunteers 
Who made an effort to participate in the study. Many of 
em were strong advocates for their disabled children and 
th
had knowledge about the kind of educational services 
available, both within the context of the school day and 
in the All but 10 % of the siblings 
community-at-large. 
Were cau . . . representative of the county, and 
cas1an, which 1s 
% of the sti'll in their original families, 
70 siblings were 
Which is contrary to national figures for families with 
disabled children. 
127 
Furthermore, the type of information may be 
restricted by the choice of standardized psychometric 
instruments. As noted in the next section, the stress and 
the coping questionnaires were instruments to be used with 
the general population and contained no specific 
references to the life experiences of these adolescents 
with disabled siblings. There was no way of knowing if 
the stresses they experienced were related to the presence 
of a disabled sibling in the family or the general stress 
of any group of adolescents. Additionally, the stress 
questionnaire, although concrete and easy to understand, 
took 15-30 minutes to complete. The questions on the 
coping questionnaire were difficult for some of the 
adolescents to relate to the problems targeted with their 
disabled siblings. 
Although both of the questionnaires developed by 
major researcher in the field were designed for 
adolescents between the ages of 12 - 18, the age range was 
a wide one. Teenagers in middle school may have different 
stresses than those in high school and differ in ways of 
coping with them. However, except for the areas of peers 
and academics in which high school students demonstrated 
greater stress than middle school students, no other 
differences were found between the two levels. 
Last, because of the relatively small pool of 
siblings available, there was a wide variety of 
disabilities and levels of service among the students with 
128 
disabilities. The disabilities ranged from learning 
disability to profound retardation, and from instruction 
in a regular classroom with special education services to 
part time residential placement or home teaching. 
Although past research has found issues involved for each 
level of disability, these may not be apparent with such a 
Wide range of disabilities. 
Suggestions for Future Research 
The stress scale used in this research was developed 
for general use to identify large and small events that 
may cause stress in the lives of adolescents. There was 
no inclusion of possible events that may cause stress for 
adolescents with disabled siblings. In general, there has 
been a failure to identify and evaluate specific events 
that may cause stress for siblings in these situations. 
Further research is needed to identify these day-to-day 
stressors, their frequency, and intensity (Gamble & 
Woulbroun, 1993). The domain of stressors should include 
problems arising not only with disabled siblings but 
additional family members, peers, and others outside the 
home. Also, examining persistent stressors over time for 
these siblings may reveal further information about the 
process of stress, coping, and developmental status 
(Gamble & McHale, 1989). 
The coping scale used in this research was a general 
one relevant to any type of problem that adolescents might 
encounter. There may be coping responses used by siblings 
129 
to reflect unique strategies for their situations that are 
not addressed on this scale. Further studies are needed 
on the variety of coping responses used by siblings with 
disabled brothers and sisters. This investigation will 
help to clarify the differences between those who are 
generally well adjusted from those who have more 
adjustment problems. Furthermore, the information 
obtained from most coping assessments is of a self-report 
nature and may not represent the child's actual coping 
strategies (Gamble & Woulbroun, 1993). Research is needed 
on the actual methods of coping used by the "normal" 
s ibling as opposed to what they think they should or would 
do in the stressful situation. 
Another area for further research is to investigate 
the stress and coping responses of siblings within the 
context of a family adaptation to stressors associated 
with the presence of a disabled child. How closely do 
siblings mirror their parents' reactions to stress and 
subsequent coping strategies? It is important to remember 
that the parents like the siblings will often have varied 
and conflicting emotions depending on their own stage of 
life as well as the stage of the disabled child. 
The stress and coping framework is a valuable 
paradigm to use for the investigation of the relationship 
between disabled and nondisabled siblings. Although the 
term "stress" is not one that is usually associated with 
sibling relationships, it is an appropriate word to 
---- --
130 
many of the interactions and roles between 
characterize 
sisters, especially if one of them is 
brothers and 
There has been much variability in the 
disabled. 
ning of siblings who have disabled brothers and 
functio ? 
with little understanding of the differences. 
sisters 
studies documenting what constitutes stress and 
Further 
co pi. ng for these nondisabled siblings will not only aid in 
eveloprnent of a theoretical framework, but also in 
the d 
esign of effective prevention and intervention 
the d 
programs (Gamble & woulbroun, 1993). 
-Impl'i cations for Practic_g 
Although this is onlY one small study, it confirms 
previous beliefs about adolescents with disabled siblings. 
ave unique situations in their lives that need to be 
They h 
into account if they are to be understood. Within 
taken ? 
e context of their education, classroom teachers should 
th
ize that they may have pressures and/or added 
rea1? 
responsibilities at home that other students maY not have. 
It would be helpful if theY could be encouraged to relate 
eir sibling experiences through projects, such as a 
th ? 
research paper on oown's syndrome. In this way they are 
exploring issues that are vital to their lives. As more 
disabl ed students are entering regular c 1 assrooms thr oug h 
role of these 
the process of integration, the special 
"n ormal" siblings will become apparent. 
Additionally, school counsellors need to be aware of 
fact that students with disabled siblings are often in 
the 
131 
need of support to work through their life situation. 
Many times they do not even know that other students 
within the school face similar challenges. Ideally, the 
formation of sibling support groups provides opportunities 
for them to interact with other siblings who face similar 
problems and experience similar feelings, and to give and 
receive help from them as well as the counsellor 
(Featherstone, 1980; Gallagher & Powell, 1993; Lobato, 
1990; Post-Kammer & Nickolai, 1985). The video "What 
About Me?" about adolescents with disabled brothers and 
sisters provides an excellent view of the dynamics of such 
a group. 
A number of articles have been written on siblings as 
a result of conversations with them. Common themes have 
been raised as to the needs of these adolescents with 
special brothers and sisters (Chinitz, 1981; Featherstone, 
1980; French, 1992; Lobato, 1990; Meyer, Vadasky, & 
Fewell, 1985; Post-Kammer & Nickolai, 1985; Wasserman, 
1983). This research underlines the importance of these 
issues, and sibling or parent support groups should 
certainly focus on them. The themes include the 
following: 
Open and honest communication about the disability of 
the child and the impact on the family. Children hesitate 
to reveal their private, negative emotions, but doing so 
can help to alleviate tensions and anxieties, both within 
the individual and within the family. The adolescents in 
132 
this study who felt stress from family relationships were 
still 1l? kely to feel negative emotions about thei? r 
disabled sibling, even after they have attempted to deal 
with the problems. Therefore, the issue of communication 
is a particularly valuable one as the sibling and family 
work through many of the difficult issues. 
Coping strategies in dealing with the issues of their 
disabled sibling and their family, peers, and community-
at-large. They need to know how to communicate with their 
family and friends about the disability. The adolescents 
in this research used a variety of coping strategies when 
dealing with the negative emotions involved with their 
disabled siblings. 
Information about the disability, such as prognosisL 
inheritability, and transmissibility. This may be 
increasingly important as the siblings become older a nd 
begin the process of dating and marriage. This was 
confirmed in this study. In spite of their coping 
efforts, adolescents who felt stress in the area of 
intimacy were less likely to have positive feelings of 
enjoyment and tolerance about their disabled brothers a nd 
sisters. 
Encouragement to develop their own identity. The 
development of personal identity is especially important 
at certain stages, such as adolescence and preadolescence. 
Being similar to or different from the disabled brother or 
sister is a vital issue for the siblings to resolve. The 
133 
may 
siblings who fail to establish an independent identity 
be v developing symptoms similar to the ulnerable to 
They need to pursue their own 
di' sabled brother or sister. 
a recogni ion o heir own strengths 
lives 'which includes ?t' ft ? 
and weaknesses. 
Quality time with parents on an individual basis. 
The adolescents need to share their feelings and concerns 
about th e1. .r own lives, independent of their disabled 
oespite the fact that one-third of 
brothers and sisters. 
the ad olescents in this research did not feel neglect, 
that they did not receive their fair share of 
others felt 
time a nd attention. 
If the needs of adolescents with disabled siblings 
are properly addressed both inside and outside of 
' 
the family, one day they, too, maY echo the following 
Words_ 
To conclude r want to relate that I, myself, 
' 
and my other siblings all agree that despite the 
challenges and hassles of having a brother with 
autism, we feel we've benefited from the experience. 
We've learned to appreciate 0 ur blessings of health 
and to be ? te toward others 1ess fortunate. 
compassiona 
Certainly, we?ve learned to not mind being different. 
powell & Gallagher, 1993, P? 35-
134 
APPENDIX A 
DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION 
Please answer the following questions: 
1. How old are you? 
2. What grade are you in? 
3. Are you male or female? (circle one) 
4. How old is your disabled brother or sister? 
5. What is his/her gender (male or female)? (circle one) 
6. What school does he/she attend? 
7. Please list the age and gender (male or female) of 
any other brothers and sisters: 
1. 
2 ? 
3. 
8. What is your father's occupation? 
9. What is your father's highest grade completed in 
school? 
1. Went to high school 
2 ? Graduated from high school 
3. Went to college 
4. Graduated from college 
5. Has a master's or doctorate degree 
10. What is your mother's occupation? 
11. What is your mother's highest grade completed in 
school? 
1. Went to high school 
2 ? Graduated from high school 
3 . Went to college 
4. Graduated from college 
5. Has a master's or doctorate degree 
12. List what adults are currently living with you at 
home? 
1. mother 
2. father 
other adults such as stepmother (please specify 
relationship to you) 
3. 
4. 
Thank you for taking the time to complete the following 
questionnaires. 
135 
.APPENDIX B 
September, 1993 
Dear Parents 
' 
haryland r of _my doctoral work at the university of 
Mfa vingA s aa'd ipat 1s !~ doing.a s~udy on the impact on siblings of rom my led child in the family- My interest stems 
Education ~ears of teaching at the carroll county 
as the si8s tenter as well as from my personal experiences 
Pllot stud er of~ disabled individual- I have done a 
research t~ ~n this subJect and will be expanding my 
are related includ7 the f7e1ings, stress and coping that 
teenager to having a disabled brother or sister for 
Who hIasf s~ oua_gheas ve1 2 a - te1e7n-ager between the ages of 12 - 17 
partici di7abled brother or sister and agree to 
adminis~ate in this study, three questionnaires will be 
stress dered t~ your teenager- The questionnaire on 
adolesc eals with possible stress that maY arise in any 
oping t . e. e o her wo questionnaires assess the 
c ent' S lif Th t t . . 
relatedstrategies and emotional issues that are directly 
agree t ha~1ng a disabled brother or sister- If you 
set up pO articipate in the study, I will contact you to 
teena Oa  convenient time and place to meet with your 
fillsger. I will remain with your teenager as he/she 
minute out the questionnaires which should take about 45 
emotiFrso.m  the pilot studY which was done there was little 
questonal reaction from the teenagers when the 
counsionnaire was given- RecentlY all of the guidance 
many ellors in carroll countY schools were informed of the 
sist issues involved in having a disabled brother or 
spea:r. They are available if your teenager would like to 
Perm'Ytoo~ r socmooeopneer.a tion would be greatlY appreciated in 
Onceittin9 your teenager to partici~ate in this studY? 
~ny tperm1ss1on is given, you maY withdraw your consent at 
timhee ? I have received the permission and cooperati.o n of 
The Carroll county school system to conduct this research-
conf:esults of the questionnaires will be kept 
Willidential; neither your name nor that of your teenager 
c.c apRpeeatur rnon  thaen y paeorcmuimsseinotn-  sliP on the next page to . 
the.E.C. if your disabled child is a_st~dent there or 10 
Pleae nclosed envelope if your child 1s 1~ another school-
que se feel free to call me at 376-3871 if you have any 
sincerelY, 
stions. Ann s. aarden 
136 
APPENDIX B 
The Relationship of stress and Coping to Emotions 
Among Adolescents with Disabled Siblings 
The study to which this form relates was explained 
in the attached letter. 
PERMISSION FORM 
Directions: Please check your responses to the questions in 
the appropriate boxes below. Thank you. 
Do you have a teenager between the ages of 12 - 17 who 
has a disabled brother or sister? 
Yes 
No 
Mrs. Ann Harden's research will focus on the Stress, 
Coping and Emotional Issues of Adolescents with a 
Disabled Sibling. Teenagers with disabled siblings 
will be asked to complete three questionnaires. I 
under that the answers will be confidential and will 
be used only for the purpose of this research. 
My teenager has my permission to participate. 
My teenager does not have my permission to 
participate. 
I am interested but would like more information. 
Disabled Student's Name: ------------------
School: ---------------------
Teenager's Name: 
____-_-_-_-_-_-_-_----School: ___-_-_-_-_--_-_-_ -_:_ 
Parent Signature: --------------------
Date: _______T elephone Number: -----------
137 
APPENDIX B 
The Relationship of Stress and Coping to Emotions 
Among Adolescents with Disabled Siblings 
The study to which this form relates was explained 
in the attached letter. 
PERMISSION FORM 
Direct? 
the ions: Please check your responses to the questions in 
appropriate boxes below. Thank you. 
,.___ 
I/ 
~? gain inf?rmation regardfng the ~x~ct nature of the 
~Sabled child's handicapping condition, Mrs. Harden 
wi11_review the psychologist's evaluation in the child's 
confidential folder. 
- I give permission for Mrs. Harden to review the 
psychologist's evaluation. 
- I do not give permission f?r Mrs. Harden to review 
L the psychologist's evaluation. 
I 
Disabled Student's Name: __________________  
School: ________________________  
Teenager's Name: ______________________  
School: _______________________  
Parent Signature: _____________________  
Date.? _______ Telephone Num ber??  ____________  
138 
APPENDIX B 
September, 1993 
PARENT COPY 
Dear Parents ' 
aryland r of.my doctoral work at the university of 
M~a vingA s aa'd ip1s!
a~t l
 doing_a study on the impact on siblings of 
rorn my ed child in the family, My interest stem 
Education ~ears of teaching at the Carroll county s 
a~ the si8s tenter as well as from my personal experiences 
pilot stud er of~ disabled individual. I have done a 
research t~ ~n this subJect ~nd will be expanding my 
are related nc1ud7 the f7e1ings, stress and coping that 
teenager to having a disabled brother or sister for 
who has ~soaug_ehsa ve1 2 If a 
- te1e7n ? ager between the ages of 12 - 17 
partici disabled brother or sister and agree to 
adrninisiate in this study, three questionnaires will be 
stress dered t~ your teenager- The questionnaire on 
adolesc eals w~th possible stress that may arise in any 
coping ent's life. The other two questionnaires assess the 
related rategies and emotional issues that are directly 
agree t sto having a disabled brother or sister- If you 
set up participate in the study, I will contact you to 
teena Oa  convenient time and place to meet with your 
fillsger. I will remain with your teenager as he/she 
minut out the questionnaires which should take about 45 
ernotiFerso.r n the pilot study which was done there was little 
quest~nal :eaction from the teenagers when the 
coun ionnaire was given- Recently all of the guidance 
manys~llors in Carroll countY schools were informed of the 
sist issues involved in having a disabled brother or 
spea~r. They are available if your teenager would like to 
per _Yto~ r socmooeopneer.a tion would be greatlY appreciated in 
Oncrnittin9 your teenager to partici~ate in this s tudy. 
~nyetpermission is given, you maY withdraw your consent at 
timh e . I h ave received the perm.i ssi. on an d coopera t.i on o f 
Th: Carroll county school system to.conduct this research-
conf~esults of the questionnaires will be kept 
will idential; neither your name nor that of your teenager 
c apRpeatur rnon  thaneY  pcetromcuimsseinotn-  sliP on the next page to 
thC.E.C. if your disabled child is a student there or in 
Pl: enclosed envelope if your child iS i~ another school-
q as7 feel free to call me at g76-3871 if you have any 
sincerely, 
uest1ons. ADD s. Harden 
r - -
139 
APPENDIX B 
The Relationship of stress and Coping ~o _Emotions 
Among Adolescents with Disabled Siblings 
The study to which this form relates was explained 
in the attached letter. 
PERMISSION FORM 
Directions: Please check your responses to the questions in 
the appropriate boxes below. Thank you. 
Do you have a teenager between the ages of 12 - 17 who 
has a disabled brother or sister? 
Yes 
No 
Mrs. Ann Harden's research will focus on the Stress, 
Coping and Emotional Issues of Adolescents with a 
Disabled Sibling. Teenagers with disabled siblings 
will be asked to complete three questionnaires. I 
under that the answers will be confidential and will 
be used only for the purpose of this research. 
My teenager has my permission to participate. 
My teenager does not have my permission to 
participate. 
I am interested but would like more information. 
Disabled Student's Name: ------------------
School: ---------------------
Teenager's Name: 
____-_--_-_-_-_--_-_-School: _-_--_-_-_--_-_--_ _:_ 
Parent Signature: -----------------
Date: _______T elephone Number: -------------
140 
APPENDIX B 
The Relationship of Stress and Coping to Emotions 
Among Adolescents with Disabled Siblings 
The study to which thi s form relates was e x plained 
i n the attac hed letter. 
PERMISSION FORM 
Direct ? 
the i ons : Please check your responses to the questions in 
a ppr opria t e boxes below. Thank you. 
'I'o . . 
ct? ga i n i nforma tion regarding the exact nature of the 
~Sabled c h i ld' s handicapping condition, Mrs. Harden 
i~ll_re v i ew the psychologist's evaluation in the child's 
n fi d e ntia l f older. 
- I gi v e per mi ssion for Mrs. Harden to review the 
Psy c hologist's evaluation. 
- I do not give permission for Mrs. Harden to review 
the p sychologist' s evaluation. 
I 
I 
I 
D? 
l s ablect Student' s Name: __________________  
School: 
-----------------
'I' e en ager ' s Name : _______________________  
Sc hool: _______________________  
Pa rent S ignature : _____________________  
Date- ______ Tel e phone Number: _____________  
141 
APPENDIX C 
I nstructions to the siblings 
I ntroductory statements made before the interview 
begins. 
ow are you today? My name is Mrs. Harden and I 
Hi, H 
Carroll county Education center. I 
teach at the 
I am going to ask you to 
appreciate your meeting with me. 
f' some questionnaires about the impact of having a lll out 
(name of disabled sibling) 
brother or sister like? ---- -
I am interested not onlY because I teach 
in your family. 
ch' n like your brother or sister, but because I also lldre , 
I have contacted your parents, 
have a disabled brother. 
hey have given me permission to talk to you today. 
and t 
The first thing ram going to have you do is fill out 
asic information about your family. You will notice 
some b 
where on the form does it ask for your name or the 
that no 
anyone in your familY? All of the information 
name of 
that you give me, including tbe responses to the 
questi onna.i res, will be conf.i dent.i al- you have the right 
tow?i thdraw from this study at anY time without any 
y. Please bring this paper back when you have 
Pena1t 
inished it. (The interviewer will check to make sure all 
f' 
information is complete when form is returned.) 
the ? 
Now I am going to give you three questionnaires, one 
at a time. You are to take each questionnaire back to 
142 
APPENDIX C 
I will 
your out, and bring it back to me. seat, fill i't 
The first questionnaire deals 
then give you another one. 
of the stresses that you may have in your life 
with some 
er. Some of these events may have happened to 
as a teenag 
some may not. Please read each of the 159 (or 
You and 
197) question carefully and decide if it has happened to 
You i? n the last three months. If so place an "X" on- the 
marked EVENT HAS HAPPENED in front of the event. For 
line 
event that has happened to you, please fill in your 
each 
good or bad it was when it happened. The 
rat?i ng of how 
goes from - 4 which is extremely bad to +4 which is 
scale 
good. Think about hoW you described the event 
extremely 
at e time that it happened when filling out the scale-
th
The next questionnaire haS to do with how you deal 
important problems that come up in your life. I want 
With . 
You to th i? nk about a problem or stressful event  th a t h as 
in the last 12 months that is related to having a 
happened . 
isabled brother or sister- srieflY describe the problem 
d' 
space provided in part I of the answer sheet. Then 
in the 
answer the 10 questions about the problem or s1' tu a t'1 0n b y 
ing the appropriate answer- In part II there are 48 
circ1? 
questions. Read each item carefullY and indicate hoW 
often you took that action to deal with the problem you 
swers include: N if 
an
The possible 
descr'b 
Your 1 ed in Part I. esponse is 
response is No, not at all; O if your r 
Yes , once or twice; S if your response is yes, some t?1 mes; 
143 
APPENDIX C 
and F i' f your response is Yes, fairly often; NA is the 
app y o you. Please answer each question 
item d oes not 1 t 
as a as possible. Note that the answers are ccurately 
numbe red across in rows on Part II of the answer sheet. 
Please b ri.n g the questionnaire back to me when you are 
finished. 
In the last questionnaire about feelings there are 25 
ions about some of the ways we can feel about things 
quest? 
because we have a disabled brother or sister. 
that happen 
we feel good about them and sometimes we feel 
Sometimes 
them. The questions can be answered by circling 
bad about 
of the 4 numbers on the scale which range from "never" 
0 ne 
Which i? s number 1 to "always" which is number 4. 
er, there is no right or wrong way to feel- It is 
Rememb 
important to be honest- Thank you for answering 
just ? 
these questions. 
I am doing a study for my doctorate on the stress, 
coping and feelings of teenagers who have cti' sa bled 
O 
brothers and sisters. you have helped me a 1 t b Y 
answering these questionnaires, and I appreciate it. The 
guidan ived a lot of 
ce counsellor in your school has rece 
information about the issues involved in having a disabled 
brother or sister and would be glad to speak with you if 
You 0 would like to talk to someone- D you h ave an Y 
Thanks for coming 
questions that I can help you with? 
here this evening (or afternoon)? 
144 
APPENDIX D 
Life Events 
Junior High 
Jn~t .... -? ._ . . 
The following pages contain a list of events which may or may not have 
happen d ~-
e to you. Please read each item carefully. If the event has happened to you in the past 
3 . - -
months, please place an "X" on the line marked EVENT HAS HAPPENED in front of the 
event. For each event which has happened please fill in your rating of the desirability of the 
event (how good or bad it was when it happened). 
~ Good (desirable) events are ones which are pleasant or make us happy 
While bad (u ndesi.r able) events are ones that upset us or make us feel scared, sad, or angry. 
Using th . 
e numbers below, write in the blank space marked GOOD/BAD RATING the number 
Which be st describes how desirable or undesirable the event was when ,?t  happene d to you. 
-g "O 
C ~ O ~ 
"O ] 0-:, .i= o v 
tcii  ::,,. ~ !-:" k;- ~"O c.:, s ~ ;: ~al ~-g eo t' g-g 
() aS  'O c. i~5  "g -~ 5 ~ ,Q ,;? r~ > >< 0 > ~ al z z .,, ..., .,, ..., i.J o 
-4 .. .. .... . . -3 .. ........- 2 .......... -1 .. . . . . . .. . 0  . ........ .+ 1 .......... +2 ..........+ 3 ......... +4 
14 5 
APPENDIX D 
Junior High--1 
? -g 
?5 "' 0-:, ~ 0 t 
cc }" >. l:i"' >- ~ 0 E 
t E- :, l -c :=: '?c._ ~ 'go ? g t ~ -
~m 0 0
co 
> ~i:J ZZ viO ci50 > UJO 
-4 
Ev~~~~? ... -3 .......... -2 .......... -1 .......... 0 .......... +1 .......... +2 .......... +3 ......... +4 
ItA PPENEO GooalBAD 
RATINQ 
1 
? -- Hobbies or activities (watching T.V ., reading, playing an instrument, etc.). ... 
2. D . 
-- o,ng things/spending time with family members ......................................... . 
3
? -- Spending time/talking with boyfriend/girlfriend .......... ...... ..... ............. ........ ... ..  
4. p 
-- eople not respecting your privacy or property ........... .. .......... ??????????????????????? 
5. G . . 
-- o,ng to bed/sleeping .................................................................................... --
6? D t? 
-- a 1ng or doing things with people of the opposite sex .................... ?????????????? __ 
7. F . 
-- nend having emotional problems .................... .. ...... ... .... ??????? ??????????????????????? --
8. T . 
-- ry,ng to qu,?t smok,?ng? ???????????????????????????? .................................................. ..... --
9. F 
-- ree time ,?n school ??????????????????????????????????????? ?? ??????????????????????????????????????????????? --10
?-- Family members, relatives, step-parents move in or out of house ..... ........... --
11 . H I . -
-- e ping other people 
12 ?????????????????? 
........... ............................................... ......... --
?- - F.i g ht wi?t h or problems with a f n?e n d. ............................................................. --
13. T k. . 
-- a 1ng care of daily appearance and hygiene ............... .... ..... ..... ............. .... --
14?-- Worry about performance in extracurricular activities (music, arts, etc.) ..... . __ 
15
?-- Restrictions at home (having to be in at a certain time, etc.) ........................ --
16 
.- - Death of  a f am,? 1 y mem b er. ............................................ . ............. . ????????????????? --
7 
7?-- Minor physical ailments or illnesses (headaches, cuts, bruises, etc.). ...... .... --
1a . __ Family member becoming pregnant or having a child ... ... ................ .. ...... ..... -? --
19. --Att en di'n g school. ....................................................... ? ?????????? .......................... __ 
20
?--Hospitalization of a family member or relative ....... ........ ................................ --
21 ?-- Recovering from an accident or illness ... ...................................................... --
22. ~ --C; ,h.  ange in persona/ appearance .... ...... .. ............................... . ??????? ??????? .......... __ 
23. -- F. a/h.n g in love or .b eginning a relati.o ns h,'p  wi? th boyfriend/girlfriend ............... --
146 
APPENDIX D 
Junior High--2 
~ 
u -::, "? 
E :-; ;: ; -g 
u cc >, 
!:: -::, c 1 
c5-::, 
~ t >, .,;; u ~ ~ c3 0 
U>J<  c"c'  u E-:, -5 a..J.  :: "O tJ "O E > el, "O el, 0 ::: :':J ?o E o c ~ -g 
Cl) c:c c?;-:; c"i:l'  zz0  c? -nOC  0 C u > >< 0 "' 0 UJ 0 
-4 .. . .... ... -3. -2 -1 0 +1 ......... . +2 .......... +3 ......... +4 
EvENr HAs- ? ? ? ? ? ?? ?  ? ? ? ? ?? ? ?  ?? ?  ? ? ?? ? ? ? ?  ??  ??  ? ?? ? ? ? ??  GooolBAo 
HAPPENED RA nNa 
24
?-- Work hassles (rude customers, unpleasant jobs, etc.) .... ..... ... ........... ......... . -
25 L?k? 
?-- 1 1ng someone who doesn't like you ............ .................. ..... ..... .......... ......... . 
26
?-- Doing poorly on an exam or paper. . .. ..... ... ......... .. .... ................ ..... ..... ....... ....  
27
?--Talking or sharing feelings with friends ._. .... .... ........ .... ..... .. ....... ......... .. .. ...... ...  
28
?- - Cha nge 1? n persona/ hea It h  or f',t  nes s. ...... .. . ?? ?? ? ? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ?. . .. .. ???? ????? ??? ????? 
29.- - Ar res t o f a fa mi/y member. ...... ........ ..... .... ............ ........... .... .? ??? ??????? ???? ??? ??? ?? ??? 
30
?--Getting in trouble or being suspended from school. .. ... ... ........ .. .. .... .... ... .... .... --
31 ?- - Has s /e s, arguments, or f1.9  ht s w,? th other students or persons .... .. .................. --
32
?-- Financial troubles or money worries ... ........ .... .... ...... ... .... ........ .. ... .. ........... ... --
33?-- Getting bad grades or progress reports ..... .. ... ... .... .. ........ ...... ..... .. .... ... .... .. ... --
34.- - Ha v,.n g bad classes or teachers ................. .. .... ........ .... ... ..  ..... .. .. ....... ... .... ..... __ 
35 ?--Wo rry about school performance ............ ......... .. .. .......... ..... .. .? ?? ???? ???? ?? ???????????--
36 ?--Wo rry about sports performance .............. .. .. .. .... .. ..... ...... ........ . ..... .. ..... ......... __ 
37? --Change in moral or religious beliefs ........... ... ....... .. ... ....... ... .? ?? ?? ?? ???????????? ??????--
38 ?..__ Not getting enough sleep ......................... .... .... ..... ........ . .... ... .. ... ... ....... .. ........ __ 
39
?..__ Dieting or keeping track of weight... ..... ..... ...................... ... ........... ..... ........... --
40?..__ Having a good talk with a teacher or other adult .......... ......... ............. ........... --
41 ?---- Schoo/ interfering with other activities .. ........... ............................  ????? ??????????;? --
42 ?..__ Emotional worries (feeling depressed, moody, ang ry ' insecure, etc.). .......... --
43 .. .. .... ..................... __ 
?..__ Being assau It e d ...................... . ??????? ????? ??? ???????????? ???????????????? 
44 ?---- Buying new clothes ........ ................ ............ .. ......................  ?????? ??? ?????? ? --
45. -...,.;.; .,. ._ Eati.n g? ???????? ?????????????????????????. ............................. .? ????????????????????????????????? ????????????--
46.- --- End of school.  year. ......... .................. .............. ... . ???????????????????????????? ?????? ?? ???? ?? --
147 
APPENDIX D 
Junior High--] 
; '3 >, 
>, ..c 0 
3 0 
.E 0 "O 0 "O E 
!)1)0 E C ~ 0 "O 
e?n- o0 
= 0 
 C C 0 Cl) 0 >< 0 
E.::~:?? ??_- > UJ 0 -3. ......... -2. ........? ? 1 .......... 0 ...??..... + 1 ....?....? +2. ......... +3. ...; _;;;;;;.
HAPPENEo .RA nNa0  
47
?--Gett,?ngm a,?1? ????????????? ....................................................... .. ............................. . 
48
?- -Go,?n g t och  urc h ............................................................. .. ........... ?. ........ ? ?? ? ? ? ?? ? ?  
49
?- -Good wea th er. ................................................................ . .......................... .. :. -
I so. .__ Hav,?n ga1.0  b ..............................................._ . ........... ....... .. .............................. . 
I 51. --L?i s t en,.n g to musr.c . ............................................................. .. ........................ .. 
52. --M eet,.n g new people ................. .... .. ................................... .. . . ........................ . 
53. .__ Men s t ruat,.o n .................................................... ?? .. ............................................ __ 
54 .. __ Putting things off. ............................................................................................  
ss ?-- s moking cigarettes ........ .......................................................... .. ................... --
56 ?.__ Wn.t,.n g fetters ................................................................. .. . ............................ __ 
57? .__ B eing involved in a car accident... ...................................... .. .......................... __ 
sa ?--- Getting or losing a pet. ......................................................... .. ...................... __ 
59? --- Change in eating habits .......................................... .. ....................... __ 
60 ?--- Major success or failure in sports ................................... .. ............................ __ 
61. --- Ma1. or success or failure ,.n  extracum.c u 1a r a ctivities (music, arts, etc.) ........ --
62 ?--- Friend getting married or engaged ............................... .. .............................. __ 
63 ?--- Having few or no friends ......................................... .. .............................. ..... __ 
64 ?--- Having to share a room ........................................... .. ................................... __ 
65 ?--- Arguments or fights between parents ............................ .. ............................ __ 
66 ................. __ 
?--- Getting good grades or progress reports .................... .. 
67 ................. __ 
?-- Having good classes or teachers ........................... .. 
68 . .. ............ __ 
?---.Getting ready tor school... ............................................ . 
69 . -' ,. .. ................. --
?-- Drinking or drug use .................................................. .. 
148 
APPENDIX D 
Junior High--4 
:,... 
] .~ ,, 1 ;: 
~ a:i c5 -:, ~ 
-g >, 
.::: ~ c 1 0 ? -=t 
>, 0 
 ~ 1 8 Q:l '::-:, 0 "O E .>< "' >, 
~ a:i 1J E ~ -:= > = "' .0 "O 
.::' ? L. 040 E C ... u g '8 0 0 C C 
Cl) a:i =-= :-, ?- C >< 0 Cl) Q:l zz en o Cl) 0 > UJ 0 
-4 .. . ....... -3 2 1 0 +1 .......... +2 .......... +3 ......... +4 
EV EJ.rr HAs- ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? - ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? - ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? GooDIBAo 
HAPPENED ? .. R,mNG 
70 
71 ?-- Understanding classes/homework. ........... ... ??????????????????? ?????? ?? ????????????????????? 
I ?-- Change in relationship with boyfriend/girlfriend ........... .... .. .... ....... .... ... ... .. .. . --
72?-- Change in relationship with family member(s) .. ......... ... .. ......... ...... ..... .. ....... --
73?-- Change in relationship with friend(s) ... ............. ................ ... ..... ............ ........ --
74. -- Pro  bl ems wi.t h transportati.o n ............. .. ... .... .. ..... ????????? ?? ??? ???????? ????? ?? ??????????????? --
75
?-- Vacation, trip, or summer break .......... ......... ...... ..... ....... .. ................ ....... .... . 
76.- - 0 actor's or Dentist's appointments........... .... ..... .... .. ............ ???? ?? ???????????????????--
77
?-- Pressures or expectations by parents ...... ........ .. ... ... ...... ...... .......... ... ........... --
78?-- Visiting a parent that doesn 't live with you .. .... .... ...... ... ......... ... .................... --
79?-- Having plans fall through (not going on a trip, etc.) ... ....... ............................ --
80 v?1?--  siting with relatives .................................. ......................... ..  ....................... __ 
81 ?-- Change in church attendance .............................. .. .... ........... . ???????? ?????? ????????--
82 ?-- Friends getting drunk or using drugs ..... ........ .........................  ??????????????????????--
83 ?-- Having braces removed .................................................. . ????????????????????????????--
84.- - Oe ath of a relative ............................................ .? ????????????????????????????? ?????????????--
85 ?-- Obligations at hom. e. ...................................................  ???????????????????? ?? ???????????--
86? -- Sp'e nding time alone ............. ........................................... ??? ???????????????????????? ?--
87? -- Getting complimented. ........... ............. ......... ........ ....... ..... . ?????????????????????????:?--
88 ?-- Fri?e nds becoming pregnant or havi?n g a c hild ?? ???????? ??????????? ????????????? ??? ?????????-. -
89
?-- Family member or relative having emotional prob/ems ................. . 
90
?-- Friend or family member recovering from illness or injury. ...... ................. ... --
91 ?---:- Arguments or prob/ems with boyfriendlgirlfriend ........ .. .. .... ... ....... . 
92 ?-- Something bad happens to a friend ....... .... ........ ............ .? ??????????????????????? ?????--
149 
APPENDIX D 
Junior High--5 
~ 5 
E0  -::-::,  ;; ,~ ';i -::,00 ~ e .r:: 'v-'-~::,  ->- v a:i 3 ? "j' o e 
~> <c-:E:,  C' 0 .c. .c.~ .E-::, ~"8 i:':' ~"8 E -::, eo -c .::: 5 ea g :: o o ';;t o 
,;; r53m ~J ZZ ~0 ci50 > WO 
E -4 ........ . . -3 ..... . .... -2 .......... -1 .......... 0 .......... +1 .......... +2 .......... +3 ......... +4 
VENr HAs GooDIBAo 
HAPPENED RA nNa _ 
93 
?-- Change in privileges or responsibilities at home .... ......... ....... .................... .. 
94. Ch . 
-- ange in health of a family member or relative ........................................ .. 
95. 
-- Change 1?n health of a fr1?end 
96 ................................. ....................................... . 
?-- Change in number of friends (make new friends or lose friends) ... .. ........ .. .. 
9 7 . 
?-- Parents discovering something you didn't want them to know ..................... --
98 
?-- People interrupting when you are trying to get work done .. ... .... .................. --
99? 8 h . d 
-- rot er or sister getting engaged or mame ............................................... --
10o . 
?-- Brother or sister getting separated or divorced .......... .. ................................ --
101 f ? d 
?-- Not spending enough time with family members or nen s. ......................... --
102 
?-- Schoo/ or career change of fa_mily member ...................... ......... __ 
( drops out of school, gets Job, etcj. ........................ .. 
103. -- Ad vancing a year in school.. ................. ................................ .. ..................... --
104 ?-- L1v'.1 ng with only one parent.. ....................................................... .. . ............... __ 
105
?-- Ta/king on the phone ............. ....................................................................... --
106
?-- Losing job (quitting, getting fired, laid off, etc.). ............................................ --
107 H0 mework or study.in g ... :. .................................................... . .. ..................... --?--
10a ?-- Ta king care of brothers or sisters ........................................... .. .................... __ 
109. -- Persona/ achievement at work (getti.n g a rai?s e, Pr omotion, etc.) ................. -. -
1
10 ?-- Prob/ems or arguments with teachers or pr,?n c iP a l ......... .............................. --
111. -- Prob/ems or arguments with parents, si.b li.n gs, or family members .............. --
112. -- s Pendi.n g ti.m e at home .... .............................. .. ............................................ --
113 .'---- Having or making money. ................................................ .. .......................... --
114 ?. .. ................. __ 
?--'Change in alcohol or drug abuse ............................................ .. 
115 t ...................... __ 
?-- Making honor roll or other school achievemen s. .................. . 
150 
APPENDIX D 
:,._ 
u Junior High--6 
E ~ 
? 
:-. :-. -:, 
.~..  ~ ..c ;; -::, ~ >, 0 -:, >, 
~ >, 
..c x 
0 :':J 0 
C)<l: .J~"'  c 0 E -:, -5 al ~ 0 E 
> 0 'O ::: '7 ?:-ii 'O ?o ... "' 0 ~~ E C .>.. , :0:,  'O Cl) a:i ci5 zz ?- 0 C 0 0 0 ~ ci5 0 Cl) 0 > >< 0 UJ 0 
-4 ..... ... -3 2 1 0 +1 +2 .......... +3. ........ +4 
E '&,T/-f?s- ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? GooolBAD 
1-f.,p""'?? .. .  FIA TING 
116
?-- Negative feelings or worry about your appearance .. ................................... . 
117 f' 
118 ?-- Negative feelings or worry about personal health or 1tness ........................ . 
?- - Do,?n g h ousehold chores .................................. ?????????????????????????? ???????????? ..... . 
112 109.- - Bee omi.n g more .i ndependent.. .. ............. .................................. .? ? ?????????????????? 
?-- Something good happens to a friend .. ..................... ...................... .... .... .. ... . 
121. 
122 --
p art,.c ,.p ation in sports or recreati.o n ................. .............. .. ..... .. . ....... ... ....... ... . 
?-- Breaking up with or being rejected by a boyfriendlgirlfriend ......................... --
123._ _ Bad we a th er .......... .................... .. .................................. .. ............................ . 
124 ?-- De ath of a friend .... .. ................................................................... . .................  
125? -- Fa mily move ........... ............................................... ..................... .. .......... ..... . 
126? -- Feeling too young ????? ????????????? ... ... .................... ... ???????? ............ .... .. ................ --
127. -- Ge tt,.n g robbed ................................................... ???????? .. ................................ __ 
12a. __ Holiday s. .. .... ... ....... ................... .? ???????????????? ................................................. --
129. -- Ta k,.n g medication ...... .................... .................. .. ........ ..  ................................ __ 
130. __ Taking sh  owers ................... _? ???????????????????????????????????............ . ........ .. ..... --
131. __ Getting braces ?????????????.......?.?.  ............................................................... ......... --. 
132? -- Wearing braces ??????????? ?? ?????? ...... .. .. ... ............................................. .? ???????????? --
133 ?-- Being unemployed .... .. ................................................................... .? ????????????--
134 .- - Ch ang,?n g schools ............................................. .. ......... .? ???????????????????????????????--
13s. __ Gett,? ng di.v orced ........................ ????????????? .. ........ ............................................ --
136. -- Exerci.s ing............................................................ ....... ................................... --
137?-;--.?. .,._  Gett in g a J.o b ........................ .. .. .. .. .................... .. ................................. ?????????? --
1aa ?-- Not getti ng ma,? 1. .................. .. ................. ........... ..... ......... . ............ ................ --
151 
APPENDIX D 
Junior High--7 
-::, 
>. ~ 0 >. j 
E -o c5 o-::, 
=-40 E C ~ 
z? -;; 0 0 C - 0 Cl) 0 > 
cV E-N4rH ..A.s. ...... -3 17 ??  ? ? ??  ??  ??  -
2 ? ?? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? - 1 ?? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 0  ?? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? + 1 ?? ? ???????+2. ......... +3 ......... +4 GooolBAo 
APPEfVED 
u ~~ 
139
?. __ Parent Io ses J? ob ......... ....... ... ........... ......... .. .......... . ?????????????????? ????????????????????? 
140? --- p rob/ems at work. .... ... .... ..... .... .......................... ................... ??? ????? ???????????????--
147 ?.__ Re ce;v,?ng a gr? tt ...... ..... .......... ..... ......... .?. .......... .. ?????????????????? ??? ?????????????????????? 
J4 2. - Sleeping late .... .... ???????. ... ... ............ .......... :?. ............................................. ....  
143. .__ we arr.n g contacts .. ....... .... ...... ... ... .. ... ................ .. . ........................................  
144. __ We; g h t c h ange ... ...... ....... ....... ...... . ...................... ........................... ............. . 
145 ?-- Having teachers favor other students ............................ . ????????????????????????? ?? ?? 
146 ?--- Parents getting divorced. ... ... ................................ .? ?????? ?? ???????????????????? ???????? --
147? --- Waiting in fines, waiting for people, etc ......... ... ....... .... ... .. ? ? ????? ????? ??? ???? ??? ????? --
148 ?--- Not getting along with parents of friends ..... ..................... ? ???????? ?????????????????? --
149 ?--- Doing Wei/ on an exam or paper. ...................... ....... ......... . ?? ??? ??????? ? --
150
?-- Spending time/relaxing/going out wi th friends. .......... ............. .. ..... ..... . 
157 ?...__ Participation in extracurricular actr.v r.t r.e s (music ? arts. etc.).. ........ ..... ......... --
1s 2 ?...__ Frr.e nd(s) move away or" you move away from friends ............ .. ?????????????? ????? --
153 ?-- Getting punished by pare.n ts?. ..... ....................... . ?????????????????? ???????????? .......... --
154 ?...__ Personal hospitalization .... .... :. ?. ..................... .? ?????????????????????????????????????????? . 
I 155 ?...__ Feeling pressed for time ................................ .. ....................................... . 156 ?...__ Worry about nuclear war. ................................ .? ?????? ..................................... _ 
157 ........................................ . 
8?-Getting up in the morning.. .... .......... ... ............. .. ....... __ 
15 ?-Being in Jove or in a relationship............................... ......................... . .. ..... __ 
159 ?...__ Not having a boyfriend/girlfriend ...................... .. ............................... . 
1 52 
APPENDIX D 
Life Events 
High School 
~ The following pages contain a fist of events which may or may not have 
appenedto 
You. Please read each item carefully. If the event has happened to you in the past 
3 rnonths 
' Please place an "X" on the line marked EVENT HAS HAPPENED in front of the 
event F 
? or each event which has happened please fill in your rating of the desirability of the 
event (how . 
good or bad ,t was when it happened). 
~ir~h:1:~. _ . . 
 Desirable events are ones which are pleasant or en1oyable whlie 
lJndesirab/ . . 
e events irritate, annoy, or upset people. Using the numbers below. write 1n the 
blanks 
Pace marked DESIRABILITY RATING the number which best describes how desirable 
or unde ? 
sirabte th e event was when it happened to you. 
2 >, 4) 
.::J V -
>, - .CDj  
- l.) .... - :tl .... ?-~ :tl 
~-::, >< 4) 
? - C u.J C (/)= 
-4 
??????????-3 2 O +1 +2 .......... +3 .. ....... +4 ??????????- ??????????-1 ?????????? ?????????? ?????????? 
1 52 
APPENDIX D 
Life Events 
High School 
~T . 
ha he following pages contain a list of events which may or may not have 
PPenedto 
3 You. Please read each item carefully. If the event has happened to you in the past months 1 
ev ' P ease place an "X" on the line marked EVENT HAS HAPPENED in front of the 
ent. For each . 
e event which has happened please fill in your rating of the desirability of the 
Vent (how 
900d or bad it was when it happened). 
~ir::ik:r:~. _ 
.  Desirable events are ones which are pleasant or enjoyable while 
undesirab/ 
b e events irritate, annoy, or upset people. Using the numbers below, write in the 
~nkspace . . 
marked DES/RABIL/TY RATING the number which best describes how desirable 
or undesirable 
the event was when it happened to you. 
1.) 
15 ~ 
:, _::; 
I.. :: 
2 ?3 -~ 
.:: c-5 ; t) ~1.) i) 1.) -
=>.~ .f::  ._ C >. 15 3
-~- :-:::: .~D  
l= -;e .0..  ?-i.: .u..  ?.-.. - -g ?o-  c :D ?;;; Cc  U"'  ->< 1".)'  .:!l ~ 
zz 0 en C c..:.J C ci5= 
????????-3..... 
. .. -2 . . . ?? ??? .... -1 ??????? ...0  .. ??????? +1 ?????????? +2 ...... .... +3 .. ....... +4 . 
153 
APPENDIX D 
High School--/ 
1J 
>, ?=?"  
1- J u;,I ) 
>c 
-4... ... ....  -3 .. ........ -2 ?? ?? ????? ?-1 ?? ?????. .. 0 .. . ??????? + 1 ?????????? +2 .......... +3 ....... .. +4 
DESIRABILITY 
RATING 
2l . -- Being assulted. . ...................... ................ .. ... ...... .. .... ... .... ..... .. .......... ............... ........ __ 
3 ? -- Hospitalization of a family member or relative .. ....... ... ........................... .... .... ...... .... ._ _ 
4 ? -- Work hassles (rude customers. unpleasant jobs. etc.) ... ......... ..... .... .......... .. .. ......... ._ _ 
? -- Worry about school performance .............. ... ....... .......................... . 
6s?  -- wo rry about sports performance .............. ?. . .. .. ????? ??? ???? ? .. ... ?? ........ . ???? .. ?. ................... __ 
7..  -- Being around people who are inconsiderate or offensive ................ ... ... ... ... ......... ... ._ _ 
W 
-- orry about school performance . in extracum?c  ular activities ........ ... .... .... .. ...... .. __ 
(music. arts.etc) ....... .......... .... ................ ............... .. .... .. ...... ... . 
B. -- Persona/ achievement at work (getting a raise. promotion. stc.) ..... .. .. .. ....... ... ... .... .. __ 9
? -- Worry about nuclear war........................................ .. . ....... ... . 
lO. -- Personal hospitalization.. ... ..... ............. ... ..... .... .... .......... ...... ............ ???? 
11 
? -- Traffic or parking problems ......... .......... .... .. ..... .. .... ....... .... .. ...... . 
12
? -- Restrictions at home ( having to be in at a certain time. erc.). ...................... .. ...  
13 ? -- Good weather. . .................. .. ................ ...... ..... .... .. ..... ... .. .. . .. . ...... ....... .... ..... .. . 
14
? -- Someone showing they care ......... ... ... ....... .. ........ ... .. .... ... .. .... ... ... ... .... .... ... . 
15 ? -- Trouble with the law. .. ... .... .............................................. .. .. .. . ... ................ .... . 
16
. -- Poor relationships between family members or frie s ......... ... ..... ........ ........ .. ...... .. __ 
17 nd
-- Not spending enough time with family members or friends .... ..... ...... ........... .. ... .. .... __ 
18 ? -- Feeling too young ...... .... .. .. .... ... ....... .. ... ..... ...... ...... .. ... ..  ????????????? ?????????? ....... .... . 
19 ? -- Getting a job ........ .............. .. ...... ......... ....... ??? ????? ??????????? ?????? ?? ???? .... ..... ... . .. ... ...... .... __ 
20 . -- Getting mail. ... ..... .. ???? ? .. .. ?? ???? .... .... ......... .......... ????????????????? ... ????? ??? ??????? ?? ???????????? ?? ?? --
21. -- G ett,.n g robbed. . .. .... ................... .. .. ?? ????? ????? ?? ???? ????? . .. ..... .. .. .. ..... ..... .. ......... ... .......... __ 
22. __ we anng contacts .. ....... ... ....... .... ... ?? ?? ???? ???? ?? ??????????????????????????????? ?? ?? ???????????--
23 . -- Wr?tt,?n g letters .. .............. ...... ......................... ... ????? ?? ????????????????????? ??? ???? ?????????? ?? ?? ???? ??-
154 
APPENDIX D 
,., 
':.J ::E-:  ;J ;: 
~~  :c 2 2 2 l .g 
High Schoo/- -2 
.~g  ,, ;; ..c C 2 '-' :: 2 ~.... _u ?-._ -~- ? -~ ~....._ i.: t -~-  >. :c ~.,.  --= 
- ,., u :'/ 
,~ .? __9.. 1 ;: :-:5  -
-5=i  -?5;;  ?-==  -... =[ : :d .!:: :ii ?;; :: i 
""" - ....._v _..::: ~:::  c:: ~ =-  ,., = ?- ,., ,;;: C z Z ~ C ~, 
?4. ??? ?? ... ??3 .. . ...... . -2 . ......... - 1 ...... . ... 0 ...... .... + 1. .... ..... +2 .. ..... ... +3 ......... +4 
}Ef,4vpEpNENrEHo, .. FIAnNO 
0ESIRABIUTY 
24
? -- Getting braces ......... .......... ........ .............. .. .. .. ........ .......... ...... .. ... ........ ...... . 
25
? -- Wearing braces............................ .. .. .. .. ??? ?????? .. ??? ? .. .. ... .. .... .. 
26
? -- Driving ......................... ........... .. ....................... ..... .............. ......... .. ???? 
27
? -- Fa/ling in love or beginning a relationship with boyfriend/gir/frie28 nd 
....... ................ .. .. __ 
? -- Ta/king or sharing feelings with friends.. ............ ..... ....... .... ............. .. ............ . 
29
? -- Getting 1n troub le or being suspended from school ....... .................. ... ........ .... ..  
30
? -- Getting bad grades or progress reports ... ...... ..... .. ..... ................ ........... ... ..  
31 
? -- Dieting or keeping track of weight.. ..... .. ... ....... .... ........ ........ .. ...... ....... ... ........ ????? ???--
32. -- Me eting new people ....... ..... ...... ...... ........ ...... .. ............ .......... . ...... ....... .. ........ 
33
? -- Putting things off.... ...... ...... ............. ......... ... ... .. .... ??????????? .. .. ................ . 
34
? -- Smoking cigarettes ..... .... ... .... ... ... ... ...... ..... .... .... .......... .. .......... . 
35? -- Getting or losing a pet... ........................ ............... .......... ... ... ... .. .. .. ... ? ????????? ?????? ?? ??? ??:--
36
? -- Feeling pressured by fnends ...... .. ... .... ... .. .. .. .......... .... ..... .. .. . ?? ??" ' ' ' ' '' ????? ?? ??????????--
37
? -- Looking for a place to live.... .. ........ ........ ..... ....... ........ .... ???? ?? ???? ??? .... .. .. .. ???? ?????????? 
38
? -- Getting complimented.............. .. ..... .... ... ............................. ??? ????? ?????????? ???????? 
3 
9. -- J om. m. g the armed forces ........ ... ??????? ?? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ??" ' ' ' '''" " ' ??? ???? ??? ? ?????????????????? 
40? -- Getting driver's license or learner's permit.. ............................ ........... ....  ???????????????????--
41 ? -- Helping other people. ... ... ............... ..... ...... ..... .. ....... ... .... ... ......... .. . ??? ?????? ?? ?????????--
42 ? -- Getting up in the morning ....... ............ ........ .......  ... .. .. . ??? ???????????????? 
4-3. -- Ta lkm. g on the phone. ... ..... .. ... .... .... ........... ? ??????????????? ????????? ?? ??????? ????????? ?? ????????????--
44
? - Mamage o, becommg engaged...... ............................................. ??????????????????????--
45? - Losing job (quitting, getting ,,oo. laid off. el,.). .........................? ?? .......... ??--
46 ? -- Ta king care of younger brothers or sisters ... ... ........... .. ? ???? ??? ??"????. .......? ??????? 
47 
? -- Having or making money .. ............ ... .... ............... ..  ??????????? ????????????-
155 
APPENDIX D 
?..; 
~~ High School,-3 
?~ .::: 
~ \J . ;:;; 
C. ..g 
'- >-. ~ ~ 
. ,, -:: -~ ~'- -C: 
>, ~ -= ,., 1 
z 
t) ',,-, 
t .::!>~ ?= ~ .>.. , ?= == t) :: ;.,, > :: zz u ,., <) C/l :: :i'iC > C. 
-4 . .... . .... -3 . .. .. ..... -2 . .... . ... . -1 .......... o .......... +1 .......... +2 .......... + 3 +????????? 4 
EVENT HAS DESIRABILITY 
HAPPENED RATING 
48. Change in alcohol or drug abuse .. ...... .... .. .... ...... .. .... .. ... ........ ...... ..... __ 
49. __ Making honor roll or other student achievements ... ....... ......... .. ..... ... __ 
50. Friend getting married or engaged ............. ........ ... ...... .... .... ............. __ 
51 . Having few or no friends .... ...... ...... .. ......... ...... .. .. ..... ... ..... .... ... .. .. ..... __ 
52. __ Having to share a room ... ....... ... .. .... .. .... .. ...... ..... .. ... ........ ..... .. .... .. . 
53 . Having good classes or teachers ..... .................. ... ... ... ........ ..... ..... . . 
54. Change in relationship with boyfriend/girlfriend ........ ....... ......... ... ..... __ 
55. Change in relationship with family member(s) ...... ..... ......... ... .... ... ...._ _ 
56 . Change in relationship with friend(s) ............ .. ......... ................. .. ... ..._ _ 
57. __ Having plans fall through ... .. .. ........................ .. ...... ......... .. ....... ..... ... __ 
58. Change in church attendance ... .... ..... ... ..... .... ...... ..... .. ... ... ..... .... .... .. __ 
59. __ Having braces removed ........ ..... ..... ...... .... ...... ... ............. .... ..... ........ __ 
60. Having teachers favor other students .......... .. ... ...... ............... ........... __ 
61 . Doctor's or dentist's appointment... .... ... ......... ... ............ .... ..... ... .. ....._ _ 
62. Friend(s) move away or you move away from friends ..... ........... .. .. ..._ _ 
63. Eating ........ ........ .. ... ... ........ ............ ... ......... ..... ... ..... ...... ............ ...... ._ _ 
64. __ Friend/family member recovering from illness or injury ...... .... ........ .. . __ 
65. Bad weather. ....... ..................... ..... .... .. .. .... ..... .. .. ..... ............ .... ... ..... __ 
66. Getting divorced ......... ................ .... ..... .... ... ...... ... ............. .. ... ..... .... ._ _ 
67. __ Family move ... ..... ..... .... ..... ........ ...... .. .... .......... ........ ... ..... ... .. ... ........ __ 
68. Having a job ........... ... ... .... .. .. ..... .... .... ... ..... ...... ......... ..... .. ....... ....... ... __ 
69. Parent loses job .... .. ....... .... ....... .. ...... ..... .......... ... ... ............. .... .. ....... __ 
70. Taking medication ... ... .... .. .. ................... .... ...... ......... .. .... .... ... .. ...... ... __ 
71 . Taking showers ..... ..... .. ...... ... .. ... ......... .. .... .... ........... ..... .... .. ..... ....... __ 
156 
APPENDIX D 
High School?-+ 
2 
:-:, 
.: n ~ 
--
>. ... 
==  -~'-'  .>.. , u :-:, -:::, >. .::: 
'"J ::: :? ~ .;j = \- ;r, 
>::::: U 0 :,') :: zz >C 
-4 . . .. . ..... -3 .. . ....... -2 ... ...... . -1 .. ........ o. ......... +1 .. ........ +2 ... . .. ... . +3 ......... +4 
EVENT HAS DESIRABILITY 
HAPPENED RAnNG 
72. __ Weight change ... ... .. ..... ... ...... .. .... ........... ..... ...... ... ... .... .... ............. .... __ 
73. Change in personal appearance ............ ..... ....... ....... ...... ... ........... ... . _ _ 
74 . Liking someone who doesn't like you ..... ...... ... .. ...... ... .......... ........ ...._ _ 
75 . Change in personal health or appearance .. ...... ... .. ...... ... ..... ... ... .... .. ._ _ 
76. Arrest of a family member ... .. .. ... ....... ....... .. ... ........ .. ........... ......... ..... __ 
77. Having bad classes or teachers ... ......... .... ..... .. .. .... ......... ...... ......... .._ _ 
78 . Change in moral or religious beliefs .. ..... ........... .... .. .............. ..... ......_ _ 
79. Having a good talk with a teacher or other adult... ..... ................... .. .._ _ 
80. School interfering with other activities ........ ... ... ...... .... ............. ..... .. .._ _ 
81 . Buying new clothes ......... ................................ ......... ...... ... .. ... ...... .... __ 
82. __ End of school year. ....... .. .. ...... .. ............ .. .... ...... ..... ... ... ..... .. ... ........ .. __ 
83. Change in eating habits .... ...... ... .. ........ ..... ... .. ...... .. .... .... ..... ... .. .... ...._ _ 
84. Friend getting separated or divorced ..... ..... .... ....... .. .... .... ... .... .. .. ...... __ 
85. Having or taking care of pets ...................... ... .. .......... .. .................... __ 
86. Moving away from parents' home or living on own ...... ... ...... ....... .. ... __ 
87. Parent getting remarried .............. ........... .. ........ ..... .. ......... ..............._ _ 
88. Hassles with people of the opposite sex ........ ... .... .. ... .. .... .... ...... .. .. ... __ 
89. Parents discovering something you didn't want them to know .... .... .._ _ 
90. Hobbies or activities 
(watching TV, reading , playing an instrument. etc) ... ....... ......... __ 
91 . Friends getting drunk or using drugs ...... .... ........ .. .. .. ... .. .... .. ... ......... __ 
92. Parents getting divorced ...... .. ............................ ........... ..... .............. __ 
93. Going to church ......... .... ... .... ....... ... .... .............. ... .... .. ... .. ....... ... ...... ._ _ 
94. Not getting mail... ...... .. .. ....... ... ....... ... .... ..... ... ..... ... .. ..... .... ...... .. .... .... _ _ 
157 
APPENDIX D 
22 
High School--5 
u 2 ?J :4l.'Jl  ?= :.I') 
>- .c. .c 
-::; 2 .... :-:: ::. ..J:! >, .... 
_,, ?:;; ---==  ?;;; 
.... c 
... :) -"=.J 
~ 
~~ >-2_.,  -g  
--
u ::: . ::l = -~ 2 
::,... .::: 
._ ":.r,  
>= :/1 zz u u > C. 
-4 ........ . . -3 .... ...... -2 ..... ... . . -1 ....... ... o ...... .. .. +1 .... ...... +2 ... . ...... + 3 ...... . .. . .. + 4 
EVENT HAS 0ESIRABIUTY 
HAPPENED RATING 
95 . __ Not attending your high school prom .... ...... ........ .......... ....... ..... ........ __ 
96. __ Not getting enough sleep ......... ..... .. ... ........ ... ............. ....... .... ..... .. .. .. _ 
97 . __ Not getting driver's license or learner's permit ........ .... .... .............. .... __ 
98. __ Not getting the classes you want... .... ... .... .... .. ..... ...... ...... ........ .. ...... . __ 
99 . __ Going to dances. parties. or concerts .. ..... ..... .... ...... ....... ........... ..... .. __ 
1 oo._ _ Obligations at home .... .... .... ......... ... .. ... .. ......... ... ...... .. .... ..... .. ... .. .... ._ _ 
101 ._ _ Doing things/spending time with family members ...... .. .. .... .... ... ....... __ 
102. _ _ Going to bed/sleeping ........... ... .... .... .. ...... ....... .. .. ... .... .. ... ................ __ 
103. __ Understanding classes/homework ..... .... ... ... ... .. .... ... .... ..... .... ..... ...... __ 
104. __ Not getting along with parents or friends .. .... .... ........................ .. ..... __ 
105. __ Being unemployed ....... ......... ..... ............. .... .... ..... .... ...... .. ............. .. __ 
106. __ Menstruation .... ... .... .... .... ... ... .... ...... ........ ..................... ........ .. ........ . __ 
107. __ Not having a boyfriend/girlfriend .. ..... ...... ....... .. ... ....... .... ... ............... __ 
108. __ Negative feelings or worry about your appearance .. ... ................ .. .. ._ _ 
109. __ Negative feelings or worry about your personal health or fitness ..... __ 
11 o._ _ Applying to or waiting to hear from colleges .... ....................... ...... ... __ 
111 . __ Visiting with relatives ... ......... .. .. ... ... ................ ... ............... ... ..... ....... __ 
112. __ Spending time/relaxing/going out with friends .. .. .. .. ... .. .. ... ....... ... ...... __ 
113. __ Death of a friend .. ... ...... ...... ... ........................ ......... ................ ... .... . __ 
114. __ Car trouble ..... .. ........... ............... .. ... .... ............. .. .... .... ......... ........ .... __ 
115. __ Death of a relative ...... .. .. .... .. ... ... ......... ....... .. .... ..... .. .... ... ..... .... ...... ..  
116. __ Death of a family member. ....... ...... ...... .... ....... ... ............ .... ....... ... ... __ 
117. Vacation, tnp , or summer break .. ..... ........... .. .. .. .. ...... ..... .... .... ...... .. . 
158 
APPENDIX D 
:J 
.=;= .g~  High School?-6 
-:; :.,') 
>..; C-5 ~ 'f?~ :J ~u 
-= ?;;; t .E .;- ~ ?3 -= ,, :: :z 
-~1  -:= : ~ -~ ? -~ C -~ 2 ?~ !.) ..... ? - u - t.J >t.J  4.) -:.-i =:, Z Z ~ C :i5 C C .~ 6 
-4 ..... ..... -3 -
????? ?? ? ? ? ?2 .. .... .... -1 ... ....... 0 . ....... .. +1 .......... +2 .......... +3 ......... +4 
EvENT HAs OESIRABIUTY 
HAPP?NEo RAnNG 
118 D . 
?- orng poorly on an exam or paper ................................ ........ .......... __ 
119 M. . 
?- rnor physical ailments or il/nesses(headaches, cuts. brwses, etc.) __ 
120. Rec . f . . 
- ovenng rom an accident or illness ..................... ?. ... .. ................_ _ 
121
?- Broth er or si?s ter getti?n g engaged or mam?e  d. .......... ...... .................. __ 
122
?- Brother or sister getting separated or divorced ............. ... ................ __ 
123 
?- Homework or studying .................................................................... __ 
124 
?- Pressures or expectation by parents ..................... .. ... ..................... __ 
125
?- Exercising ...................... ............ ........... ...................... .. ... ..... .. ........ __ 
126
?- Hassles, arguments. or fights with other students or peers .............. __ 
127
?- Major success or failure in sports .................... .. ... .... ... .. .. .. .............. __ 
128
?- Major success or failure in extracurricular activities 
(music. art, etc.) ........................................ .... .. ...... ......... ... .... ... __ 
129 
?- Discussion with parents .................. ................... ............................. __ 
130
?- Participation in sports or recreation .. ................. ..... ....... ... .... ........... __ 
131 
?- Participation in extracurricular activities (music, arts. etc.). ............ .. __ 
132
?- Alcohol or drug use of family members or relatives ........... .............. __ 
133
?- Problems at work ......... ............................................ ... .................... __ 
134? - Problems or arguments with parents. s1 bl,.n gs. or family members ... __ 
135
?- Problems with arguments with teachers or principal ........................ _ 
135 p . .. ... ............_  
?- rob/ems with transportation ......................................... . 
137. Ch . .. ................................ _ 
- angrng schools .............................. .......... . 
138 .................... _ 
?- Sleeping late .................. ............... ....... ............ .. ........ . 
139 gry insecure, etc.)_ 
?- Emotional worries(feeling depressed, moody, an ? 
140 .................... _ 
?- Becoming a year older .......... ... ..... ........ .................... .. 
141
?- Spending time alone ......................................................................._  
159 
APPENDIX D 
:.J 
;.a: 
:: ..c. High School--7 
~ .~ ~ 
- ..2 ..2 c{] ~?~ ; t) ?;~;;;  i: -:....gc   u - ~ >, ..: ... i: >, :c j ; ..Q 
n~  1.J -~ J-- : ?5 _g :: : e !) ;; ~ _g ~ :iJ ~ - ~
>::; J= ;;= "i:i  -ro ?ii; ; -~ t ~ ~Q :i5C >C 
-4 ... 
??? ??? ?-3 ... .. .... . -2 .. .... .... -1 ... ..... .. o. . ........ +1 .. ..... ... +2 ........ .. +3 .... ... .. +4 
EvENr HAs DESlllABlllTT 
HAPPENEo RAnNG 
142. 
- Arguments or problems with boyfriend/girlfriend ..? ?? ??????????????????? ??????--
143?- Spending time/talking with boyfriend/girlfriend .... .. .. ... ...... ....... ...... ... __ 
144
?- Be comi?n g fm. ancially indepen d en t .......... .. .. ..... ....... .... .... .... . ???? ????????--
145
?- Spending time at home .... .. ... .................... ..... ........ ........... .. ... .. ..... .._ _ 
146.- Be comm. g more independent.. .. .. ......... .. ... ....... ... ..... .... .. ?? ??? ???? ??. . .. ... __ 
147
?- Breaking up with or being rejected by a boyfriendlgirlfriend ...... .. ... .. __ 
148 A ? .. ........ ._ _ 
?- rgumenrs or fights between parents .. ....... ... ... .... .. .. ..... ...... . 
149 .. ...... .._ _ 
?- Drinking or using drugs ................. .... ... ......... ................. ... .. ..  
150.- V,.s ,.t ,.n g a parent who doesn 't li.v e wi.t h you .............. ? ??? ???????? .. ........... __ 
151 ?- Feeling pressed for time ...... ....... .... ... ...... ................ ........... ... ? ????? ??? -
152
?- Getting a car/motorcycle/truck. ere ......... ......... .... .. ... ... ...... .............._  
153
?- Getting good grades or progress reports ........... ... ... .. ... ... .... .... ..... ... _ 
154_- G e 11m? g ready for school. .. .................. .. ...... ..... ?? ??????? ?????????? ??? ??? .. ..... _ 
155
?- Getting accepted at one or more colleges .. ...... .. ... ...... ...... ....... ....... _ 
156
?- Getting a traffic ticket or parking ticket... .... .... ........ .. ...... ............ ....._  
157
?- Waiting in tines. wailing for people, etc........ .......... ... .. ... ... ._  
158 ti nd college ..................._  
?- Getting rejected by, or not being able to a e 
159 ?- Getting punished by parents ...... ......... ........ ......... . ???? ??? ????????? -
16Q ??????"'' 
?- Doing household chores ............... .. ....... .................... ...... ..  
161 ... ... .... .. ..... .. . 
?- Receiving a gift .. ... .............. ............ .. .. .... ........ .........  
162.- At tend,.n g school .................. ... ................ . ????????????? ??? ????????. . ?????????? ???-
163 . ?????? ??? ???? ......... .. .._  
?-- Financial troubles or money womes ........... ...........  
164 . .. ..... ....? ????????? ?????????--
?-- l istening to music ......... .............. .... ... .. .. .......... . 
160 
APPENDIX D 
u 
~ ~ High Schooi--8 
1 ~ ~ 2 2 ?a-~ 
?~;-:  i; ;_.:: ..0 "' V t, 1~ .g >- ~ : ~ ? :c ?3 -; 
.>... . -:v,  ;v:::  -:v::,., , -==  ??:;;u _::d = -: ~ u~ ;:::  ?z~;;  ._~~  ?.=..,  > .E - :.0 -:::, -~ = .?!' -~ = 1.) u :J _, ~.:: ~ ~ zz :i,Q :i5Cl >C 
-4 
???E??v?E?N??r? -H31 t.s. ... . .. .. -2 .......... -1 ..... .. .. . 0 .......... +1 .......... +2 .... ...... +3 ......... +4 DESlRAIIUTT 
HAPPEJ.iEo RA nNG 
165 
?- Being involved in a car accident... ... ............ ...... .......... .......... .......... __ 
166 
?- Aetuming to live at parents' home .. .......... ................. .... ..... ............ ._ _ 
167 
?- Something bad happens to a friend .................... .. .. ........................ ._ _ 
168
?- Attendm? g your hi?g h schoo 1p rom ........ .. .... ... ................... .. . ........ ...... __ 
169.- A e t um,ng to school aNer time o ff ............ .. ... .. ................. . ............ .. ._ _ 
170.- F ree . . ............. .. .. __ time 1n school.. .................................. .. ..... .. ...... .. .. ? 
171 
?- Being in love or in a relationship ......... .. ............ .. .... .. ...................... ._ _ 
172 ?- Ad vancing year .............. __ a in school .. ....... .. ........ .. .. .. ........... .. ........ . 
173? - So mething ? d good happens to a fnen .. .. .. ... ................... .. .......... .. ..... __ 
174.- - Change 1. n participation in extracum.c ular ac t'i v ities (music, art. etc.)_ 
175 ............_  
?-- Change in sleep habits .. .. .................. ........................... .. .... . 
176 .... .... .......... _ 
?-- Making decisions about career. . ..... ................ ...... .. ...... . 
17 7
?-- Making a major purchase (stereo. bicycle. etc.) ...... ............. .. .... .. .... _ 
178 
?-- Change 1n cigarette use ........ .... ................ .......... .. ........... .. ...... .. ?? ???-
179 
?-- Friend becoming pregnant or having a child ........ .. .. .. .. .. ... ........ ......._  
180
?-- Family member or relative having motional problems:. ....... ........ .. ..._  
181 
?-- Change in priveleges or responsibilities at home ......... .................... _ 
182
?-- Change in health of a family member or relative ...... ........................ -
183 ..... ..... ........... __. 
?-- Change in health of a friend .......... ......... .. ..... .. .......... . 
184 . nds or lose friends) ..... ?-
?-- Change in number of friends (make new fne 
1 as . t et work done ................ _ 
?-- People interrupting when you are trying O g 
186 ? mber 
?-- Schoo/ of career change of family me . etc) .............................. -
(drops out of school. gets Job, ? 
187
?-- Peop/e not respecting your privacy or property.. ... .. .. .. ...... -
-
161 
APPENDIX D 
--=
:.; 
;: :c:.;  
-- .; High School--9 ~ =;;
 ,.,_,e  
:-:..C ..g ':J 3:- :1.) Jd ?:;; ~ .g -=>. . ?;;;.:  ;.. -=-  -=>. . ::c:  ~ -
:~
>..
.;  
. :.J -- :.I'! :.J 
-:::, ~ _Jd -= !) -= - - .... t) -~ ~ .::::  
> _.E :,=;  ::~  ;?;=; ' :".S:?  z?=  ... 7a ?:;; ~ ?;1 ~ ;J -;i, j C :ii Cl > Cl 
-4 
??????? ? ??-3 .......... -2 ?????????? -1 ?????????? 0 ..... .. ... + 1 ... . ????? ?+2 .......... +3 ......... +4 EVENTH,~s 
HAPPENED DESIIWJILITY 
RATING 
188. 
- Dating or doing things with people of the opposite sex .................... __ 
189 F. 
?- rrend having emotional problems ................... .. .. .. .... .. ................... ._ _ 
190
?- Trying to quit smoking ....................................................................._ _ 
191 
?- Family members, relatives, step-parents move in or out of house ... __ 
192
?- Taking care of daily appearance and hygiene ....... .... ....... .. ......... ... .. __ 
193
?- Family member becoming pregnant or having a child ...... ................ __ 
194.- Liv,?n g w,.t  h on Iy  one parent... ................................... .. .. .. .................. __ 
195
?- Fi, g ht wr.t  h or problems wr?t h a fn .e n d. ................. ........ .... .. ... .............. __ 
196. - Do i.n g well on an exam or paper .. ................................. .. . . .. .... .. ....... __ 
197. - Hol?1da ys. ........... .. ... .. ................ ... ....................... .. ... . ............... ..... .. ._ _ 
-
162 
APPENDIX E 
Part 1 
This booklet contains questions about how you deal with important problems that come 
up in your life. Please think about the most important problem or stressful situation you 
have experienced In the last 12 months (for example, a problem with your parents, a 
problem at school, a serious illness or accident, or the death of a family member or a 
friend) . Briefly describe the problem in the space provided in Part 1 of the answer sheet. 
If you have not experienced a major problem, list a minor problem that you have had to 
deal with. Then answer each of the 10 questions about the problem or situation (listed 
below and again on the answer sheet) by circling the appropriate response: 
Circle uDN" if your response is DEFINITELY NO. 
Circle "MN" if your response is MAINLY NO. DY 
Circle "MY" if your response is MAINLY YES. DY 
Circle "DY" if your response is DEFINITELY YES. 
1. Have you ever faced a problem like this before? 
2. Did you know this problem was going to happen to you? 
3. Did you have enough time to get ready to deal with the problem? 
4 . When this problem happened, did you think about how it might harm you? 
5. When thi s probl em happened, did you think of it as a challenge? 
6. Was this problem ca used by something you did? 
7. Was th is problem caused by something someone else did? 
8 . Did any thing good come out of dealing with this problem? 
9. Has this problem or situation been worked out? 
10. If the problem has been worked out, did it turn out all right for you? 
163 
APPENDIX E 
Part2 
Read emac yho.u  demibed rn?n md,c~te how often you took th?I action to deal with the proble . item careful! Pad< I?  I . .C "de the appcop,iate ,espoose on the aoswe? sheet 
0 s 
CCiirrcdlee  "" N""  i'_f  your response is NO, Not at all. 0 s 
Cir,..I "OS ifyourre sponse 1?s  YES, Once or Twice. 
Cir"'' I e ? " '? r younesponse is YES, Sometimes- N O S F 
The, "' e F" '' f you, ,esponse is YES, faidy often. N O S F 
de an,we, ea h " . ? emembe> to ma,k all you,answe.s on theonswe.sheet. 
Pl easee  are 48. on ~~?I. If you itdeom ~so itnq upe stt, o2n  R"  ,ccu,ately as you can. All you> ,n,we" '" strictiy confi? 
to I e an,we, ,heel w,~h to answ e> a question, please ,;,de the oumbe? of that quesooo 
ite you, please w,it ~o md<eate that you ha,e decided to ,kip it. If an item does oot apply 
n rn . If you wish t e A (Not Applicable) in the bo< to the ,;ght of the oumbe> ro, that 
ew an swe,. Note? th c hang e an answe>, make ,n" 'X? t"h, ough you? fi,sl ,nswe> '" "" e l e '' an,we.s a,e numbe>ed in""" on Part 2 of the aods w?e >I  shhe et 
21. ?  D 'Id  you think of d,.f fe,ent w,y, to deal with the p,oblem? 
3 id you t e II yourself things to make yourself feel better? 
4..  DDiidd  ' ? pa,ent o, othe> r,milY membe> ,bout the pcoblem? you talk w?th 
5. D you decid e on one way to deal with the p,oblem and do ,.t ? 
6 id you t ry to forget the whole thing? O 
. Did you feel th at time would make a .d iffe,ence--thal the oolY thing to d was wa,? t??  
7. Di.d  you get inv 0 Iv ed ?in  new activities? 
8. out on other people when you felt angry or sad. DId y ou take it ? 
l 09?.  Did you try t ep back from the problem and think about .it .?  0 st
D?Id  you tell yourself that things could be worse? 
1 1. Did you talk wi?t h a friend about the problem? 
123..  D?i d you k now what had to be done ,od i,y h"d 10 make th.' "9' wo? k.'  
14. id you t ry not to think about the problem? 
15. Did you reali '? that you had no ,ont<ol ovenhe problem?-  
16. D'd D?I  you t ry to make new friends? 
id you take a chance and do something risky? 
17, D?iidd   you o ove, ., n you< mind what you would say o, do? 9 
18. D? you try t id you talk .s ee the good side of the s,.t uat,.o n? 0 I yrnan or doctor? 
19. wi an adult like a teacher coach, counselor, c erg ' 
th 
20. Did 
you dec'd e what you wanted and try
'  to get it? 
1 
1 64 
APPENDIX E 
_ ?' ,magme th;ng, bdng bettec thao they were? 
21. D'td  you daydream . . 
22. . at the outcome would be decided by fote? 0 td you think th 
23. Di. d you be gm.  to read more often for enjoyment? 
24. Dtd you ye 11 or shout to let off steam? 
25. Did you th?m  k about how things might turn out? 
D? . 
26. same pmblems/ mg about how you we? bettec off than oth<' people with the id you keep thi k' 
. ' elp from othec kids o, grouP' with the some type of problem? 
27. Did you look fo h 
28. east two different ways to solve the problem? Did you try at I . 
to at som . ,n mg about the situation, e,eo tho,gh yo, ko<W you w'"ld ha? 
29. Dt'd  you put off th ? k ' 
e pomt? 
~:;9 pt t e p,oblem because nothing co,ld be dooe to chaoge it? 30, Did you acce h ~~~;~ n to spend mo? time In fun ac11,1tleS, Ilk? ,ports, partle>, ,od going 
31. 1
1
32. Did you erY  t O Ie t your feelings out? 
' Y to make sense out of why this p,oblem happened to yo,? 
33. Did you t 
34. Y to tell yourself that things would get better? Did you tr 
35. a nend to help you solve the problem? Did you ask f . 
36. Did you t ry to do more things on your own? 
w,s the p,oblem would go away o, ,omehOW be ooe? with? 
37. Did you . h 
38. Did you ex pect the worst possible outcome? 
eep busy with school or other things to help you cope. 
39, Did you try t k . ? 
0 
sDo; my ohu"  d something that you didn't think would wo,k, but at least Y?" wece do ,.n g 
40. d 0 
et mg? 
441._  mk about the new ha,dshlP' that would be placed on Yth'" Did you th? ' 
43. Did yo u th,? nk about how this ,11uat1on could change Yo"' life fo? e b et1"2 ??  
44. Did you ask f ? sympathy ,nd unde,stand,.n g from someone?.  
0
45. Did you t a k e th.m g,a day at a time, ooe step at a i,.m e? 
46. Did you tr Y to deny how ,e, lous the problem ,eallY was ? 
47. Did you lo se h ope thatthlngs would?'" be the ,ame ? 
4 _ Did you fi n d new ways to enjoy life? 
8 Did yourt Slen to music as a way to cope? 
I 
1 65 
APPEND IX E 
Form: Actual_ Ideal 
CRI-YOUTH ANSWER SHEET 
Date_/_/_ Sex __ Age_ 
Name ----------- - -----
Ethnic Group ________  
Grade in School --------
Part 1 
Describe the problem or situation 
DY = Definitely Yes 
DN = Defi nitely No MN = Mainly No MY = Mainly Yes 
I DN MN MY 
1. Have you ever faced a problem like this before? 
DY I 
MN MY 
2. Did you know this problem was going to happen to you? 
I DN DY I 
MN 
3. Did you have enough tim e to get ready to deal with th is problem? 
[ DN MY DY I 
MN MY 
4 . When th is problem ha ppened. did you think of it as a threat? I DN DY I 
5. When this prob lem happened, did you think of it as a challenge? I DN MN MY DY I 
6. Was th is problem caused by something you did? I DN MN MY DY I 
7. Was this problem caused by something someone else did? I DN MN MY DY I 
8. Did anything good come out of dealing with this problem? I DN MN MY DY I 
9. Has thi s problem or situa tion been worked out? I DN MN MY DY I 
10. If the problem has been worked out. did it turn out all right for you? I DN MN MY DY I 
Part 2 
N - No. Not at all 0 s Yes, Once or twice S - Yes. Sometimes F z Yes Fairly often 
1 2 3 5 6 7 
N 0 s F N 0 s F N 0 s F l ~ 0 s F N 0 s F N 0 s F N 0 s F I~ 0 s F 
9 10 11 12 1 13 14 15 16 
N 0 s F N 0 s F N 0 s F N 0 s F N 0 s F N 0 s F N 0 s F N 0 s F 
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 
N 0 s F N 0 s F N 0 s F N 0 s F N 0 s F N 0 s F N 0 s F N 0 s F 
2 5 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 
N 0 s F N 0 s F N 0 s F N 0 s F N 0 s F N 0 s F N 0 s F N 0 s F 
33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 
N 0 s F N 0 s F N 0 s F N 0 s F N 0 s F N 0 s F N 0 s F N o? S . F 
4 1 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 
N 0 s F N 0 s F N 0 s F N 0 s F N 0 s F N 0 s F N 0 s F N 0 s F 
166 
APPENDIX F 
Emotional Response scal_g 
to your 
are no 
arins wePr lefoars ee ci? rcle the number that corresponds 
ght or w ach of the questions below. There 
Circlrong_answers but onlY hoW you feel-
Circl: ~ if your answer is a1ways. 
Circle 7f your answer is often-
Circle 2 if your answer is sometimes. 
1 if your answer is never. 
to help with your handicapped 
1. bD o you like sister? 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 
rather or 
2. Dtao lyko~  feel upset that your parents don't 2 
your h~ you more about what is wrong with 
icapped brother or sister? 4 - 3 - - 1 
nd
3. gDoo eyso~  get embarrassed when your familY 
thew the mall or on trips because of 
O 
sist ay your handicapped brother or 
er acts? 
4. Ayorue ry~u afraid that you will become like 
and1capped brother or sister? 
5 WDoh oyou like to be around other people 
peopaler?e d i? fferent such as handicappe d 
6 Da o you feel left out when your parents 
brroe thw ork'i ng with your handicapped 
er or sister? 
7 at ~ou get tired of doing extra jobS th
oDor 
3 
 ome because your handicapped bro er 4 _ _ 2 - 1 
SlSt er can't help? 
8 Dfro ? you f eel embarrassed about havi. ng 
han1 edn' ds come to the house when you r icapped brother or sister iS home? 
9 Do you f d 1o0t thof mon :f eel your parents spen a or on things your handicapped br er 4 
mon i er needs and don't have enough - 3 - 2 - 1 
st
ey to buy you what you want? 
10 . sDio setse hr aPeopl h
v i. ng a handicapped brother or 4 elp you to accept the f a ct that - 3 - 2 - 1 
e are different in manY ways? 
167 
APPENDIX F 
11. ~hen your handicapped 
bDor oythou  f eel angry is bad and doesn't get 
er or . 
punished? sister 
12. bDor oythoue r liokr e  stiost eprl?ay  with your handicapped 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 
1 3 ? tD ho inygous  ffoeer l angry when your parents do 
sister th your handicapped brother or 
1 _ at he could do for himself? 
4 Aofr e y;ou afraid that others will make fun 
_ ur handicapped brother or sister? 
15 Dti'?m yeo uw ifthe e 1 your parents spend too much 
or sist your handicapped brother 
er? 
16. Aharnedyi~ ~ afraid to get angry with your 
What pped brother or sister because of 
17 your parents will say? 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 
. Daoc tyioou  feel embarrassed bY some of the 
brothns and sounds that your handicapped 
18 er or sister makes? 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 
1 
4 3 
2 
hDao nydo' u l'i ke  to teach new skillS to your 
1 icapped brother or sister? - - -
9 Ahree  fy ou af rai. d of what m.i ght happen i. n 
to f y ourtu hr e di f.  your parents can't ? tat ke ? care4  - 3 - 2 - 1 2a an icapped brother or sis er, 
th
DWoi tYh ou w?i sh that you could spend more t'im e 
th' your friends but can't because of e 3 2 
1 
4 
or ins g? s you do for your handicapped brot h er _ _ _ 
ister? 0th
21 Bsiescta~ :e you have a handicapped br 7r or 4 
3 
job t ' do you think you want to be in a _ _ 2 - 1 
2 hat helps other people? 
2 ? bDor oYtho u 1i? ke to take your handicaPPe d 
2 er or sister to special places? 
3 d. Whaonudld'  you feel embarrassed if your 
the ~capped brother or sister atteo ed 
2 ame school as you do? 
4 . bD o you feel 
ore cau.s e you 
sister? 
? 
168 
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