A STUD! OF m s POLICY OP CENTRALIZATION OF EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES, 1898 -1953 By Luceno L. Quirente Thesis submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the tfaiveraity of Maryland in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education 1953 UMI Number: DP70532 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UM I Dissertation Publishing UMI DP70532 Published by ProQuest LLC (2015). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProOuest ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 A o m m m m m m s Th© author wishes to oppress his grateful acknowlsdgm&nts to the Bsssareh Oosmitto© cemposod of Drs* Ola^s 4* Wiggln, fi* lm Hornbahs, and Charles T • Stewart for thsir guidance and help in tha preparation of this project* A sinoar© appreciation is extended also to Dr* James Am VmMwoU for giving a f m helpful suggestions* To IUss Mssgaxeth jorpwn and Mr* Richard tsaaosell of th® national Archive® of tha united States (Coords Bomtm of th® Territories Section of natural BssoRiross)f the writer extend® gratitude for their imraluabl® assistance. Th© writer also wishes to aokne^odg® th© help of llrs* Wsndoll Fogg for typing and to firs* W* A* Loveless for proof-reading th© materials of this project* TABLE OF CGKTDMTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . ............. , ......... 1 3.. Origin of the Problem......... • • • .......... • 1 2 m Purpose and Scope of the Study......... « . • • • 3 3. Importance of the S t u d y ........... . . . . . . . 5 1* • Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 5* Techniques and Sources of Materials Used . * . . * 7 II. EVENTS LEADING To THL ESTABLISHMENT OF A CENTRALIZED SX5TSM OP EDUCATION ........... 8 1. Origins of the Spanish-American Aar . . . • • « • 8 2. Events Leading to Centralisation of Education . . li* III. ORIGINS OF A CENTRALIJ4i£D SISTEM OF EDUCATION.......... 28 1. Diversity of the People and the Land ...... 28 2. Spanish Influence on the Centralised School System >0 3. Military Influence on Centralisation of Education . 57 U* Relation of 'Education to American Policies . . . . 60 IV. ASSOCIATED FFFLCTS OF CENTRALISATION . .............. 70 1* Administrative Organisation and Supervision . . . 70 2. Development of the School Curricula . . . . . . . 80 3. Instructional Program and Materials . . . . . . . 102 L* System of School Finance ........ 105 Chapter Fag® V. SUKMAEXf CONCLUSIONS, AND E^HMENDATIONS • • • . • » » Ill 1«. Summary and Conclusions . . ........ . . . . . . 111 2. Recommendations........ . 116 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDIX ?ita LXBT OF TABLKd Tables Page Table 1. Classification of Philippine Population by Tribes According to the Census of 1903 ......... . • 33 Table 2* Distribution of Philippine Racial Ancestry . . . . . . k2 Table 3* Classification of the Vegetative Areas in the Philippines ............... 1>C Table k* Philippine Population Classified According to Religion......... . . >3 Table 5* Secondary Course of Study During Hie Spanish Regime . >3 Table 6 . Curricula for the Primary Grades Beginning 19Qk~19Q$ * 81 Table 7. Hevised Primary Course for Pour Grades Prescribed for th© School Xe&rs 1907-1908 to 1909-1910 . . . . 62 Table 8 . Prescribed Primary Curriculum for 1915 . . . . . . . . 83 Table 9* Prescribed Primary Curriculum for 1921* • • • • • . * • 81* Table 10. Prescribed Primary Curriculum for 1931* . . . . . . . . 85 Table 11. Prescribed Primary Curriculum Since 19iil Based on the "Double-Slngle-Sesslon Plan** . . . . . . . . 8? Table 12, Prescribed Primary Curriculum Since 191*1 Based on th® ,fEmergency Plan” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Table 13. Revised Intermediate General Course of 1913 . . . . . 90 Table lii. Prescribed Intermediate General Curriculum of 1917 • . 91 Table 15* Revised Intermediate General Curriculum, of 1922 . . . 92 Table 16. Revised Intermediate Curriculum of 1931* . . . . . . . 93 Table 17. Prescribed Intermediate Curriculum of 19!*! Based on the ”One-Xeacher-One-Class Flan1 1........... . 9k Table 18. Prescribed Intermediate Curricula of 191*1 Based on the * 'Emergency Plan” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Tables Page Table 19* Prescribed Secondary Academic Curriculum of 19uU • • • 96 fable 20. Prescribed Secondary Academic Curriculum of 1913 . • * 97 Table 21* Type A Secondary General Curriculum of 1933 * . . . * 99 Table 22. type B Secondary General Curriculum of 1936 . . * * * 100 Table 23* Current Prescribed General Secondary Curriculum . . . 101 Table 21*• A Typical Class Program for th© Primary Grades (Morning Session) • • • • • • * • * . • • • • • « • 103 Table 23* A Typical Class Program far th© Intermediate Grades (Morning and Afternoon Sessions) « • * • • • • . * 103 LIST m FIGOMLS Figures Page Figure I* Pap of tbs Philippines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I4.6 Figure II* Administrative Control and Supervision of Education by Hie national Government . . . . . 73 Figure III. Organisation of the Department of .education » . . 7k Figure IV. Organisation cf the Bureau of Public Schools . . . 70 CHAPIiii i I l t R O D O C t l O S I. Origin of the Problem Among the first important innovations of the United States officials in th® Philippines shortly after the American Occupation in 1898 was a new s/stem of education w • • • • consecrated to the ide- 1 ologies of democracy and modem progress**1 A perusal of th® history of th® Philippines since th® turn of th© century would disclose the significant role which education played in th® attainment of the prime objective of the United States in occupying the Philippines-**1the training of the Filipino people for self-government* During the inception of the American regime an educational system was established to expedite not only th© pacification campaigns through­ out the archipelago, but also the enlightenment of the masses incident to national development. That papular education contributed, by and large, to the political, social, economic, and cultural advancement of the Filipinos is the consensus of many students of Philippine histoxy* According to Joseph Ralston Hayden, ho phase of the development of a national state in the Philippines seems more important * * . • than the progress of education among the Filipino people• As a nation, th© United States believes that education is indespensable to successful self-government* When America undertook to train 1 Qregorio F. 2;aide, ®Philippine History and Ci vilissatian®, Philip­ pine Associated Publishers, Manila? 1939, p. 62lt 2the Philippine* in democratic political processes it assumed as a matter of course that any people which is reasonably well educated, according to American standards* would be capable of managing its own affairs m d determining its own daatiny*2 It is generally believed that Americans introduced into the Philip­ pines an educational system fundamentally American in origin* This belief* undoubtedly, is the result of a superficial examination of the purposes, curricula, teacher 'training, instructional materials, and such policies as that of importing American teachers into the Philippines* There was on© policy, however, which appeared to be out of keeping with American patterns of school control and organisation* This was the policy which established a centralised system of public education and private school supervision, something unknown in the state-local patterns of public education in th.® United States* This organisational structure, combined with It® purpose which was the introduction of an American education, had the effect of introducing uniformity even in such areas as instructional programs which in the United States might be expected to vary from locality to locality* Thus, though curricula, for instance, might bear superficial resemblance to those in the United States, the uniformity imposed by centralisation in effect established a pattern out of keeping with th© context of American education* In view of the expressed purposes of the Americana, for th© most part benevolent, to help Filipinos achieve competence in self-government, 2 Joseph Ralston Hayden, wThe Philippines! A Study in National Devel­ opment**, The Macmillan Company, Jiew forks 191-2, p* 1*63 3and in view of the method proposed by Americans which appeared to be to introduce American education in the Philippines, it appears sig­ nificant to inquire into the policy respecting centralization of education. 2. Purpose and Scope of the Study the purpose of this study, therefore, is to (1) review the series of events which led to the establishment of centralisation of education in the Philippines; (2) trace the origins of the acceptance of a cen­ tralized plan of education; and (3 ) delineate some of the associated effects of a centralized system of education. The time period of this project covers selected aspects of educational history in the Island® from the beginning of the American Occupation to the present. Establishing a System The three points to be covered in this study need this further explanation. The series of events leading to the establishment of centralization of education will cover a period from three weeks after the Occupation (August 13, 1898) when schools were first reopened, through the Organic School Law enacted by th© United States Philippine Commission on January 21, 1901. To put educational events in per­ spective, this study will consider them against their background of the War with Spain in 1898 and in connection with certain military and civil events subsequent to the Occupation. This material will be found in Chapter II. * hOrigins of the System The second point in this study, namely, tracing the origins of the acceptance of a centralized plan of education, rests on somewhat more tenuous grounds than the first* In view of historical background, American, pronouncements, and the nature of personnel first involved in the Occupation, It seems reasonable to hypothesise at least four reasons for the adoption of a centralized school policy* the first is the diversity of the peoples and languages, and the geographical isolation of persons on© from another living on the many islands of th® archi­ pelago* Presumably, these striking diversities impressed Americans with the necessity of drawing th© peoples together through a social medium such as a school system designed to promote a common background. The second reason for centralisation appears to lie in the fact that the remnants of a school system founded by American occupying personnel were Spanish in origin, and the Spanish educational system had been of a centralized character* Centralization, thirdly, may have been affected by the fact that in the first instance American education policies were established by the military to whom a centralized system of education may have been more congenial and more understandable In terms of tasks assigned to them in the first three years* Fourthly, centralization may have been brought about by broad policies and purposes of the American civilian as well as military personnel* These policies were designed for the good of the Filipinos and addressed to the purpose of assisting them to become self-governing. 5These four possible origins of a centralized system of education in the Philippines will be discussed in Chapter III. Associated Effects Point three of this study, delineating some of the associated effects of a centralized system of education, covers the period from the Organic School Law of 1901 to the present day. It deals with four selected aspects of centralization, namely, (Ij administrative organization and supervision, (2 j curricula, (3 ) instructional program and materials, and (h) finance. Associated effect® is to be taken not as an evaluation of either the good or the bad effects of centralization but rather as a description of increasing or decreasing centralization throughout the period under discussion. Furthermore, this treatment does not purport to be exhaustive but merely suggestive of trends in the four areas described above* The term associated effects carries the further implication that a centralised administrative organization brought with it not a sampling of American educational practices which in the United States night have been expected to vary with local circum­ stances, but rather a set of synthesized practices which resulted in standardization of curricular and instructional materials. Associated effects of centralization will be discussed in Chapter IV. 3» Importance of the Study As nearly as the writer has been able to ascertain, no study of a similar nature on this subject has been undertaken* Furthermore, because of the sharp departure from typically American educational 6patterns in ons crucial area of education and the associated effects of that departure, it is deemed that this study will, in addition, call attention to further investigation of selected aspects of the problem. U. Definition of Terms A definition of certain basic terns used in this study seems expe­ dient* Policy, as used in this study, refers to any piece of legislation, such as a law, resolution, executive order or proclamation, as well as 8 department or bureau circular and memorandum with its corresponding interpretations• Educational policies are those which are directly concerned with any phase of the department, bureau, or school programs in particular and/or with the system, of education as a whole. Educational system refer® both to the elementary and secondary public school organization, and, to a certain extent, also to the organisation of the private schools. Unless otherwise specified, it is generally used to signify the type of education which the Americans introduced into the Philippines. Centralisation, as used in this project, denotes the systematic process whereby the operation of the school system throughout the whole country is controlled by the central government. It is a system whereby th© local unit of school organisation derives its powers and support from a higher administrative body. Centralisation also means that th© mandatory policies governing school organization and supervision, the Tcurricula, the instructional program and materials, and school finance originated and still do originate from a cantral source in the national government• 5* Techniques and Sources of Materials Used In view of the nature of the subject matter under consideration, descriptive, chronological, m d topical methods of presentation will be used in tills study# In the preparation of this project, the writer made us® of avail­ able material© found in the libraries of the University of Maryland, the District of Columbia, the Embassy of the Philippines in Washington, D#C., the United States Office of Education, the Smithsonian Institution, the National Archives of the United States, and th® Library of Congress# Both primary and secondary sources have been consulted# Primary sources include the Organic School Law or Act No# 7U and other related educational legislation; messages and instructions of the President of the United States; reports of th© Philippine Commissions; annual reports, circulars, and memoranda of the Department of Education and of th© Bureau of Public Schools; yearbooks and census reports and statistics# In addition the writer has utilised his personal collection of related refer­ ences such as school manual© and bulletins. Secondary sources have consisted of books, periodicals, and news­ papers# CHAPTER II KVANTS LGAGIMG TO THE l&TAELISrfMUfT Gf A CSHTHALI2£D SXSTLH. Of’ &DUCATIOH The Americans occupied Manila on August 13* 139$. Approximately’ three weeks after this date, schools were reopened* To lay a background for American Occupation, there will be described in Section 1 below the chief military events in the occupation of the Philippines* This will be followed by a description of educational events from 1698 to 1901, to be found in Section 2. 1* Origins of the Spanish-American war The United States' entry into war with Spain seems to have been a logical outcome of the conditions which existed in Cuba, a colony of Spain in the West Indies* evidences tend to show that th© brutality of the tactics which Spain used in quelling the Cuban insurrection constituted a war of ex­ termination. .As a neutral power, die United States tried to intervene by insisting that a more humane method of warfare be employed. But such intervention only implicated the United States in Cuban affairs. Incident to th© Cuban conflict, on February 1>, 1698, the United States Battleship Main© was blown up in Havana harbor. War, then, became inevitable. Th© United States Congress declared an all-out war with 9Spain on April 1698."*■ The trend of events on thcs Cuban front surged with those in the Philippine St another Spanish c olony in toe Qrieat| Commodore Georg© Dewey, in command of tae U.S. Asiatic Squadron at Mirs Bar (near Hong jiongjp received the following cables War has commenced between tiie united States and Spain. Proceed at once to the Philippine Islands. Commence opera­ tions particularly against the Spanish fleet. Xop must capture vessels or destroy. Use utmost endeavor. Without further ado, the United States Asiatic Squadron weighed anchor and steamed toward th© Philippines. By due first of May, 1898, Commodore Dewey and his fleet entered Manila Bay and engaged the Spanish Armada under the command of Admiral Hontojo in 14aval combat. At tills famous Battle of Manila Bay on May 1, 1898, the United States Asiatic Squadron annihilated the Spanish fleet. That after the gunboats and the batteries at Sangley Point were silenced, n. . . • there was no possi­ bility of further resistance” was confirmed by Dewey in nis Autobiography Shortly after the battle, the American Consul in Manila, Oscar P. Williams, reported to the State Department that *5. . . . naval history of the dawning century will be rich if it fhmishes to the world so with Spain”, Harper1© incyelopedia of United Staiaa history, Vol. VIII, Harper and Brothers Publishers, hew Yorks 1912, p. 293 2quoted from the cablegram sent by Secretary John I>. bong of tne Kavy Department and published in Baide’u "Philippine History and Civili­ sation”, op. cit., p. 9 0 1. 3•'George Dewey, ”Autobiography of George Dewey”, Charles Scribner1© Sons, New York? 1913, pp* 197-233 10 glorious a display of intelligent command and .successful, s e r v i c e . America’s victory was complete and decisive. The ignominous defeat of Admiral Montojo's Spanish fleet sounded th© death knoll of die colonial supremacy of Spain in the Orient. Tims, the Spanish-Anarican War brought an end to more tnan three hundred and fifty years of Spain’s domination of tbs Philippines* Subsequent to his magnificent exploits and signal victory, Commodore Dewey was promoted to admiral by President 'william McKinley. In the meantime, Admiral Dewey maintained an effective blockade of the port of Manila wit lie waiting for re-enforcements from the United States. Some negotiations also were carried an between the Spanish Captain-General Fermin Jaudenes and Admiral Dewey through th© Belgian Consul in Manila, hdouard Andre, who acted as Intermediary for the peaceful surrender of the Philippine Capital#** Finally, the Spaniards were compelled to ac­ cept the terms of surrender. It was agreed, however, that in order to protect their military honor the Spanish forces would pretend to offer art armed resistance during the capture' of Manila. After the arrival of the American troops about three months later, the Battle of Manila ensued* On August 13, 1898, the joint forces of the United Gtat.es Army and Navy bombarded the outer fortifications of ^An excerpt from the Consular Letters containing the original re­ port of the American Consul Oscar F. Williams to the Dtate Department on May !*, 189$. (Unpublished materials; ^Charles B. Elliott, t5!he Philippines to the End of the Military Regime*1, The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Indianapolis; 1916, p. 300 6 I b i d . , p . 307 Intrarauros, HanHa* s walled city* Following a brief engagement in battle the Spaniards readily surrendered and raised a white flag 7*•* * . .on the southwest bastion of use city wall*1*1 Imiaediately, th© American troops captured the City of Manila and. for the first time hoisted the Stars and Stripes'* over the Phi lipp with a 4, -sf i?„, l3fo«r ntal £* band playing H'fne Star Spaaglod Banner, n a paean of victory/' The capitulation of Manila to the American. Forces on August 13, lofS, ushered in the formal Occupation of the Philippines by the United States. Shortly after the fall of Manila, Spain signed a protocol sus­ pending all hostilities vith die United States. According to one of the Articles of the Peace Protocol'"Which was concluded on August lU, 189B, This city, its inhabitants, "its churches ana religious worship, its educational tabliatrnents, and its private property of all descriptions,;' are placed under the special safeguard of the faith and honour of the American arsy.' Subsequent to the conquest of Manila, the Commanding General of the United States An^y, **©sles/ Merritt, issued a proclamation on August 11*, I898, aiiTiOunciiig to tiiti /ilipino people that 11 • • . * a"government of military occupation1* was to bo established, throughout the archipelago* In his proclamation, General Merritt stipulated that 7James A. Leroy, ’’The Americans in the Philippines”, V o l. 1, Houghton Mifflin Company, bostons 1911*, pp. 232-37 8Hath an dargent, ‘’Admiral isewey mid the Manila Campaign18, Naval Historical Foundation, uashteuton, D.G.s 19h"(, p. U6 9 Ibid., p. 17 . Cameron Forbes, "The Philippine Islands’9, Vol. II, Houghton Mifflin Company, Bostons 1928, p. 1*39 * * . • as long as they preserve the peace a m perfam their duties toward the representatives of th© United States they will not be disturbed in their person and property, except in so far as may be found necessary for the good of the service of the United Staffs and the benefit of the people of the Philippines.^ Through appointment by President McKinley, General Merritt became the first Military Governor of the Philippines on August 26, 1ay&, and as a representative of the President of the United States, General Merritt was vested with power over all executive, legislative, and judi­ cial functions of government. Having been delegated to attend the Peace Conference in Paris before iue end of the year, General Merritt had to relinquish bis new office. It was not until December 10, 18, pp. 386-88 i pXfcSxc©rpts from the Treaty of Paris compiled by William P. Malloy in ’’Treaties, Conventions, International Acts, Protocols anti iigre ements between the United States of America and other Powers, 1776-19o9n, Gov- r r i .A t t n g o i jlx ce , *«as*iing to n , o . w . i -ipJLd, p . iO 'y i 13 After '.he departure of General Merritt, President Mc&inley named Ma j or-General Elwoll S. Otis as the next Military Governor. Under his administration, the pacification campaigns were extended to almost all ■toe large towns and islands of th® Philippines.^ However, after a short term of service, he was relieved of his office and in May, 1900, he returned to the United states* General Arthur Mac Arthur succeeded General. Otis to the Military Governorship, while at the same time m served as Coiamaixier of toe Philippine Division of the United States Array. Thus, General MacArthur assumed the official administration of the Philippines, exercising both military and civil functions of the government during the military occupation through 1901. On July U> 1.902, the military power in the Philippines was terminated pursuant to the order of the United. Gt&tes President Theodore -tooscvel t.^* Durirg toe first years of the American Occupation, pacification campaigns were undertaken throughout toe archipelago* As these, how­ ever, may be more closely related to toe reasons of the military for recommending a centralized system of education in the Philippines, they will be related in Chapter III. ^w. Cameron Forbes, "The Philippine? Islands**, (revised edition;, Harvard University Press, Cambridge?, Mass.? 19U5, p. ill lli^An excerpt from the General Order Ho. 67 on the Termination of toe Military Government over the Philippines issued through the Adjutant General’s Office, 1902. (Unpublished materials; 1U 2. Events leading to Centralisation of Education Opening,- of Schools in Manila. The first step which the United States took with respect to education was the reopening of seven schools in the City of Manila almost three weeks after the formal Occupation of the Philippine capital on August 13> 1898. Chaplain Gilliam. i). McKinnon of the First California. Volunteer Infantry was assigned to social detail to direct the operation of the schools established in Manila. According to Florencio P. Kresnoaa, 13The Army authorities begat* their educational work by continuing the system of instruction established by the Span­ iards and adding to it the teaching of English• because of a lack of sufficient buildings and equipment, early schools were generally crude, Mince the teachers were untrained, in­ struction was probably poor, it the oxitset, the Filipino teachers taught in Spanish while the American soldiers m o were detailed, in the school taught in English. However, the American military authorities eliminated the use of Spanish as a language of instruction, as well as the use of Spanish textbooks, soon after the arrival of .American teach­ ers from the United States. When General Otis became Military Governor, he urged tee opening of more schools in tee pacified areas and also issued special orders detailing a. few of his officers and men to take charge of instruction \ U. •’‘"Florencio 1. freanosa, “Essentials of the Philippine Educational System”, ,4biva Publishing House, Manila: 1990, p. 38 At 16in inn public schools. Vincent ii. uatapang testifies that 1 . • • • by September 1, 1698, all the public schoolhouses in Manila that wore not 17in ruins were operating to capacity.S! 1 Because of t-ne interest of Fil­ ipinos in education, more schools were opened subsequently. In less than a year, 39 schools wore opened with an enrollment of 3*?u2 . Un June 1, IBS'?* Lieutenant George P. Anderson, a volunteer officer who graduated from fala university, was appointed the first City superin­ tendent of Schools for Manila. By June ju9 1900, there ware Zh English teachers in the schools of the City of Manila. There was an average daily attendance of h9?00 pupils.^ Establishing a School System for the Archipelago. The year 1900 marked an advance in laying th© groundwork of the school system in the Philippines* Captain Albert Tocid of the Sixth United States Artillery was appointed temporary head of Public Instruction for the entire archi­ pelago* In a report to tix* Military Governor on August 17,? 19u0, Captain Todd recommended the following for the future organisation of public education in the Islands5 (1) That a comprehensive modern school system for the teaching of elementary- Anglish b© inaugurated at the earli­ est- passible moment, m d that attendance be made compulsory whs ne var prae ti c able• (2j That industrial schools for manual training be 1 fi’’Census of the Philippine Islandst 1903", Vol. Ill, Government Printing Office, d&dnington, B.C.? 1905? P* 839 ■^Vincent H. Catapang, ’’The development and Present Status of Educa­ tion in the Philippine Islands”, The Stratford Co., Bostons 1926, p. 66 -1 Q * ’’Census of the Philippine Islands”, Vol. Ill, op. cit., p. 6I4U. established as soon aa fair knowledge of Lagiluh has been acquired* (3> That all of the schools under government control be conducted in the English language so far as in any way p ra c tic a b le , and ttet t ie use of Spanish or the dialects be only for a period of transition. (hj That I.nglist teachers, well trained in primary in­ struction, be brought over from tn© United States in sufficient numbers to take charge of the schools of the larger towns at least. m l school be ustabl i.3* ifc Ci teachers of hnglish* was not unconss-ion 1 or x»eachers to be !tobliged to conciliate the native priest or the Spanish friars, to 2q iaide, op. cit., p. 626 21Prescott P. Jernegan, 0education Under the Americans*1, Census of the Philippine Islandst 19*->3, Vol. Ill, op. cit., p. 6i4+ prod a lethargic municipal president© /jmyor/ and town council into action* . . • . During the formative /ears of the school system, local cooperation and initiative apparently were not present• Kvents Leading to the Organic School Law* In the meantime the United States government had mad© provisions for securing advice on various aspects of Philippine governance and control* Sarly in 169!/, President McKinley appointed the First Philippine Commission known as the schurman Commission. The object of Hi is Commission was to examine Hie existing conditions in the country and to make necessary recommenda­ tions for a suitable policy of administration of the newly acquired possessions. ^ In the opinion of the bchurman commission, the government established in the islands should promptly provide for • • * * the establishment of an adequate system of secularised and free public schools.therefore, in its concluding report Hie Commission stated that t?so far as the finances of the Philippines permit, public education should be promptly established and when established made free to all.”2> The Commission further stipulated that . . . . the present number of primary schools should be increased as rapidly as possible until it moots the needs 22Ibid., pp. 6lUi~Ub 23hlliott, op. c i t p . iou “deport of the Philippine demission to the 1resident on January 31, 1900*’, Vol. I, Government Printing office, wasiiington, D.c.s 19CC, p. q 2j .bid., p. 5 19 of the population* The standards sot for teachers should be gradually raised, and additional facilities should be provided for wlxe ir education* Instruction in the English language should b© intro­ duced as speedily as practicable into toe primary schools* Secondary education should be taken in hand, the course of study thoroughly revised, and a moderate number of rav schools established at suitable points throughout toe archi­ pelago* Perhaps the most significant step which the Sohuman Commission took toward centralisation is contained in its recommendation, to witt "Thorough supervision of toe schools of the archipelago should be pro- ft.'*? vided for under a secretary or commissioner of education,*1** The effect of the Commission*s recommenaation which set forth the tone of policies indirectly influenced the course of educational events, and will be treated in Chapter III on toe origins of centralisation* Second Philippine Commission, Baaed on toe recosmiendations of the Schurnan Commission, another GOBsaission was created on March h> 1900, by President Met inlay, f? * . , « for the institution, exploitation, and PHpromotion of civil government * n*u This Second Commission, more popular­ ly known as the Taft Commission, consisted of the following members* Will iasn H, Taft, president? i rice t. wright, bean C. Worcester, Henry Xde, 26Ibidf pp. UX-l!? Loc. eit. 28"a 1 renouncing Gazetteer and Geographical Dictionary of the Phil­ ippine Islands", Government Printing Office, Washington, D*C»: 1902, p. llif) 20 and Barnard Hoses* The Taft Commission arrived in Manila on June 3* 1900. According to President HoKinley, the task of the Second Philippine Commission was envisaged as continuing the work already begun by the military officials.^ The Constission was empowered to go ahead in organising and establishing civil government subject in all respects, however, to any Congressional legislation which might be enacted there­ of tor * In the discharge of its functions, the Taft Corasission was guided by the " Instructions of the President to -the Second Philippine Commis­ sion” prepared by the then Secretary of War, Slihu Root, and issued by the United States President on. April ?, 1910.^ Among the functions of the Taft Commission which are related, to the scope of the present study were* (1j to exercise legislative functions for the military government| (2j to establish the local municipal govem- mnts wiser© the Filipinos could manage their own civil affairs to the fullest extent of which they are capable| (3j to organise the provincial civil governments and their subsidiary administrativ© divisions; (hj to transfer the central administration of the national government from the military to civil control whenever the Commission deemed it propitious; {$} to appoint the necessary officers in the judicial, educational, and civil service system; and (6; w * . * • to promote and extend, and, as 29• "Report of the Philippine Coismission, the Civil u-overnor, and the heads of the Executive departments of die Philippine Islands, 19du-19d3,!, Government Printing office, Washington, B.C.* 19dii* p. 3 ^balde, op* cit*, p. 572. 21 they find occasion, to improve, the system of education already inaugu- 11rated by the military authorities,n^ The legislative functions of the occupation Government Mere trans­ ferred to the Second Philippine Commission on September 1, 19Gu. Pursuant to the order of President McKinley, the civil affairs in all pacified territories also were to bo admini3 torod by the Commission 12president, William H. T&ft. The Military Governor, however, remained as Chief Administrator# The Taft Commission was empowered to enact laws necessary « • . • for the raising of revenues by taxes, customs duties, and impost; the appropriation and expenditure of public funds of the islands; the establishment of an educational system throughout tie islands; the establish­ ment of a system to secure an efficient civil service*^ The Organic School Law. On September 1, 1900, in line wl th the transfer of authority to civilian officials, Fred w* Atkinson succeeded Captain Todd as General Superintendent of Public Instruction. Upon assuming his official duties, Atkinson drafted the provisions of the first school Act which created legally the educational system in tiis Philippines in harmony with the recommendations of the Taft Commission. 31ndeport of the Philippine Comission, Civil Governor, . . . .?s, op. cit., pp. i-11 ^"Annual Reports of the bar Department from the Fiscal fear dueling June 30, 1901 ”, Government Printing Office, Washington, B.C.* 1901, p. 16 -^’’Report of the Philippine Commission, Civil Governor, . . . .% op. cit., p. 6 In a subsequent report to the Secretary of war on November 3u, 1900, the Second Philippine Commission reiterated that The peculiar conditions existing here demand a centralized control of public-echool system. There should be careful State supervision of all public schools. . . . . In the centralized system of school organization, which is best fitted for the archipelago, the general superintendent will find the district superlntendency a most efficient channel in reaching the people of these islands, and in furnishing an opportunity for learning the meda of the various parts of the archipelago.^* With few modifications in Superintendsnt Atkinson*s draft, the Unite! States Philippine Commission enacted on January 21, 1101, Act ho. ?U which became the Organic School Law of the Philippines.*^ Provisions of the Organic School law. As the Organic School Law, with some amendments, remains in force today, it might bo well to dis­ cuss its chief features with emphasis on its tesidency toward centralization. For purposes of this study, the major provisions of the Act are classified under four categories; namely, (1> administrative organization and supervision, (2; curricula, {jj instructional program and materials, and ih) school finance. Administrative organization arid supervision. The organic School Law, Section 1, provided for the establishment of a Department of Public It-"■*«Report of the Taft Commission to the Secretary of War on Novem­ ber 30, 1900% Messages from the President of the United States, Senate Document No. 112, Government Printing Office, Washington, Jj.C.i 1901, pp. 107-08 !*•>^ Act Ho. Yks otherwise called the "Organic School Law of 1901% appears in Appendix A. Instruction with a central office in the Git/ of Manila. In accordance with the provision of Section 2 , all schools previous!/ established under the auspices of the Military Government were placed under the jurisdiction of and subject to tne control of the Department of Public In® true tion • A General Superintendent of Public Instruction, appointed by the Philippine Commission, was the chief officer of the Department and his adzainiatrailv© powers and duties were classified as follows'* (1; to divide the country into school divisions and to appoint a division superintendent for each of the school divisions and also a City Super­ intendent of Schools for Manila; (2; to exercise general supervision over the functions of tine Department; (3) to determine where the English teachers (paid from the Insular Treasury; should teach; (U) to ’make a semi-annual report of his Department to the Military Governor and to the Philippine Commitsicn. The Organic School Law also created a superior Advisory Board of Education composed of the General Superintendent who acted as Its presi­ dent, and four members appointed by the Comission# The chief clerk of the Gem-rcl Superintendent served, as secretary of the Board. The duties of the Advisory Board of Education were to assist the General Superin­ tendent in ascertaining the educational needs and. conditions of the Islands, and to make investigations and recommendations to the Comission on needed amendment® to the Organic bchool Law. one of the significant administrative provisions of the Act was the establishment in each municipality of a local school board with 2ii membership of four or sir to be determined by tins division superintend­ ent. Uii© half of the rubbers were to be elected by the municipal council, the other half, to be appointed by the division superintendent5 and the municipal mayor was to serve as an ex-officio member. Appointed and elected iseiffcers of the local, school board were to hold office for two years. It was to be tne duty of the local school board (1; to visit tiie schools within the municipality and to make a bi —ii'iOik uhiy report to the division superintendent regarding their condition and attendance of pupils; (2) to recommend to tee municipal council tee sites and plans of schoolhouses to bo erected; (3; to adopt rules for assigning pupils to schools where they might enroll in municipalities where two or more schools were operated; (hj to make an annual report to the municipal council as to the amount of money to be raised by local taxation for school purposes for the current year; ($) to make teabover report it should deem necessary to the General Superintendent. Curricula. One of the General Superintendent1s important functions involving the school curricula was provided for in Section 3# (dj, of the Act. the General Superintendent was empowered with authority to n. • • • fix a curriculum for primary* secondary* and other public schools. . . . #?<36 Section. 13 of the Organic School Law provided for the adoption of the English language as tee medium of instruction in all public schools "An excerpt from tee Organic School Law, Section 3* (dy, on the duties of the- General -Superintendent. (See Appendix A) in the Islands. The Law further authorized the General. Superintendent to obtain one thousand trained English teachers from the United States. The soldiers who were detailed as instrue tors were to be kept in serv­ ice, however, until they wore replaced by trained teachers. The Act further stipulated that it should, be the duty of the division Superintendent to see that the curriculum for the primary arid secondary schools prescribed by the General Superintendent of Public Instruction was complied with. Instructaaial program and materials. Section 3 of the Organic School Law provided that two of die duties of the General Superintendent were to establish schools in each municipality and to reorganise those al­ ready in operation where reorganisation was necessary. The General Lupcrintendont was also enjoined to prescribe plans for the construction of sctoolhouses and. also to .formulate rules of hygiene for all the schools in the Islands. The Act also made provisions for the establishment and maintenance .In the City of Fanila of a normal school and a trade school, and of an agricultural school in the Island of liegroe • The rules and plans for the conduct and organization of said schools were to be determined, by the General ; * up e r intend un t of Public Instruction. Under the provisions of Section 9 of Act Eo. 7k? the Division Superintendent was enjoined to familiarize himself with needs for supplies and textbooks in each school in his division, and to make re­ port of the same in order that they might be furnished by the General Superintendent• 26 Perhaps one of trie most important provisions of the organic School Law is contained in Section 16 which stipulated that "Ho teacher or other person shall teach or criticise the doctrine of any church, religions sect, or denomination, or ^iall attempt to influence the pupils for or against any church or religious sect in any public school established, under this Act#”-** School Finance# The financial provisions of the Organic School Law war® as follows: (1; The General Superintendent was to fix the salaries of the division superintendents, principals, am classroom teachers. (2) It also fell within his jurisdiction to make contracts for the pur­ chase of school supplies* (3j> It was the General Superintendent1 a duty to examine and approve all requisitions for funds made by the division superintendents, and to forward the same to the Chief Executive for submission to the Commission. Under Hie provision of Section 21 of the Act, the General Superin­ tendent of Public Instruction was directed to prepare and submit to Hie Philippine Commission through the Military Governor a statement of the estimated costs of textbooks and school supplies for the year 15*01, the total amount of which should not exceed. 522w,GUQ.GO# Thus, within four months (September to January; of the transference of the government of the Philippines from Military to Civil Authority, and within less than Hire® years (August 13, 1696, to January 21, 19G1> the basis of a centralized system of education in the Philippines had been established with some provisions for local administration of schools# ^Organic school Law, Section 16. (See Appendix A} 2? In general, responsibility for appointment of local school offi­ cials, administration and organization of schools, development of curricula, instituting school programs and approving materials, and securing finances were put in the hands of a general superintendent appointed by and responsible to the Philippine Commission. Only two aspects of the system established by the Organic School Law appeared to bear in them the seeds of localism. There were provisions for local school boards and for encouraging local financing of education. CHAPT.GR III OHIO IMS OF .4 SlSTiiK OF LihlCaTIGK 1. Diversity of the People am the Land .Present day Philippine commentators and historians are occasionally embittered by the descriptions of the Filipinos as a variegated or trib­ al people. According to Zaide The term *■ tribet! has been used, by misinformed writers, especially those unscrupulous foreign critics of the Fili­ pino people, in a very loose and unscientific way to give an erroneous impression that the Philippines is a land of denationalised tribes. . . . . The Filipinos are a nation bound together by ties of common origin, common history, common traditions, and common aspirations. Tney may be Tagslogs, Visayans, Ilocanos, Bicols, Cagayans (Ibanags;, Pampangos, Moros, Igorots, or halingasj but above all things they consider themselves as Filipinos in the same way that the Californians, Texans.. Virginians, or hew I oncers tnink of themselves as Americans. £aide's point of view is re-enforced in more mild fashion by two writers of 1930. Dean C. Worcester and Joseph Ralston Hayden state that The loose use of the word "tribe” in designating these peoples is liable to lead to very grave misapprehension. Their leaders vigorously, and very properly, object to the idea that tney have at present anything resembling a tribal organisation. The truth is that they are descendants of originally distinct tribes or peoples which have gradually come to resemble eaph other- more and more, and to have more and mors in common.^ ^laide, op. cit., pp. 31, 32 ^Dean G. Worcester and Joseph Ralston Hayden, "The i-hilippinea Fast ansi. Present", The Macmillan Company, hew fork: 193u, p. 669 £9 However, both Zaide and Worcester and Hayden point out the diver­ sity of -the peoples, particularly in their origins. Zuide calls them a ’’race of races,” having in their make-up **. . . • infiltrations of ftegrlto, Indonesians, Hindu, Chinese, Japanese, Arabic, Americans, and European bloods *st That there are opinions supporting present-day diversity is readily attested to by statements of George A* Malcolm in a 1951 publication. He recognises the Filipino as being Malayan by lineage, but as being a blend, much as is an American, of many races.^ but he contends that racial and social differences between the major ethnographic groups are readily discernible, and that ”group and provincial loyalty is evident. As late as 19h2, Hayden is still calling attention to the diversity of tongues and lack of a common language, which retard the development of 6national and democratic institutions# Point of View of the First Philippine Commission Races ami Languages. Whatever may be the justifiability of the several points of view of modern writers, it is quite evident that the early advisers to American policy-raakers were convinced that the Fili­ pinos were indeed a people of many origins, ’so more striking evidence 32aide, op. cit., p. 21 i, ^George A. Malcolm, ’’First Malayan Republic: The Htory of the Phil­ ippines”, The Christopher Publishing House, Bostons 1951 > P* h7 J1oc* cit. ^Hayden, op. cit*, p. 18 30 of this can be found than in tho following statement faro in the report to th© United States president of the first Philippine Commission (lby^y* The most striking and perhaps the most significant fact in the entire situation is the multiplicity of tribes inhabiting the archipelago, the diversity of their lan­ guages (which are mutually unintelligible), and the multifarious phases of civilisation— ranging all the way from the highest to th© lowest— exhibited by the natives of the several provinces and islands. . . . . Tae Filipinos are not a nation, but a variegated assemblage of different tribes and peoples, and their loyalty is still of the tribal type • * The Commission took occasion to remark, furthermore, that the in­ habitants belonged to ,f. . . • sharply distinct races— the Negrito race, Q the Indonesian race, and the Malayan race.” In th© fourth conclusion reached by the Commission, there will be found an introductory st»8 leiisen t i influencing the conclusion, which indi­ cates that In the opinion of the Commission members, there was no Philippine nation at the time of the occupation, but rather a collection of different peoples among whom there was no general public opinion. . . . . .i Suggested Centralisation of education. It was nut the purpose of the First Philippine Commission to provide other than a general inquiry Into existing social and economic circumstances. 1-leverthelcss, the work of the Second Philippine Coisnission Which put into effect the organic School Law was affected by the report of the First Philippine Commission* 7u Report of the Philippine Com* is si on to the President. . , .% op. cit., pp. 181-62 p. 11 9Ibid., p. 1 2 1 31 and, furthermore, the latter did make statements incident to education which cannot be assumed to be other than stages ting a ceatralisea educ at ion al system. Th© First Philippine Commission assumed that despite obvious virtues of the. people, the Filipinos were quit© incapable (in 1099/ of under­ taking to govern themselves, and this assumption was premised on the Filipinos* M. • . • lacx of education and political experience, combined with their racial and linguistic diversities* . • * ill though this is not a direct reference to centralisation, there arc two concomitant statements which support a leaning toward a central­ ized system of education under American direction. One was the recommendation of the dcburman Commission quoted in Chapter 11, page 18* The other was the statement that **As education advances and experience ripens, the natives may be entrusted with a larger and more independent 11share of government. . . . •" This last follows the statement previously quoted regarding the diversity of the peoples. It seems reasonable to reconstruct the statement of the Commission to react that diversity a m inexperience demanded the setting up of centralized controls under American guidance, both in government and educationj and as the people were ready, government and education facil­ ities would be turned over to their control. 10Xbid., p. 183 11Loc. cit. 32 Divarsity of the People Regardless of what judgments .might now be made about the wisdom of the recoicmenidations of the First Philippine Commission, the materials immediately available after the Occupation, and those gathered since appear to confirm the conclusions regarding diversity of origins of th© peoplea. The First American Census The first census of the Philippines under the American regime was dated 19u3. It contained a table listing the tribes of the Philippines as numbering 2k among which were 16 listed, as those of the so-called wild peoples. (See Table 1 on page 33*j The members of the 8 civilised tribes were 91 percent of the population whereas the wild tribes were only 9 percent. Th® three most important groups appeared to be the Tagalogs, the: \fisayans, and the Ilocanos, th© Visayaas being by far the most numerous and constituting 1*2.6 percent of the population. Before and since the census, it has been customary to group 'the tribes so as to imply three main origins; namely, (1; Negritos, (2j Indonesians, and (33 Malays* Th® Negritos* Philippine anthropologists and ethnologists theo­ rised that the Negritos were the aborigines of th© country whose pre-histoFie origin has remained obscure. Because of their pygmy Stature and black skin color, the name Kegritos, meaning small Negros, was given by the Spaniards to these uncivilized and indigenous inhabit­ ants of the Islands. They have black kinky hair, small flat noses, and large brown eyes, and they usually do not exceed five feet in height. T r i b e s Humber I' orcuuta&e _ l. il. Tfl— «'1 - r —lLI- 11 - r •nirri ' I T"'iT T ^ tT r ^ " - 1 i ■ ■ — — — 1— , ■ --------- rnru r ~i 1 ' 1 " " —---— -........................ .—...................... Vxsayans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3# 219>d3d lj.2,6 Tag slogs . . . . ..........................................1 ,860 ,6 96 1 9 .3 lloc&nos 6u3,982 1 0 .6 B ico ls ..................................... . . . . . . >66,365 7*5 P a n g a s in an ...................................................... 383*686 8 *5 Pam pang& ri...................... • 280,985 3*7 fiorc** 21 i , 5 81 3*7 Ig o ro t* ................... 211,320 2*8 Cagayan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1>9,61*8 2 .1 Bwkidnon* 56 ,189 0 .7 Pambalan 58 ,623 0 .6 Subanos* • ................................ . . . . . 25,766 0 .3 N e g rito * . ....................... 23>511 u*3 wandaya* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21,682 o .3 Kanobo* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,63;? o*3 P a g o b o * ............................... 12,11*9 0 .2 h a n g y a n * .................................... 7 ,269 0 .1 B ila n - ................................................................ 6 ,7 5 6 u . l Tarbarma* ........................... 8 ,696 u . l T iro ra y * ......................................... .... 3 >993 0 .1 I lo n ^ o to -...................... 3,601 I t a* .................................... 2 ,981 T a g a b ill* . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900 Balak* . . . . . . ................... . . . . >86 ?40TSs Karnes followed by asterisk (a; indicate wild or non-Christian tribes. 12Adapted from the list published in the uCensus of Hie Philippine Islands* 1903**» Vol. II, Government Printing Office, Washington, O.C.i 1905, p. 86 3h C. K. Porhas-Lindsay argues that although the Negritos were not originally hillmen, the advance ojf civilisation forced them in to trie 13fastnesses of the mountains. ^ Consequently, they had to load nomadic lives and roam in the mountain hinterlands. Their only weapon was the bow and a rrow . They liv e d by hunting and gathering wild forest products fo r fo o d , Since they had no hones, their shelter usually consisted of temporary le a n -to made of s t ic k s , tree-leaves, and grasses. Generally, they had no clothing except a g e e -s trin g and. sometimes barks and leaves of t re e s . According to H. O tley Beyer, the Negritos probably approach the nost primitive group o f people on earth. In th© census of 1903* Gavid P. Barrows reported that the Negritos wore no t without religious b e l ie fj *• . • . their principal d i e t / is the moon. They are v e ry shy end d is t r u s t fu l ; and all e f fo r ts to civilise them have apparently f a i le d ." ^ * The P h ilip p in e Commission, in i t s re p o rt to the p res id en t o f the U nited S ta te s , s ta te d that the N egritos c o n s titu te d a d isappearing ra ce . The Commission fu r th e r asserted th a t n . . . . n o t more than 23,oGu of jLthem exist . . . . and the race seams doomed to e a r ly extinction •*** ^ C . H. Forbes-L indsay, "The P h ilip p in e s " , The John C. K inston Com­ pany, P h ilade lp h ia? 19*16, p . 77 Otley Beysr, *‘fha Non-Christian Peoples of the Philippines", Census of the Philippine Islandst 1918, Vol. 11, Bureau of Printing, Manila?" 1921,” pV 910-31 ^David P. Barrows, "Characteristics of the Non-Chris tian Tribes14, Census of the Philippine Islands? 1903* ‘Jol. X, op. cit., p. >32 16’hiaport o f the Philippine Cosmission. . . • Vol. I , op. cit., 11 33 Th© Indonesians. Th© first known sea-immigrants to have come to the Philippines were the Indonesians or island Indians* In physical festairee the Indonesians showed traces of Mongoloid and Caucasian affinities* They were perhaps among the tallest inhabitants of the Islands* hnfroai© H* Allp points out that The Indonesians were differentiated from other racial groups primarily because of their high stature anti strong build, the average height being five feet and seven inches, while th$ highest reaching the mark of six feet and two inches* Successive migrations brought into the country apparently two die- tinct types of Indonesians differing from each other in physical characteristics. The first group were of slender body, deop*set eyes, sharp thin face, high aquiline nose, thin lips, broad forehead, and a rather light skin color* The second type were of thick-set body, large rectangular face, large round eyes, flaring nose, thick lips, and a 18relatively dark complexion. The Indonesians were semi-civilised peoples with a somewhat more advanced culture— although still primitive— than had their pygmy prede­ cessors* They lived in permanent settlements and in houses built either directly on the ground or on top of trees* They had a crude form of dry agriculture known as kalngln, and they supplemented their source of food by hunting, trapping, fishing, and gathering wild fruits, bine© pottery was unknown to them, they cooked their food in bamboo tubes and 17bufronio B. Alip, "Philippine Civilisation", University of Santo Tomas Press, Manilas 1936, p. 13 •^Beyer, 0£. cit., p. 918 on pieces of bark* Fire was made by rubbing two pieces of dry bamboo together. The Indonesians wore beaten barks of trees for clothing« They tattooed their bodies and also used omacsents of scented flowers Apparently, the Indonesians possessed better implements of war than did the Negritos. Their weapons consisted of blowguns and Knives in culture, the Indonesians settled in the lowlands and coastal regions and drove the Negritos into the interior of the Islands. Evidences seem to indicate that the iniertnarriage of Indonesians with the pygmies and later with the Malays resulted in consequent inter-racial blending. As Felix M. Heesing points out, wThe Indonesians have thus left a strong imprint on the modern Philippine people, both physically and cultural- the Malays. The Malays constituted the second major group of sea- immigrants to settle in the Philippines. Inocencio B. Laodela asserts in his article on tsTraces of Philippine Culture** that the .Malays were M. * • • the most determinative of all races to corns to our shores in eastern Asia and to have corns* to the archipelago in three major waves of Kell. y and Walsh, Limited, Shanghais 1937, p. 16 22 Inocencio B. n&ddela, uTraces of Philippine Culture”, Tiaras Magazine (Manila>, ut lb, January ii, 1933 Because of tiieir slightly advancedaddition to the bow and arrow lv.M21 ’he Malays are believed to have originated from south* Ibid*, pp, 918-19 ilippinest A Nation in the Making 37 migration* Of those Malay Migrations, I aide gives the following account { The first wave of hula/ immigrants came about 200 li.O. These immigrants wore th© head-hunting Fal&ys— ancestors o f the present Ig o ro ts , Ifugaos, Bontoes, and Tinggians of northern Luson. The second wave cam© a f te r the C h r is tia n e ra , beginning about the first -century 1.3 . ana continuing through succeed­ ing ce n tu ries u n t i l the 13th century* This m igrato ry wave saw the advent o f th© alphabet-using Malays— ancestors o f the present Tagalogs, Visayans, Bicols, Ilocanos, Parapangos, and other C h r is tia n F il ip in o s * And the th ir d wave came about the end of the lh'th century A*D., continuing u n t i l th© 15th cen tu ry . In this migratory wave came the Mohammedan H aleys , accompanied by Arab princes and missionaries, and they be case the ancestors o f ^ the present Moros (Mohammedan Filipinos; of Mindanao and Sulti.*-* Baaed on their c u ltu r a l backgrounds, the Malay inhabitants of the Philippines are c la s s if ie d by foyer in two main divisions* namely, the Fagan aril the Mohammedan Malays. Th®- Pagan Malays c o n s titu te four semi-civilised culture groups and are found in the mountain regions of nor Item Luaonj' while the Mohammedan Malays dona is tin g of a t le a s t seven p), ethnic groups live almost exclusively in the southern islands. In his report on "The History of P h ilip p in e Civilisation1*’ published in the Anthropological Papers of trio American Museum, of Natural History, A lfre d L. tro e b e r supports a similar theory that the Malays were of two distinct typess (1; the Kalays corresponding to Hie "Igorot1’ racial stocks of the Mountain Provinces o f Luzon, and (2; the Mohammedan or ^L.-ide, op* cit., pp. 27-26. 2b- lacyer, op. cit., pp. 930-3d. 38 23Horo groups of Mindanao arid bulu A rchipelago. ^ In contrast to th© Negritos and the Indonesians, the Kalays belong distinctly to t lie brown race • Tixeir s ta tu re appears to be an inter- m ediate between that o f the Indonesians and that of the Negritos* They have well-built symmetrical bodies, straight black h a ir , scanty beards, flat noses, and dark brown e-yes. The Malays also are believed to have possessed a higher order of intelligence and a more h ig h ly developed culture than aid their Kegrito and Indonesian predecessors* Their con­ tacts with India, China, Arabia and other civilized countries of .^sia 26greatly enriched their cultural backgrounds. ^avid be m s tela further asserts that the Malays were . . . . the anctutors of the civilized Filipino of to ­ day. They had some concept of government, religion, culture* They wore clothes, lived in houses, had a written language, made a heady wine, and enjoyed music. They had brought w ith them some o f the Hindu in flu en ces from India. Available relies of tie e a r ly Kalay civilization give evidence of its superior weapons which consistod of lances, daggers, spears, swords, shields, and lantakas or bronze cannon in addition to what its preue- cessors had. The Malayan civilization organized a system of building strongholds and forts, and had .a Knowledge of the tactics of naval combat* pd Alf red 1. Kroeber, w The history of Philippine Civilization as Re­ flected in Religious Nomenclature”, Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, Vol. XIX, Tart 1I, Published by Order of the Trustees, Bow forks 1918, p. 37 26David r. Barrows, "A history of the Philippines1*, ttorld Book Co., lonkers-on-itudson, Mew Tories 191b, pp. 31-Ud 2? * David Bernstein, "The i-'itilip p in e Story", F a r ra r , o trails arid Company, Mew York: 19U7* PP* 28-29 39 Buttressed by their dominant culture patterns and sustained by superior implements of war, the Malays infiltrated -throughout the archi­ pelago and wrested the possessions of tie lowland areas from the Indonesians, driving the latter into the frontiers. As a result of these movements, the Indonesians in turn forced the Negritos farther in- 2 dto the remotest sections of the mountains. Centuries of tribal warfare as well as intermarriage brought about an Inevitable racial admixture. The contacts of the Malays with the Indonesians, mci possibly with the Negrito groups, may have resulted in the absorption of the latter* a racial stock, arid in the assimilation of their inherent culture into the whole matrix of Malay civilisation. Thus, the great majority of the Islands' constituency are apparently of Malay extraction and culture. Malcolm further concludes that ‘'The Malays now represent the greater portion of the racial stock in the Phil lupine a • *’ ^ The Birth of the Filipino People. The ethnological blending of the Malays with the preceding immigrants and the subsequent blood-infiltra­ tion of the Asiatic, European, and American peoples produced a new hybrid or composite race collectively known today as the Filipinos. Evidences tend to indicate that the term Filipinos was given by the Spaniards to the inhabitants of the archipelago which was re-named las I si as m honor ox. xX of {xp^ x^n in l.pli3 • 28Alip, op. cit., p. 16. *%&Xcolm, op. cit., p. 33* u j typically, the Filipinos are characterized by a sturdy physique, an average height or five feat and four inches, s tra ig h t blacx hair, dark brown eyas, and a light brown complexion. According to Berneteinds description, "Fundamentally, the individual Filipino Is simply a human b e in g who happened to be born in the Philippines, u s u a l ly w ith a c a fe - au-la.lt complexion and high Malay choekbonos.”^ The annals of race mixture in the Philippines seem to date bacw many centuries, far into pro-historic times. Forbes asserts that there mist have bean a continued infusion of Mongolian blood as well as of 31o th e r Asiatic arid Polynesian peoples. And according to xieesing, In tn& subsequent . . . . centuries, mixing has contin­ ued among all peoples of die Philippines. The distinction between the pygmy, In d o n e s ia n , Malayan, and the minor strains of Hindu, Arab, and early Chines© have become increasingly blurred. . . . . Furthermore, there has been a constant in­ fusion of new blood into the Filipino racial melange. Consequently, as reported by the Philippine Commission, the Fili­ pino race M. . . . is not found pure in any of the islands, but is everywhere more or less modified through intermarriage with Chinese, Indonesians, Negritos, Arabs, and, to a limited extent, Spaniards and 33other )£im>peans*** As a result of this racial,, admixture, the Filipinos are mestizos- or half-breads of heterogeneous descent, although, 30Bernstein, o£. cit., p. 21*. 31** W. Cameron Forbes, "The Philippine Islands", (rev. ed.;, op. cit., 32 Xecsing, op. cit., p. 2o. 33'‘bteport or the Philippine Commission. . . .**, vol. I, op. cit., p. 12. Ill basically, they have maintained a predominant Kslay strain* Hence, they are generally classified as belonging to the brown race which constitutes th? bulk of the present population* Herbert W* Krieger points out that foe influence of the Spanish physical type Is almost everywhere apparent* the Spanish were in posse os ion of die most populous and the richest territory for more than 300 years, and through their intermarriage with native women, an appreciable segment of. Christian population reveals traces of Spanish blood. ^ In a more or less conclusive observation, Hayden makes the follow­ ing significant atatemants: The effect which this infusion of foreign blood may have upon die development of the Philippine nation is difficult to appraise. . . . . (However;, there is scarce­ ly room for doubt that the infusion has improved the quality of the native stock. Certainly to© infusion through th© centuries of blood from two of the world * s great peoples has helped, to produce, in the Philippines the prog re solve, virile race* • • • The percentage distribution of the Philippine racial ancestry, based on Beyer*a classification which was derived from the 1918 census of the Philippines and revised, in 191*2, is shown in Table 2, page 1*2* That the Filipinos had some degree of civilization prior to the ad­ vent of any white m n on Philippine soil is evidenced by a few remaining fragments of archaeological and historical data. This assumption, is supported by the report of the Philippine Commission on uThe Native ^Herbert h. Krieger, MPeoples of trie Philippines”, War Background Series, The Smithsonian Institution, Washington, B.C.! 191*2# p. 23 -^Hayden, op. cit-, PP* 26-29- Kopies Constituting Philippine Ancestry estimated Percent Ox trj. button Negritos and Proto-Malays Id Indonesians 3d Malays lid Chinese Id Hindus 3 Europeans and. Americans 3 Arabs 2 T o t a l lud Peoples of tlio Philippines,” which asserts that “The majority of the inhabitants of the Philippines, then, are possessed of a considerable degree of civilization.”*^ Filipino civilisation traces its foundation and source from the enriched Malayan culture. As Charles S. Russell avers in The Outlook for the Philippines, They were, in fact, inheritors of two great cultural. infiltrations upon what culture the Malays had possessed two thousand years before; because on one side was the "'"Tnis Table was derived from the footnote data which appear in Malcolm*s 15First Malayan Republic • • • op. cit., p. 3u* 37^1 nReport of the Philippine Commission. . . op. cit., p. 16. influence of the H i n d o o s on the other the civilization of the Chinese........* Based on these cultural foundations, Maudsla concludes that the Malays possessed an advanced culture which M. . . . served as the sub­ stratum from which Filipinos of today began their career. From the beginning of the dispersal of these various ethnic groups throughout the entire archipelago, an accretion of cultural influences may be readily observed. The inhabitants of the Philippines possessed a civilisation typically oriental, and enriched by the impact of Hindu, Chinese, Japanese, and Arabtan culture. These influences were also re­ enforced by European civilisation after the coming of the Spaniards in the middle of the sixteenth century. Despite the various blendings of the Filipino people and any possi­ ble effects of these blendings, there remained in. the Philippines a variety of languages and dialects corresponding to each tribe (as shown in Table 1, page 33). Although in most of the tribes a single language or dialect is spoken the Visayans speak die following dielectst Gebuan, Ilonggo, Cuyono, and oamareno; a few of the lesser tribes are not classified in Table 1, but each speaks its respective tongue. Based on the findings of leading Philippine ethnologists, Hayden?s conclusions reveal that there are u. . . . no less than forty-three distinct ^Charles S. Hus sell, }{Thc Outlook for the Philippine sn ? The Century Company, Kew fork: 1922, p. 27 39i'sddela, op. clt., p. 10. Ut ethnographic groups, speaking eighty-seven languages' and dialects, as existing la the Arcftipelago."a^ Thus, it seems reasonable to conclude that Americans wno came into the Philippines at the beginning of the American Occupation were struck by the adversity of the people, their varying degrees of civilisation, the disunifying effect of many languages* and that these factors influ­ enced them in introducing' a unifying social- medium through a system of centralised education* In different words, this view is supported by Paul Monroe, Chairman of Hie Board of Educational Survey in 192>, who stated that • . . . the lack of local governments capable of con­ trolling schools and with a lack of social, experience on the part of tue Filipino people which would have made local control feasible, resulted in the development of a highly centralised adminis tration.k** Factors of Land Diversity Another factor which must have influenced the Americans 'in con­ sideration of the problem of centralisation of education in the Philippines must have been the diversity of land eoiuprising the archipelago. A brief description of tm geographical divisions of the Philippines in the following section will point clearly to the factors supporting land diversity. It ran at have been clear to the Americans, therefore, that topography was a critical factor in overcoming the isolation of peoples throughout ^Hayden, ©£. cit., p. 11. 1 1 Paul Monroe, vh Survey of the Educational System of the Philip­ pine Islands”, Bureau of Printing, Manilas 1925* p. 522 the numerous islands, and undoubtedly Influenced their intentions to introduce into the Philippines norm common social medium such as educa­ tion# Geographical Circumstartees. The Philippines are an archipelago of tropical islands clustered on the southwestern fringes of the Pacific between h° hO* and 21° 109 latitudes above the equator and extending from 116° ho9 to 126° 3h9 longitudes east of Greenwich line.^ The Philippines arc bounded on the north by Fomoaa, on tlx? south by Indo­ nesia, on the east by tlm Paeiric Ocean, and on the west by the South China Sea. Approximately 7,100 islands and islets, of stitch l,u9> are large enough to be inhabited, comprise the whole archipelago.^ Accord­ ing to the 1939 surveys, the land area of the Philippines is il>,6d0 square miles Geographically, the Philippines are divided into three main groups of islands running roughly from north to south and stretching to more than 1,100 miles lengthwise as may be seen on the map on page* 1*6. Luson, the largest Island with an area of about h09h20 square miles, lies on the north* Mindanao, the island next in sis© with 36,337 square miles of land area, is located on the extreme south; and the fragmented .An excerpt from WA Pronouncing Gazetteer and Geographical Dictionary of the Philippine Islands”, op. cit., p. 3. 1x3 ,aide, op» cit., p. ij.* ^ l|,Census Atlas of the Philippines* 1939”, Vol. V, bureau of Print­ ing, Manila* 19lid, p. 11 The Philippines islands of the Visayas occupy tie central sector of the triangul ar­ ia, shaped archip&lago•^ The georaorphic features of the fhilippines are characterized by extensive inland a*id co an wai. p 1 ains , higiil and plateaus, and rugged and mountainous terrain which are typical of volcanic island topography. The irregular coastline is s a id to extend to so me 10,850 statute miles. Host of the large islands are traversed by mountain ranges covered with tropic vegetation and containing various mineral resources. The soil is generally fertile, with about 63 per cent of the land suitable for cultivation. A considerable amount of deep alluvial m a cultivable basins are found in the- alternating valleys and plains. In his book, Philippine Uncertainty, Harry B* Hawes classifies 'the vegetative areas of the Islands as shown in Table 3 on page 1*8. Of the 73 million acres of land area, only 12*5 per cent were under actual cultivation in 1932. With 18.9 per cent grass arid open land and h»2 per cent unexplored land, the land gives promise of a tremendous possibility for .further land development and cultivation, Daniel R. Williams affirms that nIn agricultural, mineral., and for­ est wealth, as also in strategic trade location, the Philippines have been pronounced by experts to be the richest and most favoured group of k^An extract from an article on 1 Philippine Republic”, Tim Maga­ zine (Chicago;, 58s32, November 26, 1951 ^ "Census of the Philippine Islands: 191-32• * TABLE 3* 01. ASSIFICATIDH OP T’HP VUGLTAT1VL AHLAS IB THE Pi Type of Vegetation Acres Percent of Total Area Comrae rc iai Vo re s t 39,3o2,162 33.7 Non-Comercial Forest 7,201,333 9.8 Cultivated Land 9,17k,300 12.3 Crass and Open Land 13,63k,137 18.9 Mangrove Swamp 669,323 .9 Unexplored 3,03k,717 h.2 T o t a l 73,216,12k loo • 0 tropical islands .in the w o r l d **^8 According to the estimate of Hamilton M* Wright, approximately two-thirds of the total land area is still forested with unnumbered varieties of trees and plants of cotnrtarcial and hO medicinal, value. Its flora and fauna rank among the richest in the Pacific island regions. } 7 Adapted from the Table published in * Philippine Uncertainty" by Harry B. Hawes, The Century Company, New lories 1932, p. 6? ^Daniel It. Williams, "The United States and the Philippines", P ow leday , Page ana Company, Kew forks 192k, p. 46 ho Hamilton VI, Aright, UA Handbook FcClurg and Company* Chicago; 1909* p* 12 U9 The Philippines are wholly within the tropic zone* Naturally, the climate of the Islands is predominantly tropical, although considerable climatic differences exist in various localities corresponding to their elevation. In the lowlands, a tropical marine climate prevails; whereas, a milder tropical weather generally prevails in the highland regions. High temperature and humidity are salient factors 01 the Islands1 clima­ tology. Typical of the Philippine© are the annual mean temperature of 8l*i*a and humidity of 73*9 per cent a© recorded in the Manila area in 1950.^° By arid large, two distinct seasons exist in tie Philippinesi the wot sad the dry. July to Beptombor are the wettest months of the year* April end Hay, the driest. However, an intermediate climate prevails which is characterised by no pronounced wet or dry season, during this period, trie days are sunny with occasional ref resiling showers, snd the nights are clear and cool. Usually, tills most delightful season of the year extends from November to February.^ A unique feature of Philippine climate is the recurrence of destruc­ tive typhoons accompanied by hurricane winds, torrential rains, and lowland floods which cause havoc to life, property, and crops, thereby seriously affecting the economic life of the people* Annual precipitation excerpt from MTne Philippine learbook, 1951-19P2*1, rublished by the Berald-DMHK Mewspapers, Manilas 1952, p. 1?0 ^*?he Philippines 1950i A Handbook of Trade and he on am ic Pacts and ir’igures% Bureau of Printing, Manilas 19>0, p. 70 ranges from 80 to 100 inches in the southern is!ends, and 100 to 250 52inches in the northern and central areas of me archipelago* The foregoing description of the £ar-flung islands of the archi­ pelago and their attendant climatic and geographical differences, shows that tlis factors of land diversity which separate 'die peoples of the islands from one another must have convinced American policy-makers of the propriety of adopting a highly centralised administrative school system for the country* 2* Spanish Influence; on the Centralized School System It will be remembered that one of the first acts of the Americans shortly after the formal Occupation of Manila was to reopen the schools which were in operation during the Spanish regime. At this point, the relationship between the Spanish system of education and toe? consequent American school iff stem becomes somewhat nebulous. It appears logical to assume, however, in the liyht of subsequent events, that toe- existence of a Spanish centralized system of education may have influenced, to some extent at least, the establishment of an American-sponsored system of education based on centralisation. Introduction of Formal Education The advent of Spanish civilisation during the latter half of the sixteenth century brought about a new era in toe history of etocation ■^Thomas A. Blair, “Climatology* General and iiegionalM, i ran tie e- HaLl, Inc., Mew forks 19h2, pp. 316-19 in the Philippines* Contenporaneous with tJrie conquest of the archipelago, the Spaniards introduced education in conjunction with the propagation of Christianity. To the Spanish missionaries, particularly, belongs the credit of establishing a formal, type of education in the country, as Cctbnpang points out, nThis was the beginning of the introduction of Vie stem education and tie first impulse toward a real educational develop­ ment of the Philippines • Aims of the Spanish Education Fundamentally, education during the Spanish regime was transcen­ dental and religious • Encamacion Alsona affirms that the main function of education . . * . was naturally the dissemination of Christian ideas. Its aim was the training of students not for this world but for heaven. As Antonio Isidro states in his book, The Philippine Educa­ tional System, MA11 the schools established during the Spanish regime had religious instruction as the supreme goal.”-**3 Based on this con­ cept, education logically became one of the chief concerns of the Church; and at the time of their arrival in 1565, the Spaniards set up an educa­ tional system wholly under the control and supervision of the Honan Catholic Church. 53Catspang, op. cit., p. 20. hk^ Kncarnaeion Alsona, nA History of Education in the Philippines”, University of the Philippines Press, Manila; 1932, p. 23 ^Antonio Isidro, ”The Philippine Ikiucational System”, Bookman, Inc., Manila; 19U9, p. 3 It is difficult to assess the effect of the .'Spanish educational system on the Filipino people except in terras of religious affiliation| a 1939 survey indicated that percent of the population were ad­ herents of the Catholic faith. (See fable I4 on page is one of the chief aims of education during the Spanish regime was to Christianise the natives, the religious statistic is one measure of the effective­ ness of fee Spanish educations! system. Organisation of Schools Under Spain The parochial schools. The parochial schools were essentially the first elementary institutions in the Philippines • They were ope rated by the friars for the main purpose of teaching the natives, children and adults, Christian doctrines and the rudiments of education. The course of study, which was partly academic and partly vocational., consisted of catechism, sacred mi sic, reading, writing, arithmetic, rood manners and right conduct, in addition to various arte and trades. Memorisation was the principal method of ins traction# The dialect of tie locality was used as the medium of instruction, although Spanish was taught to brilliant end advanced students. Classes were generally ungraded and attendance was not compulsory. The secondary schools. In addition to the elementary level of edu­ cation, the secondary schools were also organised primarily for the training of the sons of Spanish cononistadores ’’for the service of the ^ John Foreman, "The Philippine Islands", Charles Scribner's Sons, Mew forks 1899, pp. 30-31 sielig ions ho. of Adherents Percent of Distribution According to Religion Homan Catholics (Christians; 12,6u3,363 76.3 •Wl ipayaris or Philippine Independent Church (Christians;l,373,6u6 p.3 Protestants (Christians>a 376,361 2 .h Poriuinmedans 677,903 iuE ts 67,632 0 . i Shintoists 13,661 u.l Others0 67,137 d .I4 Pagans and Persons not be­ longing and not reporting religious affiliation 638,376 UmO T o t a l 16, , 303 I '-J'tj • W The Protestants include Keth odists, Episcopalians, Baptists, dis­ ciples ol Christ, t-eventh-day Advwntists, Christian Missionary ‘blliance, Philippine Hethodists, etc. bIn this group are included the Jewish, Greek Orthodox, Confucian< iste, and Brokmmia • C'7 Tills Table was derived from the report of the Corasaission of th© census, published in the * Census of the Philippines? 1939% Vol. II, Bureau of Printing, Manilas 191*0, p. 331* King and the Church.” As Paul Conroe observed* "The motives vhicb led the Spaniards to establish secondary and high schools in the Fnilippiries were the education of their own sons and training for Hie priesthood.1*^ bverristc Bazaeo asserts Hi at the two-fold aim of the college-seistumry (or secondary educationj was the preparation for an academic career and C (j for the priesthood. A. significant feature of tlx© secondary school system introduced by the Spaniards in the Philippines was its similarity to the European pattern. The whole course consisted of a five-year program of classical study based on the triviun and quadrivims. For all courses of the secondary five-year offerings see Table 5, page 53* Spanish was used exclusively as the medium of instruction; and memorization, the chief method of teaching. The Educational .Decree of 1863» While an qppreciable degree of educational development had been attained under the early Spanish regime, it was not until 1863 that & public school system was established. On December 30, 1863, an Educational Decree was issued by the Minister of the Colonies, Jose d@ la Concha, in the nmie of the duoen Hegeni of Spain. The Dec roe provided for the- organization of a complete gystom of public education in the Philippines, the supervision and support of the primary schools by the Central Government, and the «stabli aliment of ^Paul Monroe, (ed./, "A Cyclopedia of Education*1, tfol. IV, The Macmillan Company, Sew lark: 1913, p. 673 3dnvergisto Hazaco, “history of education in the Philippines", University of Sto. Tomas Press, Manila: 1939, P* 123 TABLE 5- SECGMD&BY COURSE OF STUD! DUHXMG Tti b SPANISH REGIME^ G R/IL'jO SUBJECTS First Tear? Second. Tear: Third tears Fourtli Tears Fifth Years Christian Doctrine Sacred History Latin aid Spanish Grammar Christian Morality descriptive Geography Lai.in and Spanish Grammar Universal History History of Spain Rudiments of Greek Arithmetic and Algebra Latin Analysis ana Translation Spanish and Latin Composition Rhetoric 'and Poetxy Social Ethics Geometry and. Rectilinear Trigonometry Psychology Moral Philosophy Logic Physics and Chemistxy natural History French or English teacher-training institutions. That K. • . . in all the towns of the archipelago schools of primary elementary instruction for boys and 61girls. . • . .n be established was further stipulated in the Decree. ^Adapted from tne lists of subjects published in Hie report of **Education Under Spain” by Tomas G. del Rosario which appeared in the Census of trie Philippine Islands? 1903, Vol. Ill, op. cit., p. 600. Ibid., pp. >?8-79 Prior to 1863, no government adininistrati'vs organisation of schools existed Inasmuch, as all schools were run privately by the different re­ ligious orders. Based on the provisions of the Educational decree, two councils were organised to take charge of the school functions} namely, the Junta de Qobterao end the Junta Adsiinistradora del haterial ue hscuelas. The first Council was in charge of the central administrative and supervisory functions of the schools, while the second was concerned with trie financial affairs of the system*^ Obviously, then, beginning in 1863 a highly centralised system of education in the Philippines was established by the Spaniards* Contemporaneous with the increasing number of schools, which in 1892 reached a total, of 2,137,^ was the spread- of the Spanish language in the towns and islands where schools were established. As a matter of fact, the first native teachers continued to teach in Spanish when schools were reopened at the outset of the American Occupation. Never­ theless, it was the purpose of the Americans, in order to carry out 'the democratic policies and aims of the Occupation, to substitute English for Spanish ana the logical assumption would bo to introduce a uniform and a centralised system of education to offset toe influence of Spanish edu­ cation* That Americans should, think in terras of centralisation would be evident from the previous discussion in that they developed a secular 62Fresnosa, op. cit., p. 3-U. "^Census of the Philippine Islands: 1903”, Vol* III, o£. cit., pp. 591-93. public school system even though the private parochial schools wore allowed under the provisions of the Organic bchool Law of 1901, In the opinion of the lumbers of iio board of oaucatioiml ourvey headed by Paul Konroe who mde a study of the educational system in the Philippines In I'^ Pp, This scheme /of can tral is ation/ has been data mined by the influence of widely different theories of general govern­ ment and educational administration. The system had developed anong a people habituated to a hignly- centralized t— a heritage from hundreds of years of Spanish The discussion in Section 2 of Chapter IX indicated Hi at the mili­ tary authorities were responsible for the reopening of the schools in. Manila aid in the pacified areas of the archipelago shortly after the American Occupation. American Army officers were assigned 'to take charge of the operation of the early school system and soldiers were detailed to teach. Centralisation msy have been influenced to some extent, at least, by the fact that in the first instance the educational policies during Hie first three years of the Occupation wore formulatoa by the military personnel to whom a centralized system of schools m y have been more congenial and understandable. This assertion is substantiated by the nature of the recommendations mad© by Captain Todd in 1900 for the future organisation of public education. Some of these recomnondations Ah Monroe, nA Survey of the educational bystem of the Philippine Islands1*, op. cit.5 p. i,21. 3. Military Influence on Centralization of ilt-qcation were later incorporated in the Organic School Law of 1901 providing for a centralized educational system. It is for a somewhat more substantial reason than sheer affinity for centralisation, however, that military authorities. may have recog­ nised the need for a centralised school system. This reason lay In the very difficult task assigned to the military of pacification incident to the Philippine Insurrection. To indicate the difficulties confronting the military authorities, brief consideration should be- given to the background of the Insurrection. The beginning of the military occupation of the Philippines was marred by the outbreak of the Filipino-American ftar on February it, 1399 • This war lasted until 19d2. The oraed conflict was caused principally, perhaps, by misunderstanding® between the American officials and General. Pmilio Aguin&ldo, supremo of the Philippine Revolution against Spain* 111-feelings were aggravated when the Filipinos were not -allowed to en­ ter Manila to participate in the victory celebrations fb Hewing the fall of Manila on August 13, 18.98, Moreover, on the following day, the Fili­ pino soldiers were asked to evacuate the suburbs of the city which they had won from the Spaniards• Seemingly, then, disagreement hinged on the acquisition of the Philippines and on the assumption of American sovereignty. In his book, America and Hie Philippines, Carl Crow testi­ fied that "the insurrection of Filipinos was inevitable after the signing of the Treaty of Paris. ^ ^Carl Crow, "America and the Philippines", Doubleday, Page and Company, U m forks I9lii, p. 3k The Filipinos were led to believe that in overthrowing the Spanish sovereignty the United States purposed to help them secure their inde­ pendence. General Aguinaldo further claimed that the American officials through Admiral Dewey promised him trie emancipation of the country after the termination of the &pmish-Amerieon war. on the contrary# the Americans denied the validity of such a promise. In view of this strained situation, the revolution which started on August 26, 2896, when the Spaniards wore still in power, continued spor­ adically through the Spanish period and into the time of the American occupation in 1698. Finally, on January 23, 1699> the insurgents de­ clared the establishment of the First Philippine Republic despite American Occupation. As a consequence, the breach brought about a cru­ cial episode in Filipino-Amerlean relations when the Americans did not 67recognise Aguinaldo1s a© facto government* 1 A successful war operation was then undertaken by the American military government to subdue the insurgent Filipinos• An extensive pacification campaign also was carried out throughout most of the islands of the archipelago. It vias during these crucial years that education was Introduced primarily as a means of pacifying the insurgents. Qener&l Arthur HacArthur, who, as military governor, allocated additional funds for school purposes, explained tbi.it the special appropriation was to serve °°Bemstein, op. cit., pp. 6?-6y. /, y ifLihu Hoot, "The Military m d Uolonial Folicy of toe United States”, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.? 1916, p . 82 • exclusive!/ as an adjunct to military operations for the paci­ fication of the people and for the restoration of order and tranquility throughout the archipelago.Muu During these years of emergency, it would have been surprising had tb© military authorities not leaned to­ ward the development of centralised school organisation which under American direction might introduce a humane and constructive way of securing the loyalties of the 'Filipinos. athough the Organic School Act itself was drafted by a civilian superintendent, Fred W. Atkinson, it was, nevertheless, modified aid en­ acted by the Philippine Commission - under the military government* It was necessary for the military governor to approve the Act before it could became effective. It would seem, natural to assume that the policy of centralisation was adopted by the military authorities because it was not only congenial to military organization, but also conducive to- alleviating emergency conditions prevailing in the Islands during the military regime. It would not be difficult to assert, therefore, that the establishment of a centralized, system of education in the Philippines was influenced by and traceable to the fact that toe policy itself was conceived and fomul a ted by American military officials who had before them a very difficult assignment. U. Halation of Education to American Policies The governmental policies which the United States adopted in the £ « Jemegan, op. cit., pp. 61* . 61 Philippines demonstrated to the 'Filipino people that the coming of the Americans in effect M. . . . heralded the advent of & new regime and proclaimed the triumph of democratic ideals and institutions• Unlike the Castillian policy of colonial subjugation, the American policy was 70 based on "benevolent assimilation"1 — a novel experiment in tne treat­ ment of a conquered nation# Presidential Messages on American Policies In contemplating what policies the United States should take in the final disposition of the Philippines, President McKinley declared! There was nothing left for us to do but to take them all, and to educate the Filipinos and uplift arid civilize and Christianize them, and,by God1 s grace do the very best we could by them. . . . . The implications conveyed .in a Presidential message sent by Secre­ tary Hay to the Gchurman Commission regarding the policies of the United States in the Philippines si-so appear significant. The cablegram states! The President earnestly desires the cessation of bloodshed, and that the people of the Philippine Islands 69Benlgno Aldana, "The Mucational System of the Philippines”, University Publishing Company, Inc#, Manilas 191*9, p. 1 70Senate Document Mo* 206, "Messages from the President of the United States", 56th Congress, Second -Session, Government Printing office, Washington, D.C.: 1900, pp. 62-63 71'Richard S. Van Alsbync, -American Diplomacy in Action’*, rev. ed., Stanford University Press, Stanford: 19l*7, pp. 633-636. 62 at an early date shall have the largest measure of local self-government consistent with pa ace and good order. * Proclamation of the First Philippine Commission After reaching Manila on March h, 1099, the members of the Schurman Commission issued a Proclamation enumerating the aims of the United hfates in the administration of the Philippines • A portion of the Proclamation reads: The aim and object of the Armrican Government, apart from the fulfillment of the solemn obligations it has assumed toward, a family of nations by the acceptance of sovereignty over the Philippine Islands, is the well being, the prosperity, and the happiness of the Philippine people and their elevation and advancement to a position among the most civilised peoples of the world. In keeping with the foregoing Proclamation, the United states pur­ sued an altruistic policy of government heretofore unknown in tue annals of colonisation* The First Philippine Commission further emphasised in its Proclamation with respect to the American Government1 s policy that the United dtates • • • • is even more solicitous to spread peace and happiness among the Philippine people; to guarantee them a rightful freedom* to protect them in their just privileges and immunities; to accustom them to free self-government in an ever-increasing measure* and to encourage them in those democratic aspirations, sentiments, and ideals which ar§, the promise end potency of a fruitful national development.*** 72* From the Instructions of the President to the First Philippine CoiiaRission as recorded in the ** Report of the Philippine Commission to tee President on January 31, 190Q% op* cit*, p. 9* J^Ibid, pp. 3-U *aLoc* cit* American Policies and Airm for the Philippines In exercising sovereignty over the Philippines, it may be conceded generally that toe ultimate aim of the United States was apparently net the, r the colonisation nor the annexation of toe country into the /.merican Union. Accordtog to ?ix~Justice Georg© A. Halcolm, m lc ^ a 1 par­ lance the United States assumed trusteeship of the Philippines as a dependency but not as a colony. He further avers that the generally accepted principle of colonisation was repugnant to liberty-loving Amer- ji' leans. On toe other hand, Machair and Lach assert in Hodem Far Sag tern International Halations that the United States temporarily adopted ". . . . a policy of paternalism that was thought by 5?«any to run counter to the spirit and teachings of American traditions#1 based on the foregoing opinions, toe conclusion would seem to bo that Americans purposes in the acquisition of toe Philippines were prompted by a complex mixture of altruism and. Imperialism. Contemporary and succeeding de­ velopments have proved, however, the fact that the altruistic motives of the United States outweighed, whatever impa rial is tic ambitions she might have had. For in due time, toe United States granted the Philippines a complete and realistic independence. By and large, the American attitude regarding a democratic policy in the Philippines was expressed by President Hchinley in an executive 7 1..' 't'aicolm, op. cit., p. 71. 7 A1 H. F. Hachair ana donaia F. Lach, ’Uhodern Far eastern International Halations”, D. Van Rostrand Company, Inc., Hew Yorks 1930# p. 396 614 Proclamation issued on December 21, 1896• The policy reads: ♦ . . . it should be the earnest wish and paramount aim of the military administration to win m e confidence, respect, end affection of the inhabitants of the Philippines by assur­ ing than in every possible way that full measure of individual rights and liberties 'wtiich is the heritage of fra© peoples, and by proving to them that the mission of tue United states is one of benevolent assimilation, substituting the &ild sway of justice and right for arbitrary rule.i * This benevolent policy is reiterated in the Instructions to the Philippine Commissions which embodied the main purposes of the United fttates in establishing American sovereignty over the Philippines* In concluding his instructions to the Schurman Commission, President McKinley announced that the Americans came to the Islands as 11. • • • a 7 8liberating rather than a conquering nation#”' Former Governor-Goneral Harrison quotes another executive pronouncement on Philippine policy wherein President McKinley stated that M. . . . the Philippines are ours, not to exploit but to develop, to civilize, to educate, to train in the science of self-government, *79 As further elucidated by the Proclama­ tion of the Sehurman Commission, America's policy aimed at no less than w. . . • the well being, the prosperity, and the happiness of the Philippine, people and their elevation and advancement to a position among the most civilized people of the world.” 77.An excerpt from the benata document no. 2d8, op. cit., pp# 82-83* 781 5'jxtract .from the instructions to tine First Philippine Commission found in the "deport o f the fhilippine Commission to the I resident on January 31, 1900’', op. c i t . , pp. 183-196. * ^ Francis I>, Harrison, "The Corner-dtone of fhilippine Independence”, The Century Company, -lew YorKt 1922, p. 36 P>0MReport of the P h ilip p in e Commission to the President. • • *% op. cit., p. ii. Malcolm holds the opinion, in his book Tito 0ommonweal th of the Philippines, that the policy of the United States in the Philippine a was actually m experiment in altruism intended wholly for the benefit of the Filipino people. It was designed for a gradual development in 81self-government. A similar view was held by william B. Taft, who as Secretary of war in 1908, released the following statement; • • . . the national policy is to govern the Philippine Islands for the benefit and welfare and uplifting of the people of the Islands and gradually to extend to them, as they shall show themselves fit to exercise if, a greater and greater measure of popular self-government• According to Cook, the altruistic policies of the United States followed a pattern which was based on education as a means of training the Filipinos in self-government. The ultimate goal was a gradual re- linquistoraent of American sovereignty and the extension of autonomy to the Philippine people-.®^ In his book, A History of the Far East in Modern Ti®££j Harold M. ■/inecke presents the assertion that • . • . the responsibility of the United States, sharing in th© bearing of the “white men’s burden,n was to uplift the Filipino and train him in the art of self-government so that he could finally be entrusted with fa© responsibility of ^George A* Malcolm, “The Commonwealth of the Philippines”, D* Appletou-Centusy Comparer, New forks 1939, p. 71 An excerpt from the Special Haports of ViiXliam H. Taft, Secre­ tary of War, to the President on the Philippines”, Government Printing office, Washington, D.C.s 19G8, pp. 7-8 83-'Katherine M. Cook, “Public Seineation in the Philippine Islands”, Government Printing Office, Washington, B.C.; 193>, p. 1> 66 governing h im s e lf, Thus Independence sentim ent was founded upon concern fo r the w e lfa re o f the Filipino. ^ The Im p lic a tio n s o f the foregoing c ita t io n s tend to show th© m ajor current of the democratic p o lic ie s of the U nited States in th® occupa­ tion o f the Philippines* Briefly stated* the main p o lic ie s hinge on the education mid training of the Filipino people for their intelligent p a r t ic ip a t io n in governmental functions* on the upliftment of the race to the level of the most civilized peoples o f modern times* and f in a l l y on the atta inm ent of independent statehood. As i l iz a b e th A* C lark points o u t, 55Once we /th e Americans/ had es tab lish ed our a u th o rity and a c i v i l government had taken the p lace o f army rule* we fo llo w ed a p o lic y o f t r a in in g the F il ip in o s fo r self-government** J d l i o t t re c a p itu la te s the reasons behind th e whole scheme o f the American p o lic ie s in the fo llo w in g statem ent; I t s essence was the maintenance of law and order, th© reasonable conservation of the public resources, the m ater­ i a l and economic development of the coun try , the education ^ of the whole people and t h e ir training fo r self-government, Worcester and Hayden quoted Schurman* s significant statement in The H a 11 lupines Fast and Present to the effect th a t nany decent k in d of government of F i l ip in o s by F ilip in o ® is b e t te r than the best possib le °^H«rolci K . V inacke, H is to ry o f th e Par ?;a3t in Modem Times11, (Fourth e d it io n js P , 5 , C ro fts and Company, hew fo rk ; 1962, p, 681 Itlis a b e th A, C la rk , *r Peoples o f the China ^Qas*’ , Xns tx tut© ol P a c if ic H a la tions and Webster P ublish ing Company, St# Louis; 1962, p. 73 ' ''Charles B. K l l i o t t , "The P h ilip p in e s to the Hnd of .the Commission Concernment", The B o b b s -H e rr ill Company, In d ia n a p o lis ; 1917, PP* 3&U-81 67 government o f F i l ip in o s by Americana*11^ And f i n a l l y , thero is no better statem ent of America* a road objectives during th© Occupation than that tixpr^amd by the Honorable W illia m H. Taft in his popularly acclaimed maxims }*The P h ilip p in e s for the F i l ip in o s * * ^ Origin of C e n tra lis a t io n in American P o lic ie s The successful execution o f Urn genera l p o lic ie s o f th© American Occupation enunciated in the preceding paragraphs, presumable, depended to a large e x te n t upon the f i tn e s s o f the Filipinos to p a r t ic ip a te in : governmental functions* with the Occupation fo rces la y the enormous task o f t ra in in g F i l ip in o lead ers m w e ll as educating the masses o f tli© p o p u la tio n * In consonance w ith the purpose o f democratising the P h i l ip ­ p in e s , ”America was, by a l l her p o l i t i c a l t r a d it io n s and theories, committed to the task o f educating, no t a few lead ers but the e n t ir e masses o f oommn people."®^ As Woilo M. Galang points out, HThe Americans had been reared in the belief that democracy th r iv e s best where the f a c i l i t i e s fo r education ar© widespread. . * • Thus, in f i t t i n g te e F i l ip in o people to govern tfrmasslves, tea la te Governor- General Leonard Wood is sa id to have asserted that th© basic p o rtio n o f te e work was th© establishment o f a sound system o f education °^Dean C. W orcester and Joseph H. Hayden, op. cit., p. 268. > bald©, op* c i t * , p* >73* ^ E l l i o t t , " The P h ilip p in e s to the -.lid o f tee Commission Government**, op* c i t * , p . 22lw 90Woila Galang (e d .j, *■ Encyclopedia of the ln H ip p in u o % 1 • Vera mid ions Oosspmy, Kanil at 193b, p* 12 9 91W alter W* Farquandt, uTne P h ilip p in e Is la n d s ” , bureau o f P r in t in g , M an ila : 1930, p . 2i The foregoing views re a d ily show the in te r re l& tio n a h ip of Education to the dem ocratic p o lic ie s of the U nited S ta tes apropos of h e r aims in preparing the F i l ip in o people f o r autonomous government through th e medium o f a c e n tra lis e d system of schools. i t th is p o in t , i t ahould be noted th a t a f t e r surveying the e x is t in g cond itio ns in the P h ilip p in .es in 1899* the F i r s t P h ilip p in e Commission was convinced th a t th© F i l ip in o s were as y e t unprepared to govern them* selves and to perform the fu n c tio n s of a dem ocratic peop le . While the Commission ap p aren tly recognised the n a tiv e a b i l i t i e s and v ir tu e s o f the P h ilip p in e peoples, y e t i t f e l t th a t t h e ir l im ite d p o l i t i c a l bach-* ground and s o c ia l experience d id not q u a lify Uim to undertake the requirem ents o f a s e lf-g o v e rn in g democracy. In view o f th is f a c t , the C o rlis s io n , in i t s re p o r t to the p re s id en t o f the U nited d ta te s , recommended th a t (1 ) the U nited S ta tes Congress should p rov id e fo r a form o f government s u ita b le f o r the P h ilip p in e s a t the e a r l ie s t p ra c t ic ­ able tim e\ (2 j the U nited b ta tes should not w ithdraw from the P h ilip p in e s because o f .the duty end Hie re s p o n s ib il i ty which America had assumed in the am e lio ra tio n of co n d itio n s e x is t in g in Hie Is la n d s ; (3> b o f a r as the finances o f the P h ilip p in e s p e rm itte d , p u b lic ©dueaid.on should be prom ptly e s ta b lis h e d , and when es tab lish e d i t should be made fre e to a l l . 5'2 QP nHepori ox the P h ilip p in e Commission to the P re s id e n t. • . . % 0 |)• c i t * , p* 3* 6 9 In corroboration of the above recommendations, particularly with regards education, President Hclinley instructed tfee Second Philippine Commission n. . . * to promote and extend, end as they find occasion, to improve the syat&m of education id ready inaugurated by the military authorities * It would seam logical to conclude, therefore, that the centralised system of schools in the Philippines finds its origin partly within the gene red. policies m d alms of the American civil and milit&fy personnel who exerted efforts to achieve the goal of preparing the Filipinos for self^government♦ ^An excerpt from President Holiday** instructions to the Second Philippine Commission which appears in the **Eeport of the Philippine Commission, Civil Governor, * • • •«, ©g. cit., pp« 5*11. CHAPTER IV ASSOCIATED KVFRCT6 uF CrUTRALl^ATIOJI In considering ice associated e f fe c ts o f c e n tra l is a t io n , on® should g ive a tte n tio n to the ta c t th a t some o f these e f fe c ts are in reality extensions of the p o lic y , i t s extensions e ith e r to another phase or to a higher degree of ccatralization• Perhaps the p o lic y was n o t adopted w ith the id ea o f extending i f or strengthening i t ; conceiv­ a b ly , i t must have been thought o f as a temporary measure as c u rren t cond itio ns demanded but which, w ith the passing o f time and tine a lte r a ­ t io n o f circum stances, would tend, to disappear and. thus bring the P h ilip p in e system of education in closer agreement w ith the American p a tte rn * 1* Adiainlstrativ© O rgan iza tion and Supervis ion In fho f i r s t p la c e , c o n s id era tio n w i l l be given to the e ffe c ts o f the p o lic y of c e n tra l is a tio n in the area o f administrative o rg an isa tio n and supervision* As p o in ted out p re v io u s ly , the p o lic y o f c e n tra lis a ­ t io n was recommended by the Schuman Commission (see page 18 J in 1099 m d later was established formally with the passage of the Organic School Law o f 1901 (te e Appendix A), The Department o f P u b lic In s tru c tio n In her book, A H is to ry of education in the Philippines, Alsona re ­ fe rs to t ie p ro v is io n s o f the Organic School Law as having la id the foundation fo r the educational system in the P h ilip p in e s w ith the o rg an isa tio n of the Department of P ub lic In s tru c tio n as provided fo r in Section 1 o f sa id A e t.^ Urns, upon the Department o f P ub lic In s tru c t io n centered the o rg a n isa tio n , a d m in is tra tio n , said superv is ion o f a l l school fu n ctio n s throughout the a rch ip e la g o • With the enactment o f the P h ilip p in e Autonomy Act or the Jones Law o f 1916, the Department o f P ub lic In s tru c tio n was incorporated as 11 one of the a d m in is tra tiv e departments of the In s u la r Government” w ith the vice -g o vern o r general, as the se cre ta ry fo r the departm ent.^ Under 'the Commonwealth Government, the v ic e -p re s id e n t o f Use P h ilip p in e s assumed the secre ta rysh ip of the Department o f Pub lic In s tru c t io n . During the p erio d o f the Japanese Occupation, the department was converted into a Department of Education, Health, and Public W elfa re . Then with the establishment o f the Puppet P h ilip p in e Republic, the de­ partm ent became the Ministry o f Education. When the e x ile d Commonwealth Government returned 'to the Philippines in 1 9 l6 , the Department o f P ub lic In s tru c tio n was re -e s ta b lis h e d and given its pre-war status. Finally, when the Republic of the Philippines was reorganised on October I*, 191*7, pursuant to Executive Order Ho. 9!* o f the p res id e n t o f the Philippines, the department was re-named the Department o f Education. Aldana p a in ts out that the change in nomen­ clature was necess ity to express the scope and nature of the fu n c tio n s 1.1 zona, jo|5 * cit., p« I09 * 2Fresno2a, op. c i t . , p . (<7 . of the department in general.^ As presently instituted, the Department of Education is one of the Executive Departments of the Republic of the Philippines. It was re­ organised in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution of the Philippines which was approved on February b, 1935# to wit: “All educa­ tional institutions shall be binder the supervision of and subject to regulation by the State.1 ^ Since full supervision of education emanates from the central government, by atxi large, the overall task of control­ ling and regulating the educational system has been delegated to the president of the Philippines. The chart representing the lines of direct and indirect control in the administration and supervision of education in the Philippines is shown in Figure II on page 73- On the other hand, the president administers control of the school system through his subordinates. Foremost among those subordinate agencies Is the Department of Education upon which devolves the general adminis tra­ il or, supervision, and regulation of all educational activities within the depublic. The organisation of trie Department of Fduc&tion is graphically illustrated in Figure III on page 71*• The Department of Education is headed by a Secretary of Education who is appointed by the president of the Philippines with too concurrence of the Commission on Appointments• .As secretary for the department, he holds a Cabinet portfolio and is in charge' of the multifarious educa­ tional activities of the department. He 1© assisted, however, by an ^Aldana, og. cit., p. Ja5. k.juotcd from the "Constitution of the Philippines”, Article XIV, Section 5# Bureau of Printing, Manila: 19lt3, p. 3h 73 FIGURE II. Administrative Control and Supervision of Education by the national Government.^ NATIONAL GOVERNMENT President of the Republic of the Philippines Board of Regent® University of the Philippines Department of national Council Education of Education Board of Trustees Philippine normal College Bureau of Public Schools Bureau of p r iv a te Schools P u b l i c S c h o o l s P r i v a t e , S c h o o l s Technical and Normal Schools i 1 ' t__ 1 Private Universities i 1 Secondary Schools 1 1 Private Colleges | Elementary School® L _ Private High and Elementary Schools, Legendj Line of dirsdt control; • - - Line of indirect control A derivation from the chart published in "Essentials of the Philip­ pine Educational System” by Florencio P. Fresnoz&j op. cdt«, p* 7 6 FIGURE III. Organisation of the Department of Education. I— Private CollegesSecondary Schools Private High and eweniary Schools Elementary Schools Board mi Textbooks Bureau of Private Schools Bureau of public Schools Bureau of Public Libraries Institute of National Language Division of Physical Education Universities Administrative Division Technical and normal Schools Under-Secretary of Education or education Secretary of Education Legend: Line of direct affiliation; - - - - - -Line of indirect affiliation. UAdapted from the charts in ’’Essentials of the Philippine Educa­ tional System” by Florencio P. Freanoga* oo« cit.> pp. ? and o9 under-secretary of education. Alsp directly responsible to- Man are the d ire c to rs and c h ie fs o f the bureaus and o ff ic e s under the departm ent. In accordance w ith the proviso fo r the re-organisation o f the government in 1951# the Department of Education was composed o f 'the Bureau o f P u b lic Schools, the Bureau o f P r iv a te Schools, the Bureau of Public L ib ra r ie s , the n a tio n a l Museum, the In s t i t u t e o f National Language, the Board on textbooks, mo the Philippine H is to r ic a l Committee. Tim e f fe c t of the development o f the Department o f P ub lic Instruc­ t io n to its present sta tu s is readily revealed in a h ig h ly centralised and controlled system o f education . I t appears ev id en t that the c e n tra lis e d fe a tu re o f the school set-up which permeates p r a c t ic a l ly every phase and fu n c tio n o f the p u b lic and p r iv a te system of schools from the elementary through the secondary and up to tne h ig h er le v e ls o f education care about as a r e s u lt of the adoption o f the p o lic y of cen­ t r a l is a t io n in the e a r ly days o f the American occupation, as embodied in the Organic School Law. In a genera l sense, subsequent law s, o rders , proclamations, end d ire c tiv e s appended to the Organic Behoof Law may thus be considered associated e f fe c ts of toe p o lic y o f c e n tra lis a t io n to the e x ten t th a t th ey e i th e r corroborated , in te n s i f ie d , weakened, or o th e r­ wise m odified the policy. The Bureau o f Education With the passage of tlm U n ited S ta tes P h ilip p in e Commission Act ^nThe Philippine Xearbook, 195o-l951n# Herald-DMHM Newspapers, Manilas 1951# P • 60 76 Ho* lt77 (on amendment to the Org£& i9uk-i9o>lw rKIEAKT SUBJECTS G d A ii -fit h J* 11 111 Language, including reading, writing, spell­ ing, phonetics, and object work . . . . . 1 X 1 Ari turtle 1 X 1 Body Training, including singing, drawing-, handiwork, opening exercises, and physical exercises . . . . . . . . . . . I X X Geography . . . . . ................... • - - X Suppleimmtsry Instruction in Citisenship • •* «* X KOTSs X denotes subject is prescribed in the corresponding grade • A significant change in toe primary school curriculum took effect in 1907 when an additional grade was added to the primary course- (The revised curriculum with an enriched subject offering appears in Tabic* ? on page 02.) This prescription of a four-year primary course by the Bureau of Education, evidently, was an intensification of the program of centralized control, After the expansion of the primary curriculum to four grades, there appeared a trend toward the development of industrial efficiency. The outstanding feature of the curriculum which came in about 1910 was the prescription of a greater amount of time devoted to industrial work. In 1913 > the primary curriculum underwent another revision designed to ^Derived from Fresno% a, op. cit., pp. 166-6 7 . 82 increase the len g th of each recitation period, to »a*ce possib le addi­ tional subject 02 in rings, ana to a llo w the proper time allotment far in d u s tr ia l training* TABLE U Hr,VISED PRIMARY COURSE FOR FGUti GRADES Ihu&GRIbbD Loit nih GCiiGOL YEARS 1907-1903 to 1909 -191011 E A B J £ C 1 h G ti A D 0 3 X 11 III I¥ opening Exercises and basic ........... Language, consisting of conversation. 20 20 2> 23 reading, writing, and spoiling . . « . 120 100 — Numbers . . . . . . . . ......... . . . lid — Handiwork . . ......................... ho ho — arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — hO 30 ho Physical Exercises and.Hocess ......... 20 20 30 20 Drawing and Writing (alternating; . . . . English, consisting of reading, spelling, 20 20 —— and language ........... • • • • • • — — Y> 60 Geography .. ............. . . . . . . ho 30 Mature Study (3) Civics (2) • • * • . . • — — 23 Industrial Work ........... . . . . . . «... 60 Industrial Work and drawing . . . . . . . — — 100 vIQflh The numbers in parentheses indicates meets each week. the number of days the class The figures in columns wider each grade represent daily time allotment in minutes. 11■^Adapted from the Bureau of Education C irc u la r ho. >1, Series 190?, pp. 1-8 The Course of Study fo r the Primary Grades in 191> showed the p re s c r ip t io n of a new primary curriculum with minor alterations of the previous one. This curriculum, which appears in Table 5 , was used until 192U, when it was again re v is e d . The changes invo lved some mod i f ic ations, particularly in the time allotment of c e rta in su b jec ts , as shown in Table 9 on pare 8U* TAP II; 8. PRESCRIBED PHI MARY CURRICULUM POE 1?1>12 U iX A J £ f 0 i d Ji J c A s X XI 11I IV Opening Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 10 10 10 Language and Good Manners and Right Conduct . . . ....................... ho hO S., ho Conversational English (2j Drawing (3j 20 20 — — Reading and Phonics . . . . ........... J4O h'o ilU 30 Spelling ............................ 10 13 20 20 writing . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 15 13 20 J ■****£. W Music ................... . 20 lo 1> J Arithmetic . . . . . . ............. . 20 30' 30 Industrial Work . . . . . . . . ....... >0 60 DU bo Physical Education and Recess . . . . . . hu ho ItO ho Pome Geography (2) Drawing (3; . . . . . — — 30 — Civics, Hygiene and Sanitation (3j Drawing ( 2 j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . «*«* 20 ** «* «»«■» 30 dOTE: Numbers in parentheses denote trie number of days c lass meets each week. Figures in column in d ic a te d a i ly time allotment in m inutes. Ip "Derived from the * Service Manual of the Bureau of education”, Bureau of Printing, Manilas 1917, P- 25 Languagej Conversational English5 Good. Manners and Right Ccnaiiet; Civics, Hygiene and Sanitation; Opening exercises * . . 70 70 70 Reading • • • • • • • • • 60 Bo Bo 10 10 10 Kuirber work . . . . . . . — — &ritiunetic........... RU1 Bo Writing . . . . . . . . . Ip 13 IS Drawing ............. . 13 ip IS ppelling . . . . . . . . 10 10 10 25 — 2u Physical. Education . . . 2p 2> 2p Industrial Work . . . . . Bo >0 60 dome Geography . . . . . 30 Geography . . . . . . . . *•»«* — 33 ftOT&t Numbers in columns represent daily time allotment in minutes. It was not until 193 B that the primary course underwent another re­ vision* The significant changes in the curriculum included the elimination of industrial work from the first three grades, the introduction of health education and elementary science in lieu of hygiene, sanitation, good manners, and right conduct; and the introduction of social science in place of geography. The course in character education was prescribed 13Adapted from the Bureau of Puucation “Course of Study for Primary Grades**, Bureau of Printing, Manila; I92I4, pp. 1>-1? to be taught during the opening ©.xerciaes, which were given an addi­ tional time allotment. The revised primary curriculum is shown in Table 10. An emphasis on citizenship training and character education which characterised the educational policy on the inauguration of the Goairno li­ tre alth Government of the Philippines led to another revision of the Primary School Curriculum in 1935* Preparatory military training was introduced, in the primary grades for all able-bodied boys from the age TABU. 10. PRESCRIBED PrilHAKf CU.:miXGu.LOP POE 193U11* G R i‘-:k wi fc \J B J ft G T to 1 11 III IV Opening Exercises . . . . 30 30 I>mpruage . . . . . . . . • « • • « . . . . 33 o i*5o — — Language and Spelling . . « « * • • • « « * mn^mm 273 2pG Beading and Phonics . . . 1*00 iiOO Arithmetic . . . . . . . TjO 2 Go 200 Drawing . . . . ........ 75 *7f ^ —^ loo Music......... 1GG loo > Writing ............... 7 'j 7 3 100 Hem th Education • • • • • • • • • . . . . 3'0 5o 30 50 Physical Education . . . 1?3 173 175 lyu Elementary Science . . . Gardening . . . . . . . . * • * * * . . . . 1P.3 >— 175 j i P* 7& of ton. With the 193b curriculum as the basis, character education and citizenship training were offered for two periods of twenty minutes each per week in all grades. Social studies took die place of social science• Physical education and preparatory military training were ailoted 275 minutes each weak in grade four* In grade two, arithmetic was given 200 minutes a week while language and spelling were reduced to ?i25 minutes* The 1935 primary curriculum was used until 19b0 when another revision was made after the passage of the educational Act of 19b0* One of the significant associated effects of centralization in curriculum-making was the reduction of the elementary grades from, seven to six years, consisting of four grades of primary and two grades of intermediate courses in accordance with tne provisions of trie educational Act of IplgJ. Aggravated by the shortage of funds with wnicn to finance public education, the Department of Public Instruction was obliged to adopt two additional plena for the operation of elementary schoolst the 1 double-single session plan” and the “emergency plan*1 for the pri­ mary grades, and the "one-teacher-one-clas&v program for the intermediate grades. In the *double-single-se ssion plan1" the teacher teaches a group of pupils of a certain grade during the morning session and another group of pupils of the same grade in the afternoon* The “emergency plan” pro­ vides for a teacher to teach a group of/pupils in the morning .in a certain classroom, and. another teacher 'to teach a different group using the same classroom in the afternoon. This plan has been allowed, however, only in schools where classroom facilities are inadequate. The primary curricula described above appear in Tables 11 and 12 on pages C? and 66. The above-named curricula are still in vogue. THIi: 11. Frd,SCKIBKD FHIf-'ARY CAmklGUiUtf .,11 O X x 10 iO** O. j ad w3 1 KJk\ i ‘y./ X i '■a; . i • *’ ..jOuLLj (v H ■> ■: ; j d?- , V ’ \ j' -i j- 1wJ U O 43 ^ X O i II III IV Opening hxercisesa ^ ............. 3 d 0 3 leading {imo Phonic a » « • « » » • * » » # 3o do 30 Language and Spelling0 • • • • • • • • • • 3d ■ - J-J dd 3o APxthme tic c X w c,‘ 0 20 Music and Writing • 20 20 20 20 Social Studies**............... . 2o 2d 2d 20 National Language......... 13 13 13 13 Free Period, including Preparatory -il itary Training, Physical Educa­ tion, and Health Practices . . . . . . . minutes each in grades one and two, ana only one period of 31 minutes in grades thr* t e an u 1 o til"'» cPhonic s and spelling are taught incidentally, the first in connec­ tion with reading, tiia second with language. clMusic is taught three times a week and writing two times a week d u r in g the first semester. The tim e a llo tm e n ts a re reversed a t th e be­ ginning of the second semester. ®Social studies includes m altii education aid character education. Adapted from the 1 devised Eleraentaxy School Curriculum1' issued in Circular No. 23, s. 19U1, Bureau of Education, Manila: June 23,19U1* P *1 TABLE 12. PESSGrilBSD PKjTARY CtfiUtlCULU?? SINCE 19U LASIl) oH tiu vim"16 O U Is b J t G i b ¥ VI VII Grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2UG 200 200 Reading, spelling, and Composition 20o 2 00 2 Go Arithmetic . . . ........... • • • 200 200 200 Mi s i c ............. . loO Writing................. . 100 --- --- Geography . . . . . ............. . A ,£\J\J -- History and Government . . . . . . . -- 200 Physiology, Hygiene and Sanitation — -- 2u0 drawing.......................... 6G 6u DO Industrial Work........... . 320 320 2ho Physical Mute at ion ................ 200 200 200 IvCTM Figures in columns denote weekly time allotment in minutes. In the revision of the intermediate curricula in 191?, the business course was eliminated. In 1919, the teaching course was dropped, while the rest of the vocational courses continued until 1921. The curriculum changes and additional offerings are shown in Table lh on page 91* Effected in 1922, another revamping of the intermediate curricula resulted in the elimination of the course in housekeeping and household arts* Good manners and right conduct, civics, ana hygiene and sanita­ tion were incorporated. The revised intermediate course of 1922, shown in Table 15 on page 92, was used until its further revision in 193U* 18Adapted from the Bureau of education Circular So. 77» Series 1913, pp. 2-6 91 TAP LI* ll|* P RESC fCXBfc UEIi&KAL CURRICULA OF 191?19 B a vX Opening Exercises . . . . . . . . . . 75 75 7> Grammar and Composition . . . . . . . 2 GO 2uu 2 0 0 Conversational English . . . . . . . IdO iGw loo Reading, Spelling, and Phonics . . . 2ou 2 1 0 2UU Kusic ldG lob Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0b loo Drawing (girls;.............. dU 8 0 uo Drawing (boys) . . . . . ......... — — - I6 0 Geography ............... . 2GU 2UO — - Philippine history and Government . . --- --- 2 0 0 Industrial Work (boy®; . . . . . . . 3 2 vl 3 2 0 2dO Industrial Work (girls; . . . . . . . ---- ---- 32o Physical Education , . ........... 2uu 2 0 0 2oo imbere in columns denote weekly tiise allotment in minutes. Following the trend of the primary schools, the intermediate curri­ cula were revised again in 1936. Pertinent changes were made which involved the substitution of character and health education for conver­ sational. English, good manners and right conduct, and hygiene and sanitation; and social studies for geography# Preparatory military training, however, was not offered until the beginning of the school year 1936-1937* Agricultural curriculum supplanted the former faming course. The prescribed intermediate curricula for 193U (see Table 16, page 93; was used until 1961. Perhaps the most significant change created by ine Educational Act 19 Service Manual of the Bureau of t&ueation*, op. cit., p. 26. 92 TABLE 1>. n s s m m IimiGPtolATE G'toORAL CUG1 T,"inT lTf*S .-yv'< VP *'") o &i-i!w u r X.ye.6. G H A D E C O U Jb J *i C I o V VI VII Opening exercises......... . . • • pO 30 ;>0 ' to an log 2uv sJ\J 2 00 Phonies . * ....................... 30 30 OO tangu age ................. 2oo f* uj 200 Spelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . >c 3d 30 Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 2o0 2oO Geography......... .............. ^ > £.W 200 Philippine History ana Government . . ••• PO c c vy'ritmg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 loo — - Music ........ ICO lOo Freehold or Mechanical, drawing . . . Od 8o Physical. Education . . . . . . . . . 200 200 2Qu Conversational English (2 j Good Manners and Right Conduct, Civics, and Hygiene and Sanitation (3) . . . . 100 luo loO Industrial Education (boys; ana Home Economics (girlsj......... . . . 320 320 320 KOTEs Bursters in parenthesis denote the number of days class meets each week. Figures in columns indicate weekly time allotment in minutes. of 191*0 was the reduction, of the elementary grades from seven to six. This change necessitated revamping of the whole intermediate curricula in order to provide for tie subjects offered formerly in grades five to seven in two years of intermediate grades as specified in tae Act. hew class programs, known as toe **one-teacher-one--class plan" and wemergency plan", were adopted in an effort to solve the "school crisis” and at toe same time provide elementary education to as many children as possible. py Fresnoza, op. cit., pp. 163-81;. 93 T&BIE 16. REVISED IhTERIteDLAf P CUttrtlCliLlff! uF I93h^ £> 1/ ii 3 a C 1 o V* 0 ii A D ■/I h 3 711 opening Exercises >0 po >0 Language and Spelling . . . ........ 230 2>o 230 Reading and Phonics......... . 2'jJ 2p0 2pG A rith m etic . . . . . ................................ 2 00 2uo 2o0 e o c ia l wtudies . . . . • • * * » . * 2wd 2uu «— P h ilip p in e History and Government • . ••• 2do t'uale . ........ .. . .. . . 100 lo u _— W ritin g . ....................... .... loG lo o -- C haracter I,duc a t ion . . . . . . . . . tgo <4*0 loo Health Education ............... • 60 60 200 Industrial Arts and drawing (boys; o r Home Economics and Drawing (girls;. Ugo Uou I4OO Physical Education . . . . . . . . . 22i> 22p f\ /"% r TPJlte lumbers in columns denote weekly time allotment in 'minutes. In the "one-teacher-one-class1* program, a teacher teaches an intermediate grade in the morning arid in the afternoon sessions* The ”emergency plan” provides for a teacher to teach a group of p u p ils in a certain class­ room in the morning and fo r another teacher to use tho classroom with another group of pupils in the afternoon session, The prescrib ed curricula for the. intermediate in the two plans described above appear on pages 9h and 96> Tables 17 and lb . ^ I b i d , p . I8p The Secondary School Curricula Apparently, no uniform curricula lor the secondary schools were prescribed prior to 19oi[. Courses of secondary le v e l km *0, - logy, Meteorology, and Anthro­ pology) Language (Spanish or French) bnglish Literature 0* S. History and Government Pli/sics Language (Spanish or Trench; Adapted from the Bureau o f education Bulletin h o . 7, on nbourses of Instruction for Hie Public Schools of the Philippine Islands Pre­ scribed by the General Superintendent of i&ucation”, Bureau of Printing, Pan Has 19oli? pp. Iij-l6? 20 91 TALL-i 2d. idddCRXLO) d.vCWLAvif AG ADaFIC CURRICULUM oh 19132i> FIRST I HAH oVJutiu ifwt literature Goi-iposition Algebra General History Phys ic a l Pxinc a t ion English Plans Geometry Physical Geography (lj United Gtates Government (2 j General.. H is to ry (1 ) U nited 01 ate a U is to ry (2 j Piiysi c al Lduc a t io n THIRD ITAR FOURTH Tliui Pngl ish Ho view Arithmetic (2) B iology (double p erio d ) C o lo n ia l H is to ry (1 ) Commercial Geography (2 ; Physical Education Literature Advanced Algebra (o p tio n a lj (1 ) Hoiid Geometry or Latin (op­ tional^ (2) Physics (double period) Composition and Rhetoric (1) Business English (2) Economic Conditions o f the Phil­ ippine I si; mns Phys ic al Lduc ation HOT1: (Ij denotes first semester| (2 j seco nd semester. Affected in 19X8, a general revision of the secondary school curricula resulted' in the re-introduction of the vocational courses in agriculture, commerce, and housekeeping and household arts or home economics• Under the agricultural curriculum, three course© vmre offeredt agricultural education, far management, and farm mechanics. The courses, however, were reduced in 1921* to one and renamed .fanning 2d ''Derived from the ’* Thirteenth Annual deport of the Director of ••Iducation, July 1, 1912-June 30, 1913”, Bureau of Printing, Baaila: 1913, p. 22 curriculum. In 1919* -the course in commerce was discontinued and raised to collegiate level• The housekeeping and household arts curriculum was designated as th© dome stic science course in 1921* and in 1926 was changed to the home economics course* a name which remained until Also in 192h tne secondary trade curriculum was offered for the first time in provincial trade schools. The associated effects of these changes in the secondary curricula produced two new types of experimental secondary curricula known as Type A and Type B Secondary General Curricula of 1932. These two types of secondary curricula are shorn in Tables 21 am 22 on pages 99 and lUG. Type A Secondary Curriculum was prescribed in 1935 and Type B in 1936. Type A was finally adopted in 19U1 as the standard curriculum for all non-vocational public high schools, while Type B was abolished in the same year. As presently constituted, the General Secondary Cur­ riculum has been prescribed as the standard, for all secondary schools in the Philippines replacing the Academic and the Type B curricula. The present General Secondary Curriculum appears in Table 23, page lul. It appears evident that the materials and subjects prescribed in the different school curricula were tangible evidences of the effect of the centralised educational system introduced by the United States at the turn of Hie century. Practically every change in the development of the curricula has been prescribed by the Bureau of Education. As a consequence, a fairly uniform curriculum has developed. .Although a very limited amount of adaptation was allowed, by and large, the courses have remained general and academic in nature• This seems to have been 99 Tiil'ii.r* 21 • i.3f f.'i* ii C oliii ."UiX i,.* ,.jL sH't.rt1 CURRICULUM OP 193b26 FIRST IK AH Si'XGMD X uMt literature ($j Composition (>) World History (ii) Current Events (1) General Mathematics (5) Physical Education and Preparatory Military Training Literature and, Composition (9; General Science (pj United States (kj Current Events (1) 1st. semester .Art Appreciation I (>; 2nd. H Vocational Survey and Home econo­ mics (six units of six weeks each; (>D; Physical Education and Preparatory Military Training THIRD IBAR FOURTH TEAR Literature and Composition {jJ Biologj (SB; Advanced Arithmetic ($)9 1st. sem. Oriental. History (9) 2nd. semester Vocational Survey and Home econom­ ics (>Dj Physical education and Preparatory Military Training Literature and Composition {Sj Economics ($) Philippine History and Govern­ ment (>j Current Events (lj Vocational Survey and Home Eco­ nomics ($D) Physical Education and .Prepara­ tory Militaiy Training NCT3t Numbers in parenthesis indicate each week* the number of times class meets ,D means double periods the case in the elementary as well as in the secondary schools as could be visibly observed in the illustrative tables presented in this' section. This trend readily indicates some of the associated effects of a cen­ tralized. system of education in the Philippines. ^Adapted from the Bureau of Education Academic Bulletin, Ho* U# oeries 193hs pp. ?-10 184523 luo TAlLn 22 . TYPiS B »i .iCo & J i\ xX Ualh.n.d. JuHaIcue'CH dr FIRST YEAR SECOND £ literature (li) Composition (pj United States History and Govern­ ment (ii) Current Events (1) Algebra (>) Physical Education and Prepara­ tory Military training Literature snci Composition ( S ) General dcience (p; General History (!.|j Current Events (1; Geometry (>) Physical Education and Prepara­ tory Military Training THIRD YEAR FOURTH YEAR Literature and Composition ( j ) Biology (5D) General History (h ) am Currant Events (1 ; 1st* semester Oriental. History (It; and Current Events (1; 2nd* semester Advanced Algebra (5; 1st. semester Physical Education and Preparatory Military Training literature and Composition (>; Economic s (5 j Philippine History and Government (ii) and Current .vents (1; Physics (>D; Physical Education and Prepara­ tory Military Training Op-tional Subj ects s optional subjects: Music Typewriting and Stenography Vocational Work and Homo Economics Art Appreciation I Art Appreciation 11 Music Typewriting and Stenography Vocational *oric or Homo Economics NOTE: Numbers in parenthesis indicate class Fleets each week. the number of times or periods D means double periods. 2?Ibid, p. 10 lul TABUS 23. CIK t I PRESCRIBED GimitAL dbCuthiaiiX CUiliiXGUlUK2* FIRST XGaR ox)CGI4i3 i i iiikii Grammar and Composition Grammar and Composition Reading Reading General Science General Mathematics World History and Current Events United States History and Current National Language Events (1), oriental History Exploratory Vocational Courses and Current Events (2) (for boys); General Home Eco­ National Language nomics (for girls) (D) Vocational Courses (for boys) Physical Education and Health dome Economics (for girls) (J) Spanish Is Physical Education and Health bp an is h II THIRD X&iiR FOURTH XaAM Literature and Composition tmd Literature and Composition am Character Character Advanced Arithmetic (1), Philip- Economics pine Social Life and Current Philippine History and uovernment Events (2) and Current Events Biology (0) Rational Language Kational Language Vocational Education (lor boys) Vocational Question (for boys) Home .Economics (for girls) (i)jj Lome economics (for girls) (0) Physical and Health Education Physical Education and Health (for (for girls) girls) Physical and Health Education and Physical Education and Health and Preparatory Military Training Preparatory Kilitaiy Training (for boys) (for boys) Spanish Iv' Spanish 111 UOTls Th© regular length of each p erio d p e r s u b jec t is hG m inutes ex­ cept where (I)j in d ic a te s that the p eriod is doubled, (XJ denotes f i r s t semester; (2; second semester, ^Spanish is a required subject in the secondary curriculum, but because of the lack of qualified teachers* the subject has not yet been taught in many schools. 3. Instructional Irogram mid Materials The associated effects o f centralisabion lifcawis* are manifest in tlie instructional program and materials used in the schools, Ghile these programs and material® are determined more or less, by the educa­ tional objectives* the effectiveness of the 'whole program depends largely on the cooperation of the classroom teachers, school principals, super­ visor®, and field and office personnel of the Bureau of Public Schools and of the department of Education* According to Fresnosa, Th@ unity in the instructional program results largely from the cooperative planning of the various promotional divisions of the General Office of the Bureau of Public Schools,. Standards of attainment for all grades and years are liatod in the course of stu&r which are furnisnod to all classroom teachers. * . • * ' In a system of schools such as that existing in te e Philippines, the a f fe c ts o f a highly contralined plan are evident e s p e c ia lly in the fact that even a model schedule of classes for each grade is proscribed by the General office of tee Bureau of Public Schools. A sample of a t y p ic a l c lassroom program f o r the e le m e n ta ry g rades appears in Table© 2li and 25 on page 1 0 3 . The general requirements of aa instructional program, such as the prescribed sub jects and elective®, their assigned c re d its , sequence of offerings, and tee time allotments for each subject, mist be strictly complied with. Any change o r alteration in the class program issued by the General office must first be approved by said office, i Very little % L <5. i • vI.h i 1 iC* sj„ , I 1 V/ i i j . i i i ; a AV^ Tb...- tf ^ jf iji i k j i & x n g Jki 1 K *>' V-> jL \a’I* j y T I K ii S U B J E C T S 8 s oo 8s05 A.!K. Opening Exercises b i G> - 0: 25 Language and S p e llin g bs?> - 6:1*5 Heading and Phonics e 5 40 - y-'j'j Arithno tic bsuj 9i20 Recess and fro© p la y 5?:2-j - ?ihO Social Studies 9*!jt0 - 9:55 Music and w r it in g - 10 s 10 N atio n a l language JLO 2>. il TiPXCAL QlJiSh iAAiGrdOl red THd XfoThHh OuIal* j GttnonG i f{-. >• ■ ■ - •f '^.'WY/' ■ * ». ? • •. •• • •• v-., f. t • _t ‘ : - "’•(• .■ -. or • a-*- . J | ^ , - J n c , . ' :U ;v 4 j h X X v i i v 0 y M P. r\ .O I kj'u • 5 1 0w .ii » *' i * jr 4k - 10s 00 •i d* t sP\P - 10 8 Ip 10 s up - 115 00 11:00 .1 . - 2:00 I 2tOG lit GO P.M. dnjo - Its 30 Academic Subjects In d u s tr ia l Arts o r Home leonoralcs A c c e s s Academic Subjects In t e mis s ion Academic Subjects and Study Periods Physical education iU.Adapted. Iro n Fresnosa*s ”essentials ol the Philippine Educational Systan1!, o£. cit., pp. 2X3~lIw ^Ibid, p . 2lii revision, if any, is allowed* Taeh class program adopted by the class­ room teacher must have the stamp' of gpproval either of the principal or the district supervisor before it can be -used* this policy, no doubt, has resulted in a highly standardised instructional program in practically every school within the system* On the other hand, the associated effects of this policy may be unifying and rendering more efficient the operation of the school program and contributing toward the improvement of instruction as a whole* In the secondary schools, the class sessions are divided Into forty- minute periods* A double session is alloted to subjects which require laboratory periods, ouch as biology, physics, and the vocational sub­ jects* A typical secondary program is illustrated in the prescribed general secondary curriculum in Table 23 on page 101• The instructional method most eousnonly used in the system of public schools follows the Tl assignment-8 tudy- re citationls type* The teacher supervises the assignment and the recitation of the lesson®, while the students study the assignment in preparation for tne following recita­ tion. The recitation period is generally devoted to quizzing the pupils on what has previously been assigned* hxtra-curriciilar or eo-curricular activities have been, since the early organisation of the school system, an important part of the instructional program. These co-curricular activities are undertaken to promote personality-building habits and the proper uso of leisure* Textbooks are a very important part of the school materials in the Philippines• In keeping with tim highly centralized organization of education in the country, the selection and adoption of textbooks for both the public and p r iv a te schools are vested in the Board on Text­ books, a subsidiary office of the Department of Education. From time to time, a list of approved textbooks is released by the Board on Textbooks. From this list, selections of texts for use in each grade or year in school may be made, other 'instructional materials, such as newspapers and. magazines, outside reading materials, audio-visual aids and the like, must be approved first by the director of public schools or the director of private schools, as tne case may be, before they are used in classrooms for instructional purposes. Obviously, then, the associated effect of centralization in the area of instructional program and materials enhances unity and efficiency in the operation of the school system and facilitates a general improvement of school instruction. I4. System of School Finance The effect of centralization is perhaps most keenly felt in the method of financing public education in the Philippines# This section will trace and point out the increasing control of the government in supporting and maintaining the school system financially from, the national treasury. When the American Military authorities introduced the public school system in the Philippines, the Military Government assumed the financial responsibility of supporting the schools. Isidro attests to the fact that while a comparatively 3mail amount was spent for public ©dueation— less than 'three million pesos (#1,^00,OQOj from 1901 to 1905— the entire amount w.a« borne by th© jjisul ar government*-^ It ’Kill be noted that one of the significant provisions of the Organic School Law of 1901 was the establishment of local school boards, one of the primary functions-of which was to make annual report to the municipal council of the amount of money to be raised by local taxation for school purposes.^ Unfortunately, this provision did little if any toward helping th© local schools financially* As a matter of fact, no significant result has been recorded of the achievements of the local school boards; either the provision was not enforced or the local school boards died a natural death. On the other hand, evidences tend to prove that more and more the Central Government assumed the financial, support of the school system. That local communities had no share in financing education is proved by the fact that no specific school tax was imposed on the Philippine people for the support ana maintenance of public education* Th© absence of a direct school tax.together with the lack of local initiative in carrying 'the financial burden of the school system, especially during the formative years of its organisation, highly ^Isidro, 0£. eit., p. 373* 33-'•'Section 12, (dj, of m e Organic School Law* See Appendix A • favored the adoption of the policy of centralisation in tiie system of school finance* In spite of the lack of adequate financial support from the local governments, a more or less centrall&ed system of financing the school system had been adopted by th© American government in its effort to extend the opportunity for education to as many of th© common people as possible* Thus, in order to attain the objectives of providing for a universal education to the Philippine peoples, the central gov&rmmnt has undertaken the major part of the school support* At th© time of the inauguration of the Commonwealth of the Philip- pines in X93i>, its Constitution provided in .Article XIV, Section 5> that "All educational, institution shall be unaer the supervision of and subject to regulation by tIm State*"3k The implication of this pro­ vision indicates that education per se has become a legal function of the national government upon which the support of th© public school system rests, lach year, a certain amount is appropriated for the support and maintenance of public education*. This appropriation is de­ rived from th© general funds of the Philippine government* Prior to 1939, public elementary education, in tise Philippines was maintained through joint support of the national and local governments, the national government contributing as much as two thirds of the cost of education through its general appropriations and the local 3U«Constitution of the Philippines**, Bureau of Pointing, Manilas 19W, P* 3k Xu8 governments making up the balance* A re vised method of school finance, however, was created -with th© passage of Commonwealth Act Ho* 361 in 1939* The new law provided that in lieu of the dual system of support, the national government would assume the full support of all primary schools, and the local 'governments of the intermediate schools• The Act also provided that the - local government levy a school tax of not more than two pesos (tl.UUj on. residents from eighteen to sixty years old, for the financing of intermediate schools • The whole scheme failed, however, because of the inability of a number of m u n ic ip a lit ie s to collect s u f f ic ie n t school taxes to maintain, their intermediate schools* Moreover, many of the municipal councils were reluctant to levy the school tax, primarily, because of the economic conditions obtaining in many of the municipalitiesand secondarily, because a general election was to be held during that year and no administration would gamble its political fortunes by levying a a t . , tax burden upon the peopleBesides, a great deal of opposition was aroused against the cedula tax or the school tax, which was reminiscent of the Spanish rule ana which caused the Philippine Revolution to be declared and fought* Ab a remedial measure, Goran onwealtii Act Wo* 313 was enacted appropriating the sum of 3bd,G00 pesos (^2>U,0U0j to help in the opera­ tion of the intermediate classes for tue ensuing year* It was not until the passage of Commonwealth Act Ho. >66, otherwise known as the ^Alaana, op, cit., p. 22U. lo9 Educational Act of 1980, that a new financial plan for the support of public schools was established*^ The financial provisions, in­ tended primarily for the support of public education* are contained in Section 8 of the Act which appears in Appendix B. The Educational. Act of 1980 provides that the national government assure the fall support and maintenance of all the public elementary schools, with the exception that the chartered cities are required to finance their own intermediate classes. The revision of trie elementary school program under the Educational Act of 198.0 described in the previous section was undertaken primarily for the purpose of solving the financial *school crisis" which recurs from year to year and which the government has been unable to cope with heretofore. It was believed that this remedial measure would make possible the accommodation of more children in the public school and at tiie same time provide the necessary school funds with which to finance public education in the Philippines* Based on the arguments presented above, the system of school finance was adopted for the following reasons* (1) there was no specific or direct school tax. for the support of public education) {kj there was a gross lack of initiative on the part of local govern­ ments- and officials to provide for the necessary financial aid in maintaining their own local schools) and (3; the Constitution of the Philippines mad© it mandatory that all educational institutions should ^Common'wealth Act Mo. 3£6 or The Educational Act of 1980. See Appendix B* be under th© supervision and control of th© State) hence, th© national Government has been obliged to assume the greater portion of the responsibility of supporting the public school system. CHAPT&i V S U K M A R T , CONCIUSIGHi*, AJSD HSCiJMK&NDATXOK3 • 3. Summary and Conclusions Thl® study has a three-fold purpose as set forth in Chapter Is first, to review the events which led to the establishment of a central* ised educational system in the Philippinesi second, to trace the origins of the acceptance of a centralized pattern of education5 and third, to delineate the associated effects of a highly centralized school system* Contents of Chapter 11 Chapter II dealt particularly with the series of events which led to the organisation of a centralized system of education during the early years of tim American Occupation of the archipelago. These events were recounted against a background of m i l i t a r y events which occured in connection with the Spanish-American bar in 18^8 as well as subsequent events during the military occupation and the civil government of the Philippines. Reference was made in this chapter to the fact that at the termina­ tion of the armed conflict between Spain and the United States and upon the assumption of the American sovereignty over the Islands, educational activities were immediately undertaken. Schools were reopened shortly after the occupation of Kanila on August 13, 1898. This was followed by the establishment of schools in the pacified areas of the archipelago. 112 In the adoption of an educational policy, American, military person­ nel, like Captain Albert Todd, for instance, were instrummtal in making several basic recomendations for the futxire organisation of the school system in til© Philippines. Captain fodd*s recommendations as well as those of the Scnurman Commission becsme the basis of th© Organic school Law (enacted on January 21, 1901; which laid the foundation for the establishment of a centralised school s tern in the Philippines. Contents of Chapter 111 Chapter III was devoted to tracing the origins of the acceptance of the policy of centralisation of education. Four fundamental reasons were discussed as contributory factors! (1) the diversity of the people and the geographical expanse of the numerous islands of "he archipelago; (2) the three centuries of Spanish influence on Hie Philippine school system; (3j the influence of military personnel; and (Lj the influence of the general policies and purposes of American civilian and military mi tnoritie s. Diveraity of the People and Geographic al Circumstances. the dis- cussions in this chapter revealed that two conditions peculiar to the Philippine people and land called for the organisation of a centralized educational system at the time of the Occupation* One of these condi­ tions was the diversity of the people and their languages, deference was made to the report of the first American census of 190.3 which showed that the Filipinos did not constitute one people but rather a collection of tribal, groups of varied racial origins each speaking its own language or dialect. As a matter of fact, there existed a diversity of peoples and tongues# TU® other condition was th* geographical circumstances of the 7*100 islands and islets which constitute Urn archipelago, these numerous islands were a natural barrier to communication among the in­ habitants of tii® country. Spanish Influence * mother factor which, doubtless influenced the adoption of the policy of centralisation was the background of the Spanish school system ifcich was deeply rooted in a highly centralised organisation and control during the three hundred years of Spanish rule in toe Philippines. Hilitaiy Influence. It was pointed out further that at the outset of the American Occupation, th® military were in control of the Islands. Undoubtedly, the Am rican military authorities had. taken a leading role in the formulation of policies both governmental and educational. Tim influence of the military might have gone in the direction of central­ isation which would fe© in keeping with military organization. Also military personnel war© inclined to support centralization of education as an adjunct to their mission' of pacification incident to the outbreak of the Philippine insurrection in 1899• Influence of American Policies and Purposes. Lastly, a centralized system of education was adopted for the Philippines as a corollary to the attainment of broad policies Mia purposes of Am ('leans in assisting to democratise the Philippine peoples and train them, through the medium of public education, in the art of self-government. The policy of Ill* centralization, therefore, came about as a airect influence of both the military and civilian personnel in their efforts to achieve the ultimate and benevolent objectives of the United dbabes In the occupation of the Philippines. Contents of Chapter IV Chapter IV was concerned with, the associated effects of centralisa­ tion in four selected are ass adminis trative organisation and supervision, school curricula, instructional program m d materials, aid school finance* Administrative Organisation and Supervision* This chapter pointed out that as an associated effect of centralisation in th© realm of ad­ ministrative organisation and supervision, a trend toward a more precise and increasing degree of centralisation and supervision of public edu­ cation has developed* The nature of the organisation of Urn present system of education as illustrated in Figures II, III, and IV clearly indicates a highly centralised structure. School Curricula. The associated effect of centralisation was in­ dicated in the prescription of th© subjects and courses of study In Urn public school curricula, £tendardisation and uniformity m well as the limitations of the curricula with respect to adaptation to local needs illustrated the effects of a centralised school system in the H iilip p in e s . Instructional Program ana Materials* similar effects are likewise im.— i'iti f it.nML.il ii^ii .urn mu. *— «—■«wmimmmmmtimSfom i n ' mmmmttm lG*T" Governsaent Priatiiig Office, 190k, Pp# 39h. Messages from the President of the United states* D&th Congress, first JMww*w w wi*'iiuw»i>t|iiaJI'itt««*iw'» wi ■■■t.awrtr— w»MMiinwiWwKi!wrii » iii ihh»i- >^ iii w w hum mwnmn iww iM— «■— >*» ' ’** Session, Senate Document Bo, 200. Washington, D.C.j uovemuient Printing Office, 1900, Pp. 17*4.• Messages from the President of the United States* "heport of the Taft Commission to th© Secretary of Oar on November 30, 1900•" 36bh Congress, Second Session, Senate Document Bo. 112, Washington, D.D.s Government Printing Office, 1901# Pp. 283* Philippines. Census Atlas of the Philippinest 1939* vol. ¥♦ Han 11 at Bureau o/’Pri}itxngr~19Uo". ip *" 93 ' . Census of Ilia Philippinest 1939* fol* II. Manila: Bureau of'printing,'1 1912". ""Pp. vii "^1752# . Commonwealth Act Bo. p86 — An Act to Provide for the PBiiiipr;lne's *ScTiKS5ng,r^ e ?in_a£c£ruT Thereof'."’^llajailai Bureau of Printing, "i9ii0. . Constitution of the Philippines. Manila: Bureau of Print- tag, 19W. h . 3‘) . . Department of Public Instruction. Bureau of education 1'ri'T"'1' 'ICTIetin Ho. 7, Series 19Dl*« "Courses of Instruction for the Public Schools of the Philippine Islands.R Manilas Bureau of P r in t in g , I9OI4. Pp. 20. * Department of Public Instruction. Bureau of education Cir­ cular Mo. 77, Series 1913* Manila: bureau of Daneation, 1913* i'p . 13.. . Department of Public Instruction. Bureau of education. Course of Study for Primary Grades. Manilas Bureau of Printing. 1921*.Pp. t&b. Department o f Public I n s t r u c t io n * Bureau o f £aucation« T h ir te e n th Annual R epo rt o f the D ir e c to r o f .Education July X, 1912 - l'^une'~30 ^ ' m i : F ^ t l a Y Burean oF P r in t in g , " " 1*913* Pp." 1^9 * Departm ent o f P u b lic In s t r u c t io n * Bureau o f E duca tion T h i r t y ~ F l f t h Annual R epo rt of the Director of Education* Manllat lY tre S t o f P r i n t in g , X93>* Pp* 210* * Department of P u b lic I n s t r u c t io n , Service Manual of the Bureau of Muc&tion. Manilas Bureau of P r in t in g , ' 1917 • Pp* 3un* * belted States P h i l ip p in e Go-mission Act ho* 7q - - An Act s ta b l is h in g a D epartm ent o f P u b lic I n s t r u c t io n in th e P h i l ip p in e .— ■■■I mi mwi iinnji.mil i mm i «i iiiiwTlw i»wwi ..Mi m m i»Mi Mwm nwn miiWHim mi — mm ■ ma n i in limn m u n iiiiim w Wimhm i unit Isl mWs rnS hpproprl&t&m t io n and M aintenance o f a F o r ty Thousand D o lla rs f o r the O rgaa iaa - W o r r a ^ ^ B o c S ’'~in~ tt i r oi l a • and Fifteen"Thcatsand Polios '“f o r ' the" Organisation "aSo^" Maintenance o f " an~llgri cultural. School" "in the Ialand of Hb g ro s f o r the Year 'uini* tieen OneT M anilas Bureau' u'f Printing,"'"1901. S p e c ia l R epo rts o f W il l ia m H* T a f t , S e c re ta ry o f War, to th e P re s id e n t on the P h i l ip p in e s . W ashington, D .C.s Government P r in t in g O f f ic e , 190&." Pp. 79 . The P h i l ip p in e s 19501 A Handbook o f Trade and Bccmomie I a c ts and F ig ­ u re s . M an ilas Bureau o f P r in t in g , 1950 . Pp. 70 . The P h i l ip p in e Yearbook, 1950- 1951• M an ilas H e ra ld DHMM Newspapers, 1551. W - VrFn$'S;" — The P h i l ip p in e Yearbook, 1951- 1952• M an ilas H e ra ld DMIIK Newspapers, 1952- - 172 . T re a t ie s , C on ve n tio n s , I n te r n a t io n a l A c ts , P ro to c o ls and Agreements * Between th e 'U n ite d '"S ta tes 'o f Im&x±ca anid'" o th e r ' "powers', 17?6~ lY u9 . Com piled by W ill ia m M. M a llo y . W ashington," D*C*V Government P r in t in g O f f ic e , 1910* Pp. 2L91 . U n ite d S ta te s * Annual R epo rts o f th e War Departm ent f o r the F is c a l Io a r Ending June 30 , 1901 . W ashington, D .C .i Government P la n t in g O f f ic e , 1901 . Pp. 190 . . Bureau o f th e Census. Census o f th e P h i l ip p in e Is la n d s * 1~905 . V o l. I . W ashington, D .C .s Government P r in t in g o f f i c e , 1905 • Pp. 619 . r. Bureau o f the Census. Census o f the P h i l ip p in e In la n d s > 1903 . V o l. I I . W ash ing ton , D.G.s Government P r in t in g O f f ic e , T^Oo. Pp. lo i iB . . Bureau of the Census. Census of the Philippine Islands; 1903. Vol. III. Washington, D.G.s Government Printing Office, 190^* P?. ?k0. . Heport of the Philippine Cofnaissien, the Civil Governor, and the Heads of the Executive Departments of the Philippine Islands ( 1 9 0 0 - 1 9 0 3 ton, K c .7 "Governmant Printing”"*Office, vmr. ppV xv '^ 768. . Report of the Philippine Coiaaisalon to the President on January 31, 1900* Vol.' 1. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1900, Pp. vii 226. Aidana, Benigno. The educational Bystem of the Philippines. Manilas University ihtbliahing Company, Inc., 19U9* Pp. xxii *jA iip6. k l ip , Kufronio M. Ph ilippina Civ i l l a ation» Manilas u n iv e rs ity of Ban to Tomas Pro as, IplST ¥^ T~T3y~* — ~~ Alssona, Sncarnacion. A History of Education In the Philippines. Manilas University of the' Philippines” Press, 1932V P p 7 39^ Barrows, David P. A History of the Philippines. ronkars-on-Budson, Mew forks World Book Company, "1'92^ '('revissdj. Pp. vii -jA Ud6. Bassaeo, bvergisto. History of fdueatian In the Philippines. Manilas University of Canto Toms Press,' 19^9* fp • xiv + "31*3• Bernstein, David. The Philippine Story. Hew forks Farrar, Straus and Company, 19U?. Pp. xii ?£ lr/"&. Blair, Thomas A. Climatology: General and iisgional. Hew fork; Prentice Hall, Inc., 19lj: Fp .' xvi "«jA IJcSTI Catapang, Vincent it. The Development and tne Present otaius of tausa- *r~ r r Islancis'I Bostons "the Stratford Company, Clark, Elizabeth A* Peoples of the China Seas. St. Louis: Institute of Pacific Eel atFons '"and wits ter Publishing Company, 19d2 • Pp. ii -/> 9ii* Cook, Katherine K. Public Education in the Philippine Islands. Wash­ ington, D.C.s Governsent Printing Office, 1933* Pp. 33* ( * i t A tJ 1 Ct> Grow, Carl. America and tho i hillppinea. hew York: doubleday, Page COMpany," 191)+* PpT 7 ~ Dewey, George. Autobiography of George Dewey, hew York: Charles Scribner’s Sons* 1913* Pp. *1 7 ^ 337* Illiott, Charles B. the Philippines to the and of 'the Coinmission Gov­ ernment. Indianapolis t" ~ The ’ Bbbbs-rferrill Comply,-' 1917*. Tho Philippines to the -na of the Military legiiae. Indian- spoilsi The Bobba-Merrill Company, 1916. Pp. xii 7^ 3hl* Forbes, W. Cameron. The Philippine Islands. Vol. II. Boston: Hough­ ton Hii'flin Company, 1920/ Pp. oJ6. . Trie Philippine Islands. C ambriige, mass. * hax*varu ' UrSversity Press, (revised; • Bp. xv 912. Porbes-Linds&y, C. H. The Philippines. Philadelphia! The John C. U'inston Company, I906. Pp. x */• 3>6. Foreman, John. The Philippine Islands. Sew Yorks Charles bcribner’s Sons, 1699 * " Pp 7" xri <£~ egif •""..." Fr&snoza, Florencio P. Essentials of the Philippine "Educational System. Manila: Abiva Publishing House, 1990. Pp. "xv 7!' '5I|2. Galang, Zoilo M* (ed.). 'Incyclopedia of the Philippines* Vol. V. ranilas P. Vera and Sons^Company, 1933* Pp• 662•" ~" Harrison, Francis B. The Corner-Stone of Philippine Independence, hew Yorks The Conbury ConirTany,' "1922, Pp." 3^3. Hawes, Harry B. Ph 11 Ippine Uncortainty. Hew Yorks Tine Century Company, 193^ 7* i:p. x v i i " "36o7 Hayden, Joseph Ralston. The Philippines! A Study in National Develop­ ment. K ew iOj'ks xue aemxlj!an' t'omypiiUiy,'' xpd's"." 33'3 a x v yel;. Isidro, Antonio, the Philippine .educational System. Manilas Bookman, Inc., 19li9. PF.'''fic''7- t e ;1 ......... .... Keesinrr, Pel X v \ I f i • J . 1 1 C - 1 i I X X j u 0 * 3 JL*. 1 0 3 ^ A Kation in the Faking. InaaaUai; T « „ . . .1, 1 I . , . I . f ll . a . . . . . . . . I I . .. . . . . 1.1 « . 1.1.1 ....... . . . 1 in li 11 ...... v- kelly and v*alsh, Limitted, 1937* Pp. x -76 137* krioger, Herbert W. Peoples of the Philippines. -«ar background lories Ho* U. Washington, B.C.; The Smithsonian. Institution, 1912. Pp. iv 66. Kroeber, Alfred. L. MThe History of Philippine Civilisation as Reflect­ ed in Religious Nomenclature,n Anthropological Papers of the Amor lean Museum of Natural History* vol. XIX., Fart II. hew York: Published by Order of'the "Trustees, 1918. rp. 67* Leroy, James A. The Africans in the Phil ippine a* 'Vol. I. Bos ton t Houghton V:if f 1 in Company, Pp. xxviiiTi»2iu KacNair* Harley F. and Donald P. lach. Modern Far liastam International * ** .n.rr ii— ~ mini ir t hi - --------- ------— T rertpy Relations. Haw Xorks D. Van hostrand Company, !9>o. Pp. xi ^601. Malcolm, George A. First Malayan Republic! The Dtory of the .Philippines. Boston? The Chris"^i^r-"M3Li8hii^ 'liouseV' T^rTi^p "US3T . Ti;e Coxianoxiwealth ox tue I hillffptnes. New forks B. Appleton- Centi.iiy Company, 1939* Fp. xviii -/>' pli. 'r Marquardt, Walter w. The Philippine Islands; Information ibr Americans Thinking of -altering the Philippine Teaching Service. IIanila* Bureau ©fTrintlng, 1930, Fp, 31* Monroe, Paul ( @ d . A Cyclopedia of , hue at ion. Vol. IV* Mew York; The .Macmillan Company, 19X57”"H^. fh6', , (Chairman, Board of educational Survey;. A Survey of the Mucational System of the Philippine Islands. Manila: Bureau of l^ rlntin^ r"!?^ "?* rpZ^ 'y^ rliT''-^ '' '677. ' Hoot, HIihu. The Military and Colonial Policy of the United States• Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1916. Pp. xxiv7?~>D2. Russell, Charles A. The Outlook for Hie Philippines. Hew forks The Century Company, . Pp. x 7^ Ipll . .>argent, Nathan. Admiral Dewey and the Manila Canpaign. Washington Ii.0.; Maval Historical roxidation, 12l?7. FpTxvi 123. Van Als.tyne, Richard W. Agaric an Diplomacy in Action. Stanford, Calif. $ Htsnford University Press, 19A? (revised;. Fp. xvi + 336. Vinacke, Harold K. A History of the f.*r last in ftodern Times. Dew Yorks F. 3. Crofts ana Company, 1911 (fourth edition;. Pp. xvil 61*3* Williams, Daniel H. The united Btates ana the Philippines. Haw York: Doubleday, Pago and Co^any, l92li* 1^. xiii 7^ 333* Wright, Hamilton H. A Handbook of the Philippine a* Chicago: A« C. WeClurg and Gompany, ±909. Pp• acvi£17^ IlSC ' Saida, Gregorio F. Philippine Histoxy and Civilisation, Manila* Philippine Associated Ihihiishers7 1959* " Pp."""x\ri "*f 7>>* AETIChbS Barrows, David P. ■•Characteristics of -die Ron-Christlan Tribes,n Census of the PhilippInc islandss 1903- Vol. X. Washington, D.C.: "irintiiig "OfficoV 19® Pp. 332~38>. Beyer, H. Otley. "The ion-Christian Peoples of the Philippines,” Census of the Philippine Islands: 1916. Vol. XX. 1.arxlla: Bureau of Printing, 190>. ip* 909-9337.'" Jeraegan, Prescott F. *• Education Under the Americans," Census of the Philippine Islands: 1903- Vol. III. Washington, B.C.: Government Printing '“Office, 7£5o57“~r'p. 638-69U* Paddela, Inocencio B. ?iTraces of Philippine Culture,” The Sunday Tires Kagaaine (Manila), TUX (January h9 1933)* Pp. 9-11* "Philippine Republic,0 Time Hanaaine (Chicago), LVXIX (November, 1931), Pp. 3 2 -38. Rosario, Tomas B. del. ueducation Under Spanish Rule,” Census of the Philippine Islands: 1903 ♦ Vol. III. Wash, lag ton, I) .0 •: Gov ernment Printing Office, 19o>. Pp. >76-63?. "W&r With Spain,n Harper ’ a Encyclopedia of United States History. Vol. VIII. Uow lorkr” Herper and'"5rotliers Publisl^rs," 1912- Pp. 292-321. Philippines. Department of Public Instruction. Bureau of .education Academic Bulletin Wo. U, Series 193k- Manilat Bureau of Education, 'T^S^^rpZ^W "(mimeographedj. ijop&rtraent of Fn.blic Instruction. Bureau of ,-,aueation Circular Ko. 2, Series 1901. Manila: Bureau of Lducatlon, 1901. *** *15 • (mimeographed) 1 ' " . Department of Public Instruction, Bureau of education Cir­ cular lro. 23» Seriea 19U1# Manila* Bureau of ideation,' '1915 #n Fp"Iir'dmeog^raphed ; * . Department of Public Instruction# Bureau of Education Cir­ cular Bo# >1, Scries 190?» Pp. 6 (ffii^eogra^eHTT”*^ "- . Department of Public Instruction# Department Memorandum ^ Series Manilas Department of rublics Instruction, 19ii5 • Pp° 12' (mimeographed j. United States. Department of State. Consular letters, January 1, 169?*" September 7» 1099» Containing the Report of tbs American Consul Oscar F-* ¥illlamson '"I4*"" 1 S'7'' ^UiipxiioTi.siir"Sci,"materiiS J#1'""** » Headquarters of the Array, Adjutant General*s Office# General Order Ho. 6? — Termination of the Military Government Over. the Philippi ne"T®I'ancls7 1902* f tJnpiSiiiiied" ^material!® / • APPENDIX A ACT. UQ. 7k* — AH ACT :R3TABLIbHING A DnPAATHEhf uF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS AMD APPROPRIATING FORTY THOU­ SAND DOHARi) I1 Oil If I & GHGAh Iw fil'X vfA Aiiu » h xli X AhC c» Up A NORMAL AND A TRADE SCHuOl IN MANILA, ii«u B'lftim TRuU- SAND DOLLARS FOR THE OHO ANIMATION AND K AlNTBNANC3 OF M AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL IN THE ISLAND OF NS&R05 FOR THi ICAR IITNKTLEN HUNDRED AND ONE, By authority of the Free Meat of the United. States, be it enacted by the United States Philippine Comi^sion, that; Section 1. A Department of Public Instruction for the Philippine Islands, is hereby established, the central office of which shall be in the city of Manila. All primary instruction in the schools established or maintained unaer this Act shall be free. Sec. 2. All schools heretofore established in the Philippine Islands, under the auspices of in© Military Government, are hereby declared to be in the Department of Public Instruction established by section one and are made subject to the control of tne officers of this Department• See. 3. The chief officer of this Department shall be denominated the General Superintendent of Public Instruction and ah all be {appointed by the Commission. His annual salary snail be six thousand dollars. He shall have the following powers and duties, to be exercised and dis­ charged under the general supervision of the Military Governor; (a) He shall establish schools in every pueblo in the Archipelago, where practicable, and shall reorganise tnose already established, where such reorganization is necessary. (b; fie an all appoint, in accordance with Act Humber Twenty-five, enacted October seventeenth, nineteen hundred, a City Super iritendent of Schools for Manila, and division superintendents of schools for other parts of the Archipelago, and the teachers and clerks authorised by law, and stall prescribe the duties of such teachers ana clerks. (c; He shall fix the salaries of the division superintendents and teachers m. thin tie limits established by law. (d) Re snail fix a curriculum for primary, secondary, and other public schools and shall decide in what towns secondary schools shall be established. (e) Re shall Divide the Archipelago into scnool divisions, riot more than ten in number, and shall fix the boundaries thereof, with power to change the same whan necessary, but th* city of Manila and its barrios snail constitute one of such scnool divisions* (£; H© shall, prescribe the authority to be exercised by the princi­ pal teacher of each school over the other teachers, ii* any, ana his duties in caring for the schoolhouse and school property* (gj lie ©hall prescribe plans for the construction of sciioolhouscs to be built by the municipalities, the amount of land required in each case, and rules of hyg iene which shall be observed in connection with the schools of the Archipelago. (h) He shall make contracts for the purchase of school supplies authorised by law, and, whenever practicable, u® shall invite bias by public advertisement and shall award the contract to the lowest respon­ sible binder. (i) He shall have power to determine the towns in which English teachers, to be paid out of the Insular treasury, snail teach* He may exercise this direction in favor of those towns showing their loyalty to the United States by their peaceful conditions, and in favor of those towns which shall construct and maintain suitable schoolhouses by local taxation or contributions. ( In case of a vacancy in the oil ice of a division superintendent or that of the super in'tend ant for Manila he shall discharge all the du­ ties of such position during the vacancy, or may make a temporary appointment to fill the same* (kj lie snail examine and pass upon ail requisitions made for funds by division superintendents and. forward taexa, with his recommenaation, to the Chief bxecutiv© for submission 'to the Commission. (1; On or before January first and July first of each year he shall make a report of his administration for the previous six month® to the Military Governor and to the Commission, and such special reports as may from time to time be called for by either. In the regular semi-annual reports, it shall be the duty of tm sup©rintenrient to recommend changes in toe school law which to aeems expeaient. (m) He snail exercise general supervision over the entire department, and shall prop arc and promulgate rules for the examination and determina­ tion of the qualifications of applicants for positions of division superintendents ani teachers, and for the guidance of the officers and teachers of the department, adapted to carry out this law ana not incon­ sistent with its provision* Lee• h* There shall be a superior advisor/ board of education com­ posed of the General Superintendent and four members to be appointed by the Commission, It shall be Hi© duty of the board to hold regular meet­ ings once in two months, on a d^y to be fixed by resolution of the board, and such special meetings as shall be called by the General Superintend­ ent. The General Superintendent shall act as president of the board. Tim chief clerk of the General Superintendent shall act as secretary of the board and keep minutes of its proceedings. It shall be the auty of the board to assist, the General Superintendent by advice and information concerning the educational needs and conditions of the Islands; to make such investigations as the General Superintendent may desire and to make recommendations to Hi© Commission from time to time as to needed amend­ ments to the law. Each of Hie four members of Hie board, appointed by virtue of this section, shall receive as compensation ton dollars for each regular or special meeting which he shall attend. Any member of the board who is a non-resident of Manila shall be paid his actual ex­ penses for travel from his residence to Manila and in his return and hotel expenses. Requisitions for the amount required to pay such com­ pensation and expenses shall be made by the General Superintendent. The terms of office of the members of such board appointed under this sec­ tion ski all be for three years or until their successors arc appointed and qualified. See. 5* There shall be a City Superintendent of Schools in the city of Manila who shall receive an annual salary of Hire© thousand dollars. Sec. 6. In each school division established by Hie General Superin­ tendent of Public Instruction, there shall be a division superinten dent who shall receive an annual salary of not less than two thousand dollars and not more than twenty-five hundred dollars. Sec. ?. The actual expenses of the General Superintendent and the division superintendents while traveling or absent from their usual places of residence on official business snail be paid out of tne Insu­ lar Treasury. Sec, 8. Except where otherwise provided, provisions of this act describing the duties and powers of division superintendents shall apply to Hie City Superintendent for Manila. vSec. 9- Each division superintendent shall, subject to rules pre** scribed by the General Superintendent, under section three (m>, appoint the native school teachers to serve in the schools within his district and shall fix their salaries from year to year within the limits pre­ scribed by law. He shall examine the schoolhouses occupied for public instruction within his division with a view to determining their suit­ ableness and hygienic condition. Should the schoolhouse in which any school is conducted appear to the division superintendent to be unsuit­ able and dangerous for the health of the children, and should no other school house be available, he shall have power, subject to the approval of the General Superintendent, to discontinue such school, and it shall be unlawful thereafter to use the schoolhouse thus condemned for public purposes• He shall pass upon and accept or reject or modify the plans for any new schoolhouse, proposed by the local authorities to be erected, and for tlie proposed site thereof, and shall make report of his action thereon to the General Superintendent of Public Instruction. If the local authorities or the local school board shall be dissatisfied with the decision of the division superintendent as to the suitableness of the plans or site of the proposed school house they may appeal to the General Superintendent, whose decision shall be final. He shall make careful investigations into the agricultural conditions existing in his division and shall make report thereon to the General Superintendent of Public Instruction, with a view to aiding the General Superintendent, in making recommendations as to the places and number of agricultural schools hereafter to be established. He shall see to it by personal visits and by requiring reports from the principal teachers of each school that the curriculum for primaiy and secondary schools prescribed by the General Superintendent of Public Instruction is complied with. He shall make himself familiar with the supplies and textbook® needed in each school in his division, and shall make report of the same at as early a date as possible, in order that they may be contracted for and furnished by the General Superintendent« He shall appoint one-half of the local school board in each pueblo in his division, as provided in section ten. He shall have and maintain his residence and an office in one of the large towns 'in his division, from which all the pueblos 'in his district can be most conveniently reached. Sec. 10. There shall be established in each municipality organized under any General Order of the Military Governor or under such municipal code as may be hereafter enacted, a local school board, consisting of four or six members, as the division superintendent may determine, in addition to tije president or alcalde of the municipality, who shall be a member ex officio. One half of the members, except the ex officio, shall be elected by the municipal council, and the remaining halfsnailbe appointed by the division superintendent, and the term of office of all members, holding by appointment or election, shall be two years and un­ til their successors shall have been duly elected or appointed. Sec. 11. The appointed or elected members of the local school board may, after due notice and hearing, be removed at ar\y time by the division superintendedt, subject to the approval of the General Superintendent of Public Instruction, who shall have power to suspend such lumbers tem­ porarily. Sec. 12. It shall be the power and duty of the local school boards (a; To visit from time to- time the schools of the pueblo and to re­ port bi-monthly to the division superintendent their condition and attendance of pupils. (b) To recomend sites and plans to the municipal council i'or schoolhouses to be erected. (c) Where there are two or more schools in the pueblo, to adopt rules, subject to the supervision of the division superintendent, for assigning the pupils of the pueblo to the several schools. (dj To report annually 'to Hie municipal council the auount of money Which should be raised for the currant year by local taxation for school purposes. (&) To report, whenever it snail deem necessary, directly to the General Superintendent as to the condition of the schools of the pueblo and to make suggestions in respect thereto as may seem to it expedient. Sec. 13* Every pueblo shall constitute a school district and it shall be the duty of the municipal council thereof to make as ample pro­ vision as possible by local taxation for Hie support of all the schools established within its jurisdiction. In exceptional cases, where the topography of the countiy or the difficulty of communication between parts of the same pueblo require it, the division superintendent may attach a part of one pueblo to the school district of another and shall, In such case, fix the amount which it will be just for the municipal council of the former to contribute to Hie annual school expense of the latter. Sec. Ik. The English language shall, as soon as practicable, be made the basis of all public school instruction, and soldiers m y be detailed as instructors until such time as they may be replaced by trained teachers. Sec. Ip. Authority is hereby given to the General Superintendont of Public Instruction to obtain from the United States one thousand trained teachers at monthly salaries of not less than seventy-five dol­ lars and not more than one hundred and twenty-five dollars, the exact salary of each teacher to be fixed by the General Superintendent of Public Instruction in accordance with the efficiency of the teacher in question and Hie importance of the position held. The necessary travel­ ing expenses of such teachers from their places of residence to Manila shall be paid by the Government. Sec* 16. Ho teacher or other person shall teach or criticize Hie doctrine of any church, religious sect, or denomination, or shall at­ tempt to influence tie pupils for or against any church or religious sect in any public school established under this Act. If any teacher shell Intentionally violate this section he or she shall, after due hearing, be dismissed from the public service. Provided, however, That it shall be lawful for the priest or minis­ ter of any church established in the pueblo where a public school is situated, cither in person or by a designated teacher of religion, to teach religion forona half m hour three times a week in the school building to those public school pupils whose parents or guardians desire it and express their desire therefor in writing filed with the principal teacher of the school, to be forwarded to the division superintendent, who shall fix the hours arid rooms for such teaching. But no public school teachers shall either conduct religious exercises or teach re­ ligion or act as a designated religious teacher in the school building under tee foregoing authority, and no pup.il shall be required by any public school teacher to attend and receive the religious instruction herein permitted. Should the opportunity thus given to teach religion be used by the priest, minister or religious teacher for the purpose of arousing disloyalty to tee United States or of discouraging tee attend­ ance of pupils at such public school, of creating a disturbance of public order, or of interfering with the discipline of the school, the division superintendent, subject to tee approval of tee General Superintendent of Public Instruction, may, after due investigation and hearing, forbid such, offending priest, minister, or religious- teacher from entering the public school building thereafter. Sec. I?. There shall be established and maintained in the city of Manila a Normal School for the education of natives of the Islands in the science of teaching. The rules and plan for the organisation and con­ duct of such school, arid the qualifications of pupils entering tee same, shall be determined by tee General Superintendent of Public Instruction. Sec. 18. There shall be established and maintained in the city of Manila a Trade School for the Instruction of natives of the Islands in the useful trades. The powers and duties of the General Superintendent in respect to this school shall 'be the same as those provided in Hie section in respect to Normal School. Sec. 19* There shall be established and maintained a School of Agri­ culture in the Island of Negros• The superior advisory school board shall recommend to the Commission- for final determination a proper site for such school. The powers and duties of tee General Superintendent in respect to this* school shall be the ©am© as those provided in the section concerning the Normal School. APP3KDIX B COFMOlwaM,TH ACT MO. i>86 AH ACT TO PR0VXD5 FOH THE EE^ISIOM OF TBS 3TSTM OF FUB1IC uLSMEM- TA M BDUCATICK Hi THE PHILIPPINES 1MCLUDIMG THE FIMMCXMG teldiSUF. Be It enacted by the Mational Assembly of the Fhllippinaat Section 1. This Act shall be known as the Educational Act of 19i*0. Section 2. In order to meet the increasing demand for public elemen­ tary instruction and at the 9asm time comply with the constitutional mandate on public education, a complete revision of the public elementary school system is imperative, bach a revision shall have the following objectivess (a/ to simplify, shorten, and render more practical and eco­ nomical both the primary and intermediate courses of instruction so as to place the same within the reach of the largest possible number of school children; (by to afford every child of school age adequate facilities to commence and complete at least the primary course of instruction; (c) to give every child completing the primary course an adequate working know­ ledge of reading and writing, the fundamentals of arithmetic, geography, Philippine history and government, and character and civic training; and (dy to insure that all children attending the elementary schools shall remain literate and become useful, upright and patriotic citizens. Section 3* The Department of Public Instruction shall forthwith make a revision of the elementary school curriculum so as to effectuate the objectives set forth in section two of this Act, and shall likewise so adjust the academic school year that the school vacations would coin­ cide as much as possible with the working seasons in the Philippines* The revised elementary school curriculum once approved by the President cf tee Philippines shall be adopted in all the public schools as soon as practicable but not later than the commencement of the school year 19U1- 19U2. Section k* With the approval of the President of the Philippines the required age for admission to tee public elementary schools may be raised to not more than nine years and the length of time required for the completion of the elementary instruction comprising both tee primary and intermediate courses reduced to not less than five years. Any in­ crease that may be approved in accordance with this section regarding the minimum age of school children shall not affect those already enrolled before the school year 19ltO-19Ul« Section 5« Ho child snail be admitted into the public elementary schools except on condition that he shall remain in school until lie shall have completed at least the primary course. Compulsory attendance as herein required may be waived in any one of the following cases: first, when the distance from the home of the child to tne nearest school ex­ ceeds three kilometers and the ©aid school is not conveniently accessible to the child, considering the means of transportation available; second, where such child is mentally defective or is physically unable to enter said school, of which fact a certificate of a duly licensed physician should be sufficient evidence; third, whar© on account of the economic condition of his parents, the child cannot afford to continue school; and fourth, when the child transfers to a private school. The parents or guardians of those having control of children herein required to attend school who fail to Keep said children in school with­ out justification a© prescribed in this section snail be liable to a fine of not less than twenty nor more tnan fifty pesos. Section 6. To accommodate ail Children qualified to attend the ele­ mentary school as herein provided, the secretary of Public instruction may, with the approval of the President, authorise 'the holding of two or more complete single sessions a day, or adopt other measures calculated to take care of the largest number of school children. Section 7* Commencing with Hie school year iyl*Q~19lil, public ele­ mentary education (comprising the primary and intermediate courses; shall be supported by the National Government: Provided, That the chartered cities shall continue to support ail toe intermediate classes within their respective jurisdictions, except that, with the. approval of the President, the National Government may grant aid to such chartered cities as may not be financially able to provide fully for toe support of toeir tote mediate schools or classes. Gites for schoolhouses, for primary arid for inter mediate classes, shall be required by to© municipalities, municipal districts, or char­ tered cities, as toe case may be, to rough purchase or conditional or absolute donation: Provided, That the department of Public Instruction may, with the approval of toe President of the Philippines, waive any requirement for the acquisition of school sites of standard aiae when­ ever the same are not available. Matriculation fees in an ©mount to be determined by the President, but not exceeding two peso© for each pupil enrolled in the intermediate grades, may be collected in municipalities and municipal districts, the proceeds thereof to accrue to the funds of to© National Government to b© expended primarily for the purchase of library books and equipment, for financing athletic activities in to© intermediate classes. Section 8. To enable toe national Government to properly finance the public eleraentaiy school© and meet toe burden of tiioir operation as provided in this Act, from and after July first, nineteen hundred and forty, the disposition of the proceeds of the taxes under Commonwealth Act Numbered Four hundred and sixty-five, known as the Residence Tax Law, shall be as follows: Of all the taxes collected and remitted to the Collector of Internal Revenue as provided in section eight of Commonwealth Act Numbered Four hundred and sixty-five, fifty per centum shall be alio ted in the follow­ ing proportions by tine said Collector among the provinces, chartered cities, municipalities, and municipal districts on the basis of popula­ tion as shown by the latest official census: One-half to the general funds of the provinces. A sub-province shall receive its proportionate share of the proceeds alio ted to the province; and The other half to the general Hmds of the chartered cities, munici­ palities, and municipal districts. Out of the remaining fifty per centum of the proceeds of said taxes, chartered cities shall continue to receive the co rreaponding share in the school fund of cities, municipalities, aid municipal districts to which they were entitled under the provisions of law in fore® prior to July first, nineteen hundred and forty* The balance shall accrue to the Rational Government* Similarly, the disposition of the proceeds of certain taxes under Commonwealth Act Lumbered Four hundred and sixty-five, known as the Na­ tional Internal Revenue Cod®, as referred to in sections three hundred and fifty-eight, three hundred and sixty, and three hundred and sixty- three thereof, shall be as follows: (a) Three-sevenths of the proceeds of the internal revenue percent­ age taxes on agricultural products prescribed in section on® hundred and eighty-seven and one hundred and eighty-eight as well as the taxes due from proprietors or operators of rope fac­ tories, sugar central, rice mills, com mills, coconut oil mills, and desiccated coconut factories prescribed in section one hun­ dred and eighty-nine of said Code shall accrue to the National Government. The appropriation of the provincial allotment shall be based on population as shown by the latest official census• (bj Two and one-half per centum of the proceeds of the tax on estate, inheritance legacies, and other acquisitions mortis causa as well as gifts, shall accrue? to the provinces, two and one-half per centum shall accrue to the municipalities, and the remaining ninety-five per centum shall accrue to the Rational Government. The proceeds accruing' to tine provinces and municipalities shall be apportioned on the basis of population as shown by the latest official census. Of the national internal revenue accruing to the National Treasury under section three hundred and sixty-two of the National Internal Reve­ nue Code, there shall be sot apart ten per centum as allotment to provinces, to be divided equally between their general and road and bridge funds* Provided, however, That instead of ten per centum only nine per centum shaijT^ be set apart as provincial, and .road ana bridge allotments, inthe sane proportion as specified, herein, during the fiscal year 19UQ-19lils and ten per centum during the fiscal year thereafter. The foregoing modified allotments of the proceeds of certain taxes under Commonwealth Act Numbered four hundred and sixty-five, known as the National Internal Revenue Code, to the contrary notwithstanding, chartered cities shall continue to receive the corresponding shares In the municipal allotment to which they were entitled under the provisions of law in force prior to July first, nineteen hundred and forty. Section 9. effective July first, nineteen hundred and forty, the school fund in all the municipalities and municipal districts is dis­ established and any amount Hi erein remaining unexplored and unobligated on the date of the approval of this Act shall form part of the municipal general fund, and the moneys hitherto accruing to the municipal school fund by operation of law and not specifically transferred to the National Government shall, after June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and forty, ac­ crue to the municipal general fund. No tuition fees for intermediate instruction by municipalities and municipal districts shall be collected. Any tuition fees collected dur­ ing the school year* 19ko-191*1 for the maintenance of the intermediate classes shall be returned to the respective contributors. Section 10. Commonwealth Act Numbered Three hundred and eighty-one, section eight of Commonwealth Act Numbered Four hundred and sixty-five, and sections three hundred and fifty eight, three hundred and sixty, and three hundred and sixty-three of Commonwealth Act Numbered Four hundred and sixty-six and 30 much of section three hundred and sixty-six of the last mentioned Act, and of other Acts as are in conflict with the pro­ visions of this Act, are repealed. Section 11. This Act shall take effect upon its approval. Approved, August 7, 19b0. V I T A Mmmi m em o L. QUIRAMT£ remanent Address* Morth Philippine Uhion Mission P« 0* Box hQl, Manila, Philippines Degree to be Conferred* Doctor of Education Date* August* 1953 Date of Birth: April 2, 1913 Place of Birth: Tayabas, Qtieson Province, Philippines Secondary Education: Philippine Junior College Collegiate Institutions Attended: Dates: Degree: Date of Degree: Philippine Union College 1933-1936 B.S.E. October, 1936 Far Eastern University 191*6-191*7 K. A. April, 191*7 Publications: wXhe Educational Work of Seventh-day Adventists in the Philippines**, Ingathering leaflet, Manila, 1950 "Beligious Instruction in Public Schools*, Miapah, Manila, 1951 Positions Bold: Instructor, Philippine Union College Academy, Manila, Philippines Instructor, Philippine Union College, Manila, Philippines Principal, Philippine Union College Academy, Manila, Philippines Principal, East Fisayan Academy, Cebu City, Philippines Educational Secretary, Philippine Union Mission, Manila, Philippines