Does Intra-Disciplinary Historic Preservation Scholarship Address the Exigent 
Issues of Practice? Exploring the Character and Impact of Preservation 
Knowledge Production in Relation to Critical Heritage Studies, Equity, and Social 
Justice  
 
Content Analysis of Historic Preservation Scholarship 
 
Jeremy C. Wells 
Associate Professor, University of Maryland, College Park (USA) 
jcwells@umd.edu 
 
 
CONTEXT 
 
This paper is an expanded version of the content analysis that is summarized in my paper, 
?Does Intra-Disciplinary Historic Preservation Scholarship Address the Exigent Issues of 
Practice? Exploring the Character and Impact of Preservation Knowledge Production in Relation 
to Critical Heritage Studies, Equity, and Social Justice,? that has been accepted for publication in 
the International Journal of Heritage Studies. Refer to this published paper for more complete 
details on this study. 
 
METHOD 
 
This content analysis was based on the analysis of paper, book, and edited book publications 
that were self-defined as contributing to preservation scholarship. The four primary objectives 
were to: 1) identify the authors of this group; 2) define what a ?scholarly? publication is?only 
these publications were allowed to form the corpus of ?preservation scholarship?; 3) collect 
every single ?scholarly? publication produced by these authors, and 4) perform a content 
analysis on this preservation scholarship, dividing it into salient categories and themes. 
 
In order to identify the authors of preservation scholarship, faculty were selected from National 
Council for Preservation Education (NCPE) member degree programs who were full-time and on 
the tenure-track or already tenured with a 50% or more teaching appointment in an historic 
preservation degree program (undergraduate or graduate).  
 
Program web sites, emails, and phone calls to departments were used to identify full-time, 
tenure-track and tenured faculty with a 50% or more teaching appointment to an historic 
preservation program. Where departments did not share details on the distribution of faculty 
teaching responsibilities, the relevant college or university course schedule listing was 
consulted to identify which courses each preservation faculty member taught across several 
semesters. Programs housed in institutions that do not use the tenure system, such as Boston 
Architectural College, Pratt, and Savannah College of Art and Design, were not included.  
 1 
 
A ?scholarly publication? means that the publisher of a piece of scholarship employs a peer-
review process to vet and approve the publication of this work. Even though the Forum Journal, 
CRM Magazine, and publications by the Getty and the International Council on Monuments and 
Sites (ICOMOS) are not consistently peer-reviewed, scholarship published in these venues was, 
however, included as an exception. The reason is that these venues are frequently cited by 
preservation scholars and, as such, are often considered to represent quality scholarship; this 
assessment was therefore respected for this study. Only scholarship in English that was 
published up until December 31, 2018 was included. Lastly, these additional criteria were used 
to categorically exclude publications: 
? the publication was published by a predatory or vanity press;1 
? encyclopedia entries;  
? student textbooks;  
? opinion pieces, editorials, book and conference reviews; exhibition reviews; awards, 
obituaries, and eulogies; 
? professional reports (i.e., gray literature); 
? coffee table books (i.e., books that focus on visual rather than written content); 
? book prefaces; 
? books or other publications only held by one library (usually the home institution of the 
scholar). 
 
The following methods were used to find preservation scholarship literature: 
? curricula vitarum (CV), when available through the Internet; there were many errors in 
these documents, however, such as listing publications that were never published, or 
incorrect publication titles and publication years. In no situation were CVs relied upon 
alone without cross-referencing other sources; 
? public citation tracking databases: Google scholar, Web of Science, and Scopus; 
? library subscription databases: Academic Search Complete, Art Abstracts, Avery Index, 
RIBA Catalogue, Art and Archaeology Technical Abstracts (AATA) Online, Anthropological 
Index Online, Bibliographic Database of the Conservation Information Network (BCIN), 
Bibliography of the History of Art, Google Books, JSTOR, Project Muse, ProQuest Central, 
and WorldCat; 
? academia.edu and researchgate.net accounts of preservation scholars, when present. 
 
I prepared and used a code book to categorize the content in each publication. The 
development of codes was informed by dividing preservation practice into its four primary 
areas: regulatory and planning work, materials-based (architecture, materials conservation) 
documentation and intervention, site interpretation, and advocacy. I used a process in which I 
reviewed the totality of the scholarship and created initial codes that were particularly salient; 
where multiple themes overlapped, I selected a single code that was most relevant, based on 
the publication?s content. I then started coding each publication, altering the code book as 
                                                        
1 There are several reputable services on the Internet that identify predatory publishers, such as 
https://beallslist.net/, https://www2.cabells.com/blacklist, and https://predatoryjournals.com/.  
 2 
necessary, based on the inter-related themes in the scholarship. I repeated this process several 
times until a clear pattern emerged among a specific group of themes. An intercoder reliability 
check confirmed that the pattern was consistent. 
 
CODING PROCESS 
 
In total, the process described in the method section resulted in the collection of 530 
publications that define the corpus of ?intradisciplinary preservation scholarship.? In order to 
visually characterize this corpus, I created a word cloud from the publication titles (figure 1). I 
purposefully omitted the expected words and phrases associated with ?history,? ?historic,? 
?heritage,? ?conservation,? and ?preservation? as they overwhelmed the cloud.  
 
 
Figure 1. Word cloud of publication titles.  
 3 
Through an iterative coding process, three themes emerged, following by several sub-themes, 
which were as follows: 
1. Topics that inform the preservation enterprise (TIPE): These are publications that might 
inform some aspect of historic preservation practice, but are not unique to the 
preservation enterprise; they are instead likely to be central to other disciplines. An 
example is an historical research paper on the biography of a doctor that could 
potentially inform why a place is historically significant, but could be equally applicable 
to a broad array of other fields, practices, or disciplines, such as medicine, chemistry, or 
museum studies.  
2. Topics about the preservation enterprise (TAPE): These are publications that define, 
explore, and/or advocate for the orthodox scope, theory/philosophy, practice, or 
pedagogical approaches that are unique to the historic preservation field. Scholarship in 
this thematic area accepts and builds upon the dominant, orthodox approaches in the 
field, and as such, does not directly challenge the status quo. This topical area can be 
further subdivided into five additional sub-categories: 
a. Characterization of the historic preservation field, including history and 
education; 
b. Planning and policy, especially as they implemented through existing rules and 
regulations; 
c. Materials conservation and preservation technology;  
d. Orthodox preservation theory and philosophy that builds on centuries-old 
tradition; 
e. Site management and interpretation. 
3. Topics critical of the preservation enterprise (TCPE): These are publications that critically 
examine orthodox practice, including its doctrinal and regulatory assumptions. This 
scholarship is typically reflexive and most closely represents critical heritage studies in 
its overall approach. 
a. Critical and reflective approaches; 
b. Community engagement; 
c. Social justice, equity, diversity, and inclusion. 
 
Refer to figure 2 for a distribution of preservation scholarship categorized by these codes.  
 
 4 
% of total intra-disiplinary preservation scholarship
Community engagement (TCPE) 2.0%
Rationalistic preservation theory and
philosophy (TAPE) 2.9%
Site management and interpretation
(TAPE) 3.5%
Social justice, equity, diversity, and
inclusion (TCPE) 6.8%
Materials conservation and technology
10.0%
(TAPE)
Planning and policy (TAPE) 10.7%
Critical approaches (TCPE) 11.5%
Characterization of preservation practice
12.1%
(TAPE)
Topics that inform the preservation
40.6%
enterprise (TIPE)
0.0% 5.0% 10.0% 15.0% 20.0% 25.0% 30.0% 35.0% 40.0% 45.0%
 
Figure 2. Overall distribution of intra-disciplinary preservation scholarship based on codes developed 
through content analysis, through December 31, 2018. Total number of publications represented is 488 
(530 total publications minus 42 publications that have no relationship to historic preservation; see 
text). TIPE = Topics that Inform the Preservation Enterprise; TAPE = Topics About the Preservation 
Enterprise; TCPE = Topics Critical of the Preservation Enterprise; see text for details. 
 
 
  
 5 
FINDINGS 
 
TOPICS THAT INFORM THE PRESERVATION ENTERPRISE (TIPE)  
 
Almost half (40.4%) of the refereed publications are TIPE literature; about three-quarters of 
these publications can be accurately characterized as positivistic history (i.e., a focus on 
objective facts and a singular interpretation that then emerges from these facts; 
conceptualizing history as broad patterns within a context of linear causation), although there 
are some notable exceptions, such as Max Page?s (2001) proposal for a ?radical public history? 
that represents a novel counter-argument against positivistic history. Themes that are appear 
most often by frequency include local history research in Montana, Tennessee, New York, 
Chicago, and the southeast; and contexts that address mining, political and labor history, 
transportation, class and gender, religious practice, colonial history, and urban transformation. 
 
Geographically, there is an emphasis in preservation scholarship on local history in the western 
part of the United States, especially as relates to mining history (Clements, 1994, 1996, 2009, 
2014), the rise and decline of western towns (Clements, 2002, 2003, 2011; Van West, 1993), 
and gambling and casinos (D. A. Smith & Clements, 1997; Turdean, 2011). Carrol Van West is an 
especially prolific local historian, writing on the history of agriculture, development, healthcare, 
colonialism, monuments, and the significant men associated with these developments in 
Montana (1983b, 1985, 1986a, 1987b, 1987a, 1988b, 1990, 1993, 2004a) and Tennessee 
(1988a, 1994b, 1995, 1998, 2001, 2004b, 2016; Van West & Binnicker, 2004).  
 
The monumental and ordinary places of New York, Chicago, and Philadelphia are frequent 
topics. New York City is represented through the themes of parks, street merchants, 
tenements, builders, neglected islands, Broadway, Morningside Heights, the Garment District, 
and urban landscape change (Bluestone, 1987, 1991b, 1992; Dolkart, 1998, 2011, 2016b, 2016a, 
2017; Mason, 2012; Mason et al., 2014; Page, 1999b, 2005) while the urban landscapes of 
Chicago, including the history of its skyscrapers are important themes (Bluestone, 1991a, 
2004a, 2004b, 2013, 2017b). Philadelphia is represented through the architectural history of 
courthouses and power stations (Page, 1995; Wunsch & Elliott, 2016).  
 
Other TIPE literature focuses more specifically on social and cultural history, such as protests 
and political and labor movements, including the Vietnam and Civil Rights era (Rhodes, 1997, 
2001, 2007, 2017); the Great Strike of 1877 (Hoffman, 2008), progressive era healthcare 
(Hoffman, 2001), and antebellum political movements (Van West, 1983a, 1983c). Class, gender, 
and work in the nineteenth century is well represented (M. R. Miller, 2003b, 2005, 2006b; M. R. 
Miller & Benes, 2001; M. R. Miller & Lanning, 1994). The historical social and cultural practice of 
Protestants and Jewish people are a dominant theme in TIPE  literature (D. R. Miller & Gilmore, 
2016; M. R. Miller, 2009; Santoro, 2017; Stiefel, 2009, 2012, 2013, 2017b, 2018b; Stiefel & 
Tesler-Mab?, 2016). Other authors focus on the broader historical social, cultural, and design 
dimensions of urban transformation (Appler, 2017a; Gilmore, 2006b; Hoffman, 2000; Holleran, 
1990), with more specific foci on food markets, museums, courthouses, customhouses, state 
 6 
capitols, university campuses, and libraries (Bluestone, 1990a; Breisch, 2016, 2017; Donofrio, 
2007, 2014, 2015; Kapp, 2018b; Page, 1995; Stiefel, 2015; Van West, 1989a; Vivian, 1999).  
 
Themes more relevant to architectural history include the design and construction of 
skyscrapers (Bluestone, 2004a; Holleran, 1996; Page & Conn, 1995), housing (Bricker, 2008, 
2010), reinterpretations of the City Beautiful movement (Bluestone, 1988), southern plantation 
landscapes (Bluestone, 2012a; Brock & Vivian, 2015; Graham et al., 2007, 2011; Vivian, 2018), 
neoclassicism (Semes, 2001b, 2001a, 2004, 2013a, 2015b), and the re-interpretation of 
ornament (Otero-Pailos, 2011).  
 
TIPE scholarship on the history of construction materials, systems, and methods include  the 
analysis of Spanish colonial building materials and techniques, such as vaulting and dome 
building (Ibarra-Sevilla, 2011, 2012, 2013b, 2013a, 2013c, 2014) and the use of mortars in 
fortifications (Wells, 2010b). Other, defined areas focus on discrete building units and finishes, 
such as sandstone (Matero & Teutonico, 1982), brick (Broeksmit & Sullivan, 2006), plain and 
decorative surface finishes (Matero, 1983, 1994; Silver et al., 1993), regional painting traditions 
(Matero & Snodgrass, 1992), shotcrete (Sullivan, 2014), and hollow clay tile (Wells, 2007a). 
Lastly, a few authors have focused on engineering systems used in buildings, such as reinforced 
concrete (Donofrio & Elliott, 2013) and technical aspects of Guastavino dome construction 
(Ibarra-Sevilla, 2015). 
 
A few preservation scholars specialize in vernacular architecture; examples of this type of work 
that uses well-established methods from geography, social history, and architectural history is 
Tom Visser?s (2012) analysis of American porches and Michael Tomlan?s (2013) expos? on ?hop 
culture.? Literature in this area typically emphases rural building types over urban ones, such as 
barns and ranches (Visser, 1997; Vlahos, 2006) and company towns (Buckley, 1997), but urban 
contexts are also represented such as bicycle factories (McCullough, 2010, 2013, 2017). 
Seventeenth through nineteenth century cultural building practices in various areas of North 
America are also well represented (Breisch, 1994; Breisch & Moore, 1986; van Den Hurk, 2005, 
2006), but topics from the twentieth century are also present, such as how zoning ordinances 
impacted vernacular design (Visser, 1991), ordinary Americans? description of ?architecture? 
and ?landscape? (Conn & Page, 2003), landscapes of prostitution (Bluestone, 2015), suburban 
developments (Hoffman, 1992, 2016), and gas station designs geared toward women (Donofrio, 
2012a).  
 
Closely related to vernacular architecture is literature that addresses cultural landscapes; the 
former topic often (but not always) focuses on specific building types, while cultural landscape 
research undertakes a more holistic focus on the entirety of the designed and natural 
environments. In particular, cultural landscape research can describe and analyze places 
without any ?buildings? proper, such as roads, canals, and railroad and bike corridors 
(Bluestone, 1990b; Holleran & Sanders, 2002; McCullough, 1998b, 2015; Spodek, 2002; Van 
West, 1986b, 1987d). Landscapes in which natural elements predominate are also a focus 
(Clements, 2014; McCullough, 1995, 1998a; McCullough et al., 2009; Page, 1999d) as are broad 
 7 
geographical areas defined by a singular theme, such as the Roosevelt?s New Deal (Van West, 
1994c). 
 
Preservation scholarship often focuses on the historical importance of an individual?the 
quintessential famous, influential person who changed the world in some way. TIPE scholarship 
in this area over-emphasizes white males in deference to well-known women; minorities (such 
as African Americans) are not represented at all in this literature. Examples include white male 
architects (Breisch, 1997; Bricker, 1990, 2017; Brown, 1989, 2007; Chusid, 2017; Kapp & 
Sanders, 2015; Otero-Pailos, 2000; Semes, 2017, 2018; Vivian, 2005), white male architectural 
critics (Breisch, 1992; Semes, 2014), white male planners (McCullough, 2012), and white male 
developers and business entrepreneurs (Dolkart, 2012; Hudgins, 2012; Rhodes, 2006, 2008; Van 
West, 1987c, 1994a, 2008a). The historical contributions of white women are limited to 
Rebecca Dickinson, Anne Frank, and Betsy Ross (M. R. Miller, 1998, 2002a, 2010a, 2014; Page, 
1999c). 
 
Often reliant on archaeological evidence, a number of authors explore the colonial culture of 
the American southeast (Brown, 2011; Hudgins, 1990, 1999, 2015; Marcoux, 2015; 
VanDerwarker et al., 2013). This TIPE literature, which is based on material culture theory and 
methods from processual archeology, uses an inductive process to understand the relationship 
that people had with cultural artifacts. Themes in this area of preservation scholarship mostly 
focus on Native American history and cultural practices (Marcoux, 2007, 2010a, 2010b, 2012a, 
2012b; Marcoux et al., 2011; Marcoux & Poplin, 2012; Marcoux & Wilson, 2010). The 
excavation and interpretation of colonial-era artifacts in North America, including the 
Caribbean, is used to explain trade, conflicts, and dating methods (Gilmore, 2013; Gilmore & 
Roth, 2013; Hatch et al., 2014; McMillan, 2016, 2017; McMillan et al., 2014; M. T. Smith et al., 
2017). Material culture theory is also implicitly used by historians to understand the 
relationship that people have to specific objects. The advantage, compared to archaeology, is 
that historical records and oral history are used to help supplement the social and cultural 
practices related to these objects. Literature that addresses this theme includes various crafts 
(especially basketmaking) (Hurley et al., 2013; M. R. Miller, 2006a; Van West, 2004c), 
dressmaking (M. R. Miller, 1999, 2003a, 2003c, 2003d), and manufacturing (Clements, 1997). 
 
TOPICS ABOUT THE PRESERVATION ENTERPRISE (TAPE) 
 
Materials conservation and preservation technology 
 
In TAPE literature, there are three main areas of research that directly address historic fabric in 
some fashion: documentation, materials conservation, and preservation technology. The 
documentation of the physical fabric of buildings involves metric survey, photography, and 
instrumental analyses. The conservation of architectural materials applies scientific methods 
from materials science and chemistry toward the analysis, repair/consolidation, and loss 
compensation of building fabric with an emphasis on authenticity. Lastly, preservation 
technology focuses on contemporary interventions to sustain the physical integrity of building 
fabric. 
 8 
 
There are a few publications on general topics related to materials conservation, including the 
conservation of entire sites (Bargues-Ballester et al., 2017; Gilberg & Vivian, 2001; Matero, 
1999; Matero et al., 1998, 2000; Weaver & Matero, 1997), but a narrow focus on specific 
materials is more typical in TAPE literature. The largest area of TAPE scholarship in materials 
conservation addresses the global conservation of earthen construction materials, such as 
adobe, rammed earth, and puddled earth (Avrami et al., 2008, 2012, 2014; Matero, 1995, 2004, 
2012, 2015; Matero & Cancino, 2000). The cleaning of materials, which involves scientific 
testing and treatment with a goal of minimizing harm, focuses mostly on marble and terra cotta 
(Hall & Matero, 2011; Matero, 1984; Matero et al., 2016; Matero & Freese, 1978; Matero & 
Tagle, 1994; Matero & Teutonico, 1996). Literature on consolidation, in which the loss of 
existing, friable, disaggregated, and/or delaminated building fabric is mitigated through the 
application of a variety of ?compatible? contemporary and traditional organic and inorganic 
materials, is well represented (Correia & Matero, 2008; Ferron & Matero, 2011a, 2011b; Jang & 
Matero, 2018; Tudor et al., 1990); the use of various adhesives to reattached delaminated 
material, which is related to consolidation, addresses plaster materials (Hinchman et al., 2006; 
Matero & Bass, 1995).  The conservation of limestone is also represented in TAPE literature 
(Matero & Siravo, 2004) along with mortar analyses and replication (Matero, 2001a, 2001b). 
Lastly, literature in this area provides potential solutions to protect archeological ruins (Avrami 
et al., 2002; Lim et al., 2013). 
 
Other than a couple of general treatises (Leifeste, 2013; Young, 2008a), TAPE literature in 
preservation technology is mostly concerned with the stabilization of buildings, structures, and 
ruins (Jerome et al., 2003; Visser, 1993; Wells, 2003). Technology, however, features in much of 
the literature in documentation, chiefly the use of GIS (graphical information systems) and 3-D 
laser scanning (Christensen et al., 2016; Chusid & Minner, 2016; Hallo et al., 2012; Jessica et al., 
2011; Matero et al., 2003). Remote sensing technologies, such as infrared thermography, radar, 
and resistivity testing, are represented (Elisabetta & Spodek, 2003; Gilmore, 2008; Spodek & 
Rosina, 2009). Literature in this area also includes general site plans for condition surveys 
(Matero, 2003; Matero & Peters, 2003), the identification of cultural resources (Livi Smith, 
2017), and methods to preserve documentation records (Wells, 2006). 
 
Planning and policy 
 
Policy, as it applies to the preservation enterprise is broad, encompassing planning, law, 
economics, sustainability, and disaster planning, among other possibilities. While this area of 
TAPE scholarship may advocate for change, the context for these arguments are framed in a 
way that supports, rather than challenges, orthodox expert rule and top-down methods. Thus, 
while a policy paper might argue for including more properties on the US National Register of 
Historic Places (NR), it will not attempt to critique how NR criteria prevents such listings from 
happening in the first place. For example, a significant number of publications explore ways to 
increase the number of buildings and places listed on the NR (Appler, 2016a; Goetcheus, 2002; 
Holleran & Chalana, 2006; McCullough, 2003; Vivian, 2016b) and how cities and countries could 
more fully participate in World Heritage processes (Ibarra-Sevilla, 2018; Reap, 2002, 2006; 
 9 
Stiefel, 2018c), including the use of social science methods to characterize the ?spirit and 
feeling? of World Heritage properties (Wells, 2014a). None of these publications, however, 
explore the possibility that the foundational criteria and policies around the NR and World 
Heritage may, in themselves, be a significant factor in excluding many buildings and places for 
inclusion in these lists. 
 
Preservation planning, on the local level, is well represented in TAPE literature with an 
emphasis on how preservation relates to economic development and place-making (Kapp, 
2012; Kapp & Armstrong, 2012; Mason, 2009a; D. A. Smith & Clements, 1997; Wells, 2015c), 
and low-income housing (Spodek & House, 2017). Other themes that relate to preservation 
planning include preservation economics (Bluestone et al., 1999; Mason, 1999a, 1999b, 2008a; 
Van West, 1996; Vivian et al., 2000; Vivian, 2016a) and preservation law (Draye & Reap, 2008; 
Reap, 1979, 2005, 2011; Wells & Lixinski, 2016, 2017). Three publications have also explored 
ways to help orthodox preservation practice proactively address issues related to natural and 
manmade disasters (Appler, 2016b; Avrami et al., 2017; Chabbi et al., 2014). A couple of 
publications focused on planning and policy issues within organizations and programs, such as 
the National Park Service (Whisnant & Miller, 2016) and heritage areas (Crotts et al., 2002).  
 
Sustainability is another theme that, based on the number of publications, is a significant part 
of TAPE literature. Some work in this area advocates for change in architectural and ?green? 
building practices so that they incorporate more adaptive use and building preservation, using 
empirical evidence as a guide (Chusid, 2010a, 2016; Koziol, 2009; Young, 2008b, 2008c) while 
other authors explore the conservation of building fabric as an inherently sustainable activity 
from an environmental as well as a social perspective (Avrami, 2011; Matero & Teutonico, 
2003). A landscape-based approach to sustainability is also represented (McGehee et al., 2013). 
Literature in this area also critiques what is perceived to be over-emphasis on the environment, 
choosing, instead, to investigate social aspects of sustainability (Donofrio, 2012b); in particular, 
Erica Avrami (2009, 2010, 2016) advocates for important changes to preservation policies in 
order to make ?preservation more sustainable? through an explicit social focus. Stiefel and 
Leifeste (2018), on the other hand, make an explicit call to environmental conservation by 
advocating for combining this field with historic preservation. 
 
While most policy and management scholarship centers on US-based practice, Asia is also 
represented (especially India) (Krishna, 2013, 2014, 2016) along with the Netherland Antilles 
(Haviser & Gilmore, 2011). 
 
Site management and interpretation 
 
Literature on site interpretation focuses on museums in general (Bryk et al., 2015; Livi Smith, 
2011; Page, 1999a; Van West, 1989b), house museums (Bryk, 2002), religious sites (Stiefel, 
2014d), archaeological sites (Matero, 2010), botanical gardens (Matero, 2005), and large, 
culturally-defined areas in the American southeast (Cook, 2016; Kapp, 2015); other publications 
explore more general concepts related to interpretation and tourism (Clements, 2005; Huang et 
al., 2014; Van West, 1996). Within most of these publications, there is an exploration of when 
 10 
pedagogical (fact-based) or experiential (feeling-based) approaches to interpretation are 
warranted and the appropriate use of technology. The literature in this area also focuses more 
explicitly on management practices, including those related to ?toxic? sites, college campuses, 
Hadrian?s Wall, and Port Arthur (Bluestone, 2007; Livi Smith & Spencer, 2012; Mason, MacLean, 
et al., 2005; Mason, Myers, et al., 2005).  
 
Orthodox preservation theory and philosophy that builds on centuries-old tradition 
 
Orthodox preservation theory is an analysis of the conceptual basis for how and why practice is 
performed in a certain way and is grounded in long-established concepts in the field that have, 
in some cases, existed for many decades, if not centuries. Preservation philosophy is a broader 
search for generalizable principles across practice, but which still sanctions its ideas through 
orthodox theory. In both cases, these investigations are dependent on rationalistic (deductive, 
a priori) rather than empirical (inductive, a posteriori) reasoning. There is little orthodox 
preservation scholarship that attempts to add to or interpret long-accepted theory and 
philosophy established by nineteenth century authors (e.g., Ruskin, Boito) and twentieth-
century modernists (e.g., Carbonara, Philippot). There are a few exceptions, however. 
 
Descriptive, historical explorations of orthodox preservation theory are represented in TAPE 
literature (Matero, 2013a). There are also applications of orthodox theory to interventions in 
building or archaeological fabric that impact authenticity, such as loss compensation (Matero, 
2006a, 2007b), interpreting design intent (Matero & FitzGerald, 2007), interpretation of 
archaeological sites (Matero, 2000b, 2006b), and placemaking (Matero, 2011; Preucel & 
Matero, 2008). The aesthetic interpretation of historic places is also related to authenticity (Livi 
Smith, 2014a). In common with the nineteenth- and early twentieth-century literature on 
orthodox theory is a strong interest in ethics as applied to interventions in building fabric. For 
instance, there is a proper ?ethical? stance toward building fabric of which a practitioner should 
be fully aware (Matero, 1993, 2013b). To be an ethical practitioner, one must make sure to 
adopt an interdisciplinary approach that combines the authority of the natural sciences and 
humanities (Matero, 2006b).  
 
Characterization of the historic preservation field, including history and education 
 
Literature that describes contemporary practice in the historic preservation field and its 
historical genesis also includes publications that address historic preservation education, 
primarily at the post-secondary level. Scholarship on these topics that take a critical, as 
opposed to a descriptive, approach has been included under the TCPE category. 
 
A common tool to describe historic preservation is to characterize its practice through the lens 
of other disciplines, such as landscape architecture (Goetcheus et al., 2016) and  architectural 
history (Bricker, 2004); to be sure, a cultural landscape lens is, by far, the most common way 
that the field is characterized in these publications (Goetcheus, 2008b; Goetcheus & Mitchell, 
2014; Mason, 2008b, 2010). The challenges of working in an inherently multidisciplinary field is 
explored (Wells, 2009) as is scholarship that investigates employment trends (Visser, 2009; 
 11 
Wells, 2018). Other scholarship advocates for the expansion of historic preservation practice by 
describing its orthodox activities (Page, 2016; Tomlan, 2015).  
 
The trades?e.g., carpenters, masons, plasters?are essential for the restoration of historic 
buildings, but preservation scholars, with one exception, do not focus on this topic. Over the 
decades, there has been a significant loss in intangible heritage related to traditional 
techniques in building construction and repair. Paul Kapp?s (Kapp, 2016, 2017; Kapp & 
Crumpton, 2015) scholarship on the artisan economy and industrial heritage, however, is an 
exception to this rule and seeks to sustain the intangible heritage around the building trades. 
 
Prior to 2000, there were only three publications that explored the history of the preservation 
field (Bluestone, 1994; Holleran, 1998; Tomlan, 1992), but since then, this area of preservation 
scholarship has expanded greatly, starting with Giving Preservation a History, edited by Max 
Page and Randall Mason (2004). Much like TIPE scholarship, there is a geographic focus on large 
cities, namely Boston (Holleran, 2004), New York City (Mason, 2004, 2009b), Chicago 
(Bluestone, 1998, 2004c, 2005), Richmond (Bluestone, 2012b), and Alexandria (Virginia) 
(Appler, 2015) although the broader scope of the United States is also represented (Bluestone, 
2011). Two publications explore various preservation practice histories in the Indian cities of 
Lucknow and New Delhi (Chusid, 2015; Krishna, 2017). 
 
Not all literature in the history of preservation practice is place-centric; a minority of 
publications look more at the instruments and institutions of practice. For instance, Christopher 
Koziol (2014) analyzes the evolution of the Venice Charter in practice while Wayde Brown 
(2018) explores the history of reconstructed monuments. Goetcheus, Mitchell, and Barrett 
(2018) conduct an historical analysis of how the values inherent to the U.S. National Park 
Service?a government agency fundamental to both preservation doctrine and policy in the 
United States?have changed over time. 
 
Lastly, because preservation scholars also teach, there is a significant body of literature that 
intersects historic preservation practice with pedagogy. A few publications address the field of 
preservation holistically, in terms of characterization of program, pedagogy, and curriculum 
development  (Kapp, 2018a; Livi Smith, 2012; Stiefel & Wells, 2014; Wells & Stiefel, 2014a, 
2014b) as well as its history (Bluestone, 1999). Within the field of preservation, the National 
Council for Preservation Education (NCPE) represents most programs; Michael Tomlan?s (2010) 
publication on the history of NCPE remains the only one on the subject. Most scholars, 
however, approach preservation education through the primary non-preservation discipline 
with which they identify, such as landscape architecture (Goetcheus, 2008a), architecture 
(Kapp, 2009; Kapp et al., 2014; Tomlan, 1994a), real estate development (Benedict & 
Goetcheus, 2014b, 2014a), public history (M. R. Miller, 2004; Weyeneth & Vivian, 2016), and 
material culture/historical archaeology (Hudgins & Leifeste, 2017). 
 
Preservation education scholarship focuses on the need for students to gain real-world 
experience, such as through service learning (Tomlan, 1998; Vlahos, 1998) and field-based 
experiences (Holleran & Ibarra-Sevilla, 2017; Matero, 1997, 2007a; Tomlan, 1994b). Specific 
 12 
pedagogical techniques in teaching sustainability, stakeholder empathy, vocational trades, 
planning, archival research, and social science-based theses are represented in the literature as 
well (Chusid, 2010b; Cook & Alderman, 2017; Livi Smith, 2014b; Stiefel, 2018a; Wells, 2014b). 
 
TOPICS CRITICAL OF THE PRESERVATION ENTERPRISE (TCPE) 
 
Critical approaches that challenge orthodox historic preservation theory and practice  
 
Scholarship in this area can be broadly divided into rationalistic and empirical approaches. For 
instance, questioning whether the older built environment should be treated as if it is a 
museum instead of a socially dynamic place (Bluestone, 2016, 2017a), is clearly critical of 
orthodox assumptions while being based on rationalistic, deductive reasoning. Other authors in 
this category accept the authenticity premise of orthodox preservation doctrine, and use a 
rationalistic perspective to reject the implicit modernist design principles that buttress the 
supposed need to differentiate ?new? from ?old? building fabric. Steven Semes (2007, 2015a) 
advocates for a ?recovery? of not only the traditional building trades, but also traditional (pre-
modern) architectural design as a way to achieve ?continuity? in urban landscapes. Semes 
(2009) claims that orthodox preservation doctrine has resulted in poor design that could have 
been avoided by paying closer attention to tradition; he uses several case studies of 
neotraditional design to further enforce this point (Semes, 2012, 2013b). Lauren Bricker (2009) 
makes similar claims about how the US Secretary of the Interior?s Standards, as applied to local 
historic districts, results in poor design that stifles creativity.  
 
Other authors use a rationalistic approach to provoke orthodox practice. Jorge Otero-Pailos has 
carved out a unique niche in preservation theory which he refers to as ?experimental 
preservation? or ?preservation art? (Otero-Pailos, 2016). Otero-Pailos?s work (1998, 2009, 2015) 
challenges the status quo, and thus shares a goal common to critical heritage studies, but 
assumes an ontological construct more common to architectural and art criticism than critical 
heritage studies. While not reviewed in this paper, Otero-Pailos?s artwork, which has been 
exhibited globally, is designed to provoke orthodox practice. Rem Koolhaas (2014), a well-
known international architect, has worked with Otero-Pailos to explore what would happen in a 
world where everything is ?preserved? and urban change is fundamentally stymied. Of note is 
that experimental preservation has provoked criticism from other preservation scholars in 
terms of whether or not it is actually relevant to the pragmatic perspective of practice (Mason, 
2018).  
 
Preservation scholarship that uses empirically-based analyses to challenge orthodoxy is closely 
aligned to critical heritage studies, a relatively recent field of research that adopts critical 
theory, critical realism, constructivism, post-colonialism, and post-structuralism to characterize 
built heritage conservation practice through the AHD. While there is some concern as to 
whether or not critical heritage studies is adequately addressing the pragmatic, practice-based 
aspects of historic preservation (Wells, 2016a), critical heritage studies has become the 
dominant field that is questioning the status quo in historic preservation. Preservation 
scholarship that uses approaches that define critical heritage studies is largely empirical and 
 13 
usually informed by methods from anthropology, sociology, communication studies, 
environmental psychology, and urban planning.  
 
While post-structuralist perspectives of heritage are well represented in critical heritage studies 
literature, there is only one example (Wells, 2007b) from a preservation scholar. Similarly, 
broader ontological critiques comparing, for instance, the empiricist-positivist paradigm 
dominant in practice against other paradigms, such as those that support action research, is 
only represented by a couple of publications (Wells, 2015a, 2017a). That does not mean, 
however, that other perspectives, critical of practice, are not present in the literature. To be 
sure, the grounded limitations of the narrow, positivist perspective on historical significance is 
represented (Stiles, 2010; Tomlan, 1997) as are ways that the ?performance? of heritage 
conservation can be assessed using methods from environmental conservation (Wells, 2012). 
There is also an edited volume solely focused on pragmatic visions for critiquing practice with 
an eye to the future (Page & Miller, 2016; Wells, 2016b). 
 
A significant amount of critical preservation scholarship is concerned with heritage discourse 
and the development and destruction of rhetoric around built heritage, often incorporating 
extra-Western perspectives and employing the dualism of conventional experts/orthodox 
doctrine versus laypeople/situated knowledge. Examples of work in this area include critiques 
of policy (Koziol, 2007, 2008, 2012) and the negotiation of meanings in the creation of a specific 
heritage rhetoric in Western and non-Western contexts (Asif & Rico, 2017; Lafrenz-Samuels & 
Rico, 2015; Rico, 2015, 2017a, 2017b). More specifically, Trinidad Rico (Exell & Rico, 2013, 2014; 
Rico, 2008, 2017c, 2017d, 2017e, 2017f), explores power structures in the control of heritage 
meanings through a colonial lens in the Arabian Peninsula including the fear of Islamic heritage 
by dominant global cultural groups (Rico, 2014a, 2014b), and the colonialism that is inherent in 
defining and planning for ?heritage at risk? (Rico, 2014c, 2016a).   
 
Other researchers address the cultural and psychological dimension of authenticity and its 
implications for practice, especially as it relates to design review (Wells, 2010a, 2010c, 2017b; 
Wells & Baldwin, 2012). A ?values-based? approach to preservation practice, which usually does 
not reference critical heritage studies literature, yet often shares its critical aims, has been 
present in preservation scholarship since 2000, largely through the efforts of preservation 
scholars Randy Mason and Erica Avrami (Avrami et al., 2000; Mason, 2002, 2003, 2006a, 2006b; 
Mason & Avrami, 2002). Other preservation scholars critique practice through a ?values? lens as 
well (Bluestone, 2000; Koziol, 2013; Rico, 2016b; Wells, 2015b; West et al., 2010).  
 
Lastly, Avrami et al. (2018) present one of the only examples of an analysis of local historic 
preservation policy in the US that is critical of the field?s lack of civic engagement, ?complicit 
acceptance? of economics as the only viable indicator of success, and for promoting a system 
that fails to recognize a relationship between how properties are listed and the purported 
benefits of historic preservation. This analysis also found a disconnect between the values 
espoused by the public and in preservation policies: the public primarily emphasizes social 
values while preservation policy primarily emphasizes economic values. 
  
 14 
Community engagement 
 
Preservation scholarship that specifically addresses applied community engagement is limited. 
Literature in this area discusses not only the need for this kind of grass-roots engagement, but 
also details on-the-ground methods to identify specific kinds/types of community groups based 
on their identity, affiliation, or some other kind of sociocultural characteristic. Community 
engagement scholarship also looks at ways data from this kind of research can or already has 
influenced grass-roots practice in some fashion. Most of the publications in this category detail 
public archaeology projects, with a focus on interactions with municipal (local) governments 
(Appler, 2012, 2013b, 2017b; Baugher et al., 2017a, 2017b). More general community 
engagement research focuses on crowdsourcing, community art, design review, and the 
involvement of citizens in survey projects (Melcher et al., 2017; Minner et al., 2015, 2018; 
Wells, 2017c).  
 
Social justice, equity, diversity, and inclusion 
 
The majority of scholarship in this category explores the history of marginalized groups, usually 
in context with the built environment; with some exceptions (e.g., Brabec & Goetcheus, 2015), 
this literature does not directly address contemporary people?s relationship with the heritage 
being examined, nor does it discuss preservation practice in relation to these groups. Examples 
include African American history (Ayers & Nesbit, 2011; Brabec & Goetcheus, 2015; Cook, 2016; 
Gilmore, 2006a; Goetcheus, 1999; Nesbit, 2013, 2014; Rhodes & Jeffries, 2010; Van West, 2002, 
2008b; Vivian, 2011), the history of Latinx peoples (Buckley & Littmann, 2010), and Native 
American history (Heidemann & Ligibel, 2017; Payne, 2011). The history of women, and 
especially African American women, is also represented (Cook & Potter, 2018; M. R. Miller, 
2002b, 2010b). Barry Stiefel?s (2011, 2014a, 2014b, 2014c, 2016, 2017a; 2009) exploration of 
Jewish social and architectural history in relation to the built environment adds much to our 
understanding of the historical significance of synagogues and the places in which Jewish 
people lived. 
 
Moving toward the present, some preservation scholars have specialized in the recognition and 
interpretation of ?difficult sites? (also referred to as ?sites of conscience?). This scholarship 
does address the present in terms of challenging orthodox practice?s preference for 
overemphasizing places with positive aesthetic and historical attributes. Examples include 
advocacy to recognize and preserve ?bad places? (Page, 2015), places of civil protest and state 
terrorism (Page, 2008, 2013), and places associated with the Holocaust (Cook & Alderman, 
2015; Cook & van Riemsdijk, 2014) and World War I (Kapp & Otnes, 2018). While not centered 
on difficult places, a couple of preservation scholars advocate for policy changes in relation to 
the history of marginalized groups. James Buckley?s (Buckley, 2018; Buckley & Graves, 2016) 
work centers on how planning policy can better recognize and conserve places historically 
associated with cultural groups and Carrol Van West (1997) advocates for better ways to make 
sure that built heritage associated with race, class, and gender can be used to nominate 
properties to the US National Register of Historic Places.  
 
 15 
Very little preservation scholarship, however, investigates the relationship of contemporary 
marginalized groups with their own built (or place-based) heritage, including the kinds of social 
justice and equity issues that arise within these contemporary communities when their heritage 
is sidelined by rules and regulations as well as orthodox discourse. Three exceptions are moving 
?beyond compliance? when preserving the heritage of Native American ancestral sites  
(Matero, 2000a), interpreting a local park to reflect the heritage of African American 
stakeholders (Appler, 2013a), and the way in which Latin Americans view the past and present 
of an historic streetscape in Allentown (Pennsylvania) (Wells et al., 2016). 
 
SCHOLARSHIP THAT HAS NO CLEAR RELEVANCE TO PRESERVATION  
 
A significant amount of scholarship produced by intra-disciplinary preservation scholars has 
little or no direct relationship to historic preservation and therefore was not included in the 
distribution analysis of ?preservation scholarship? represented in figure 2. This represents 42 
publications on topics such as faculty involvement in higher education, electronic classrooms, 
postmodern architectural design, and historical atlases. 
  
 16 
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