ABSTRACT Title of Thesis: CHANGING EVALUATIONS OF THE FOUR WANGS DURING 20TH-CENTURY CHINA Xingkui Wang, MA, 2009 Thesis directed by: Professor Jason Kuo Department of Art History and Archaeology This thesis examines the receptions of the Four Wangs during the Republican Period (1911 ? 1949) and the People?s Republic Period (1949 ? present). Twentieth century China has witnessed great changes in its cultural landscape. With new ideas and technologies from the West, traditional Chinese painting has been reevaluated, and sometimes rejected. The Four Wangs of the Early Qing dynasty, seen as the last great achievement of Chinese painting in the literati tradition before the twentieth century, are under fierce debate. Whether the Four Wangs have any genuine creative achievement or are they mere imitators of the ancient masters is one of the central issues. But the debate on the Four Wangs also concerns greater cultural issues, such as whether China should embrace the Western realistic style in art in order to revolutionize Chinese painting. This thesis examines the evaluations of the Four Wangs and pays close attention to the opinions of prominent figures such as Kang Youwei, Chen Duxiu, Cai Yuanpei, Teng Gu, Chen Shizeng, Fu Baoshi, Hu Peiheng, Yu Jianhua, Huang Binhong, Xu Beihong, Tong Shuye, Wang Bomin, Nie Chongzheng, etc. By examining these figures? opinions of the Four Wangs, this thesis hopes to investigate the historical context of each argument, and identify the strategies each one employs to convince the opposing side. CHANGING EVALUATIONS OF THE FOUR WANGS DURING 20TH-CENTURY CHINA By Xingkui Wang Thesis submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland, College Park in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts 2009 Advisory Committee: Professor Jason Kuo, Chair Professor Alicia Volk Professor James Gao ? Copyright by Xingkui Wang 2009 ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis could not be completed without the help of many people. First of all, I would like to thank my supervisor Professor Jason Kuo for his great patience and encouragement in guiding me through this research project, and for his help in locating many research resources and lending me many materials. I thank Professor Alicia Volk and Professor James Gao for their serving as the advisory committee and reading my thesis. I thank my parents for their moral and emotional support for my studying abroad, and for their encouragement in finishing this difficult task. iii DISCLAIMER The thesis document that follows has had referenced material removed in respect for the owner?s copyright. A complete version of this document, which includes said referenced material, resides in the University of Maryland, College Park?s library collection. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements ???????????????????????.ii Disclaimer ?...??????..??????????????????.iii Introduction ?.??????????????????????????1 Chapter I: Evaluations of the Four Wangs during the Republican Period (1911 ? 1949) ???????????????????.?.2 Chapter II: Evaluations of the Four Wangs during the People?s Republic Period (1949 ? present) ....??????????????? 56 Chapter III: Conclusions ..???????????????????..... 76 Illustrations ?...?????????????????????????78 Appendix I: Chronological List of Books and Articles Published During the Republican Period (1911 ? 1949) ????????....???.79 Appendix II: Chronological List of Books and Articles Published During the People?s Republican Period (1949 ? present) ???....???.84 Selected Bibliography ..???????...???..???????????86 1 INTRODUCTION The Republican Period (1911 - 1949) was a crucial time in China?s history. All aspects of traditional culture went through a radical reevaluation in an unprecedented scale. In the field of art history, few books organizing the history of Chinese art with western ideas were written in the 1920s. The Four Wangs of the early Qing Dynasty, Wang Shimin ??? (1592 ? 1680), Wang Jian ?? (1598 ? 1677), Wang Hui ?? (1632 ? 1717), and Wang Yuanqi ??? (1642 ? 1715) had become the symbol of the negative quality of traditional Chinese painting for the reformers, but the sign of the highest achievement in the eyes of those who were trying to defend the core traditional culture. The debate on the Four Wangs continued in the second half of the twentieth century when Marxism became the dominate ideology in the People?s Republic Period. Art criticism did not escape political influence. Only from the late 1980s when the political environment turned warm did criticism of the Four Wangs become more about artistic and scholarly evaluation. How was one subjected to the then prevailing thought? And how was criticism of the Four Wangs affected by the social and political environment? By examining the reception of the Four Wangs during twentieth century China, this thesis hopes to offer some explanation. 2 CHAPTER I: EVALUATIONS OF THE FOUR WANGS DURING THE REPUBLICAN PERIOD (1911 ? 1949) KANG YOUWEI ??? (1858 ? 1927) During the early years of the Republican Period, China was in great turmoil, and revolutionary thought had been widespread. Traditional Chinese culture had been challenged by many thinkers. Kang Youwei ??? (1858 ? 1927) was not only an influential politician and thinker in modern China, but also a scholar who wrote extensively on painting, calligraphy, and politics. After the failure of the 1898 Reform, Kang traveled throughout Europe and found himself struck by Western painters? ability to represent their subjects so vividly. Kang compared their paintings with Chinese paintings from the Tang and Song dynasties, but considered painting since the Yuan dynasty on a decline.1 His Wanmu Caotang Canghuamu ???? ??? (Wanmu Caotang Catalogue of Painting), written in 1917, showed his general view on the history of Chinese painting. Kang advocated realistic art (Xieshi hua ??? ) while opposing literati painting (Xieyi hua ??? ), and quoted an ancient saying to support his view: ?Nothing can better express things than word, and nothing can better describe things than 1 For more on Kang?s role in the reform of modern Chinese art, see Lawrence Wu, ?Kang Youwei and the Westernization of Modern Chinese Art,? Orientations 21, no. 3 (March 1990): 46-53. 3 painting.? 2 ( ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ) Kang praised the realistic painting of the Tang and Song dynasties while downplaying the literati painting of the Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties. Kang saw the rise of literati painting with Su Shi ?? (1036 ? 1101) and Mi Fu ?? (1051 ? 1107) in the Song dynasty as the beginning of the deteriorations of Chinese painting. Therefore Kang advocated restoration through learning from the ancients (yi fugu wei gexin ?????? ), and his sentiment was that ?painting should capture the spirit of things through realism, not literati idealism; the colored architectural painting should be the major art style, while painting with heavy or simplified brushworks should be minor; though literati idealism is valuable, the court style should be the orthodox.? 3 (???????????????????????????????? ???????????? ? ) Kang was the first prominent cultural figure who sharply criticized literati painting, including that of the Four Wangs. The decline of Chinese painting has been lowest until now, and the Four Great Painters of Yuan dynasty should be held responsible for this . . . Chinese painting has reached its lowest point in our dynasty, to such a level that there are not even any painters left in the cities or in the countryside. The two or three painters left only copy the bad works of the Four Wangs and the Two Shis (Shitao ?? [1642 ? 1707] and Kuncan ? 2 Kang Youwei ??? , Wanmucaotang Canghuamu ???? ??? [Wanmucaotang Painting Collection Catalogue], 1917. Reprinted in Ershi Shiji Zhongguo Meishu Wenxuan ?????? ???? [Selected Works on Fine Arts in 20th Century], edited by Lang Shaojun ??? and Shui Tianzhong ??? (Shanghai: Shanghai Shuhua Chubanshe, 1999), 1: 21. 3 Kang Youwei, Wanmucaotang Canghuamu, 22. 4 ? [1612 ? 1673]); their paintings are of simple, dry brushworks, tasteless as wax. How can these kinds of works be left for the later generations? And how can they compete with Europe, America and Japan? ? Only the works of Yun [Yun Shouping ??? (1633 ? 1690)], Jiang [Jiang Tingxi ??? (1669 ? 1732)], the Two Nans,4 are as delicate and fresh as the ancients.? All the rest are of the same; there is nothing to learn from. 5 ?????????????????????????????? ?? ?? ????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ? ?????????????????? ?? ????????? ??????????????????? Kang?s view on art was in line with his political outlook. In a world of both social and cultural disorder, Kang was looking to the past to seek the assurance of Chinese culture. Moreover, as Kuo points out, Kang had considered traditional painting an indicator of national cultural power in international competition.6 For 4 In the text as reprinted in the Selected Works on Fine Arts in 20th Century, Kang listed the Two Nans after Yun and Jiang. Since Yun?s style name is Nantian ?? and Jiang?s style name is Nansha ?? , there should probably be no slight-pause mark after the word ?Jiang,? and the Two Nans here were just referring to Yun and Jiang themselves. 5 Kang Youwei, Wanmucaotang Canghuamu, 24. 6 Guo Jisheng ??? [Jason Kuo], ?Jin Bainian Zhongguo Huihua de Kanfa? ???????? ?? [The View on Chinese Painting in the Last Hundred Years]. In Wanqing Minchu Shuimo Huaji ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? [Later Chinese Painting 1850 ? 1950], edited by Guoli Lishi Bowuguan (Taibei: National Musuem of History, 1997), 13. 5 Kang, who passionately sought to reform and preserve traditional Chinese values, it is understandable that he also stressed the importance of traditional culture in cultivating an awareness of a national identity. CHEN DUXIU ??? (1879 ? 1942) Chen Duxiu ??? (1879 ? 1942) was another cultural figure who shared Kang Youwei?s view on Chinese painting, advocating realistic painting while severely criticizing literati painting, especially the Four Wangs. Chen?s opinion is evident in his article ?Meishu Geming? ???? (Art Revolution) published in Xin Qingnian ??? (New Youth) in 1918. Chen wrote: If we want to improve Chinese painting, we have to revolutionize the paintings of the Wangs. Because if we want to improve Chinese painting, we cannot afford to ignore the realism of Western art . . . Chinese painting during the Northern and Southern Song and early Yuan dynasties was closer to realism in its depiction of human figures, animals, buildings, and flowers. Yet the literati painters look down upon court painting, focusing on the literati ideal while ignoring the realistic representation of things. This tendency was promoted first by Ni [Ni Zan ?? (1306 ? 1374)] and Huang [Huang Gongwang ??? (1268 ? 1354)] during the late Yuan dynasty, then by Wen [Wen Zhengming ??? (1470 ? 1559)] and Shen [Shen Zhou ?? (1427 ? 1509)] of the Ming dynasty, and then even more 6 by the Three Wangs [Wang Shimin, Wang Hui, and Wang Jian] of the Qing dynasty. Some people say that the work by Wang Shigu [Wang Hui] is the highest achievement of Chinese painting, but I say that Wang Hui?s work is only the conclusion of a long line of bad Chinese painting including that of Ni, Huang, Wen, and Shen . . . The number of paintings by the Wangs I have collected or seen exceeds two hundred, yet those which possess a ?subject matter? are less than one tenth. Most of the paintings are made through the four techniques of Lin ? , Mo ? , Fang ? , and Fu ? to copy the ancient works; there seems to be no painting created by the painters themselves. This is the single most destructive influence of the School of Wangs. It is the Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou (Yangzhou Baguai ? ? ? ? ) after them, however, who have the genius of free depiction, but they are looked down upon by society, and people take the School of Wangs as orthodox. In terms of the technique of depiction, the School of Wangs is not only far behind Song and Yuan painters, but also behind the contemporary Wu Mojing [Wu Li ?? (1632? 1718)]. Such an orthodox school as this, and this idol so blindly worshipped by society, if not eventually overthrown, would become the biggest obstacle to the presence of realism in, and resulting advancement of Chinese art.7 7 Chen Duxiu ??? , ?Meishu Geming? ???? [Art Revolution]. Xin Qingnian ??? [New Youth] 6, no. 1 (1918). Reprinted in Ershi Shiji Zhongguo Meishu Wenxuan ????????? ? [Selected Works on Fine Arts in 20th Century], edited by Lang Shaojun ??? and Shui Tianzhong ??? (Shanghai: Shanghai Shuhua Chubanshe, 1999), 1:29-30. 7 ?????????????????????????????? ??????????? ?? ???????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ???????????????????????????? ?? ?????????????????????????????? ????????????????????????????? ?? ?? ????????????????????? ??? ?? ???????????? ?? ??? ??? ??? ??????????? ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ???????????? ?? ??????????????? ?????????? ???????????????????? ??? Chen was the major figure in the New Culture Movement of the May Fourth period, and chief editor of New Youth. In a time of reevaluation, Chen intended to start a movement through his advocacy of Art Revolution, and must have had some influence on general opinion and many young painters. Chen?s ideas on the history of Chinese painting were similar to Kang?s; he considered Chinese painting since Song dynasty to be on the decline because of the dominance of the literati ideal. 8 The most traditional literati painters normally have no interest in addressing any social problems in their art. They consider painting as a leisure activity meant to better oneself. The landscape of literati painting is all about the ideal life of leisure and cultural refinement. In early twentieth century China, when society was enduring great changes and the elite class was expected to contribute, literati painting could no longer serve the practical cause and became an easy target for criticism. For Chen, literati painting had been the symbol of political inactivity, confining oneself to one?s own spiritual activities without care for society and its people. Chen, a revolutionary politician and one of the founders of the Communist Party of China, could not share the ideal of literati painters. Instead, Chen regarded realistic painting most relevant and best able to help improve Chinese society. Chen was just one of many radical reformers during the May Fourth period who had forcefully challenged the past. However, in doing so their shortcomings also became apparent, as Chow Tse-tsung argued: In criticizing the Chinese tradition, few of the reformers gave it a fair or sympathetic consideration. They felt that several thousand years of social stagnation had left a great many obstacles in the way of progress and reform. In order to sweep these away, excessive attacks on the whole tradition and an underestimation of its merits could hardly be avoided. Consequently, many excellent features of Confucianism and the national legacy were overlooked or left unmentioned. From a long range view, the criticism by the reformers seems in some respects shallow, indiscriminate, 9 and oversimplified. It, nevertheless, may have been necessary under circumstances of such national inertia.8 JIN CHENG ?? (1878 ? 1926) Jin Cheng shared similar views with Kang and Chen on Chinese art. Jin Cheng ? ? (1878 ? 1926) studied law in Britain, and served as the Secretary of the State Council under the Republic of China. In 1910 Jin organized Zhongguo Huaxue Yanjiuhui ??????? (Institute for the Studies of Chinese Painting). Jin himself was a painter and was skilled at imitating ancient paintings. He shared his view on the history of Chinese art in his ?Jin Gongbei Jiangyanlu? ?????? (Lectures of Jin Cheng) of 1919: Even though the realistic style cannot exhaust everything in art, it should be considered the normal mode; though the literati style is one school in art, it is not worth being considered canonic. ? Ancient painters learned from nature, while painters at present only learn from works of the past.9 8 As cited in Chow Kai-Wing, et. al., eds., Beyond the May Fourth Paradigm: In Search of Chinese Modernity (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2008), 118. 9 Jin Cheng ?? , ?Jin Gongbei Jiangyanlu? ?????? [Lectures of Jin Cheng], Huixue Zazhi ???? [Magazine on Painting Studies], Peking University Huixue Zazhishe ??????? ? ? , 1920. Reprinted in Ershi Shiji Zhongguo Meishu Wenxuan ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? [Selected Works on Fine Arts in 20th Century], edited by Lang Shaojun ? ? ? and Shui Tianzhong ??? (Shanghai: Shanghai Shuhua Chubanshe, 1999), 1:45. 10 ?????????????????????????????? ??????? ?? ?????????????????? Jin believed that because of the Ming painters? preference for literati painting over the realistic style, art in the Qing dynasty had declined to its lowest point. Jin criticized the lack of creativity in Qing painting. Even though Jin did not explicitly mention the Four Wangs, it is clear that he considered the Four Wangs mere imitators of Ming painting, lacking any genuine creativity. Jin?s opinion was close to that of Kang Youwei, and he had the utmost faith in the ancient painting of China dating before the Yuan dynasty. In his article, Jin proposed the three principles of art: ?the first one is to examine the natural things; the second is to study the conventions of the ancient masters; and the third is to test one?s own feeling and mind.?10 (??????????? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ) Unlike Chen who advocated the Western approach of realism while rejecting the tradition of Chinese art, Jin believed it necessary to learn from the conventions of past painters if one wanted to create anything new. Moreover, Jin put emphasis on the observation of the natural world for the creation of art; clearly he intended to criticize the lack of nature in the Four Wangs? imitation of the ancient masters. In another article, ?Huaxue Jiangyi? ???? (Lectures on Painting), of 1931 Jin tried to assert the value of traditional painting in a time of radical rejection of the 10 Jin Cheng, Jin Gongbei Jiangyanlu, 45. 11 traditions. Jin said that ?some painters want to challenge the methods and spirit of ancient masters and present the world with something different. They believed they had created something new, but in fact they are merely fishing for fame and compliments.?11 (??????????????????????? ?? ? ? ? ? ) Jin saw the continuity of the history of Chinese painting, and he maintained that whoever wanted to create something new must study the past thoroughly. In contrast to Kang and Chen, Jin?s criticism of Chinese art focused on the artistic rather than the political. Jin?s lecture, and its focus on tradition, must have given reassurance to those who found no direction to follow in a time of cultural confusion. CAI YUANPEI ??? (1868 ? 1940) Cai Yuanpei was another important cultural figure in the May Fourth period who tried to influence the direction of Chinese art. Cai Yuanpei ??? (1868 ? 1940) received a classical education in China and served as a member of the respected Hanlin Academy. Both before and after the 1911 Revolution, Cai studied philosophy in Germany. He served as the Director for Education in the Republic Government and later became the President of Beijing University. Cai was an influential figure in China?s cultural and educational affairs. Cai believed in the 11 Jin Cheng ?? , ?Huaxue Jiangyi? ???? [Lectures on Painting]. Hushe Yuekan ???? [Hushe Monthly] July 1931, vol. 21. Reprinted in Meishu Lunji ???? [Essays on Art], vol. 4, Zhongguohua Taolun Zhuanji ???? ??? [Special Issue on Chinese Painting], edited by Shen Peng ?? and Chen L?sheng ??? (Beijing: Renmin Meishu Chubanshe, 1986), 5. 12 instructional function of art to society and he advocated aesthetic education as a substitute for religion since China did not have a religion like the West.12 For this purpose, Cai believed that the realistic approach in art clearly had an advantage since it was relevant to real life and it could be easily accepted and understood by the public. For art education, Cai said in his speech at the Research Institute of Painting Techniques of Beijing University, in 1919, that ?students of art should practice sketching from life.? 13 (??????? ) While advocating for the new approach of realism, Cai did not reject traditional values of Chinese painting. Cai gave numerous lectures in China on Western thought14, but, perhaps because of his own classical education in China, he never fully rejected Chinese values. Because of Cai?s great social esteem, his thoughts on art surely gave confidence to some painters who were confused by competing social and artistic strategies. TENG GU ?? (1901 ? 1941) 12 See Cai Yuanpei ? ? ? , ?Yi Meiyu Dai Zongjiao Shuo? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? [Aesthetic Education Replacing Religion], Speech at the Beijing Shenzhou Xuehui ?????? [Beijing China Society], 1917. First published in Xin Qingnian ??? [New Youth] 3, 6 (August 1917). Reprinted in Cai Yuanpei Meixue Wenxuan ??????? [Cai Yuanpei?s Essays on Aesthetics] (Beijing: Beijing University Press, 1983): 68-73. 13 Cai Yuanpei ??? , ?Zai Beida Huafa Yanjiuhui zhi Yanshuoci? ??????????? ? [Speech at the Research Institute of Painting Techniques of Beijing University]. Beijing Daxue Rikan ?????? [Beijing University Daily], October 25 (1919). Reprinted in Cai Yuanpei Meixue Wenxuan ? ? ? ? ? ? ? [Cai Yuanpei?s Essays on Aesthetics] (Beijing: Beijing University Press, 1983), 80. 14 See Cai Yuanpei ??? , Cai Yuanpei Meixue Wenxuan ??????? [Cai Yuanpei?s Essays on Aesthetics] (Beijing: Beijing University Press, 1983). 13 Even though prominent cultural figures such as Kang Youwei and Chen Duxiu advocated modern and creative art as well as a scientific approach to the study of Chinese art, they could not create any concrete results since they were not art historians with a thorough understanding of art history, and their opinions in art were very much shaped by their political views. Only with the introduction of Western scholarship on art, introduced by certain scholars who studied abroad, did the study of Chinese art become scientific and modern. Teng Gu was one of the first to reflect this change. Teng Gu ?? (1901 ? 1941) learned painting in Shanghai when he was young and then went to Japan to study painting at the age of 19. In 1929 Teng went to Berlin to study art history and got his PhD degree in 1932. After returning to China, Teng established Zhongguo Yishushi Xuehui ? ?????? (Association of the History of Chinese Art). Teng wrote Zhongguo Meishu Xiaoshi ?????? (Short History of Chinese Art) in 1925, which included not only painting, but also architecture and sculpture. In this book Teng criticized the Four Wangs of their prejudice regarding schools and their general narrow-mindedness. Teng insisted: The prejudice of schools is not overcome but becomes even more serious during the Qing dynasty. Among the literati painters are the so-called Four Wangs north of the Yangtze River ???? . They are Wang Shimin, Wang Jian, Wang Hui, and Wang Yuanqi. Wang Yuanqi is the son of Wang Jian, who is the son of Wang Shimin.15 All three generations of the 15 Teng Gu?s text on the biographies of the Four Wangs is not correct. Wang Jian was not the son of Wang Shimin, but belonged to the same family clan as Wang Shimin and was one generation 14 family can paint; because they live in the Loudong, they were called Loudong School ??? . Wang Hui is a native of Yushan and called Yushan School ? ? ? . The Loudong School models on Huang Gongwang and considers all other schools heretic?only theirs are pure literati painting. The Yushan School learns from various painters from Song and Yuan dynasties, and they also have Song and Ming court style . . . So the prejudices regarding schools has become deeper and deeper, and they could not break away from the conventions of the ancients. As a result, the minds of the painters became narrower and narrower from the Yuan to the Qing dynasties, and they soon became unable to save themselves.16 ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ???????????????????? ?? ??????? senior to the latter, even though Wang Jian was born six years later. Wang Yuanqi was the grandson of Wang Shimin, and his father was Wang Kui ?? . 16 Teng Gu ?? , Zhongguo Meishu Xiaoshi ????? ? [Short History of Chinese Art]. Shanghai: Shangwu Yinshuguan (The Commercial Press), 1935. Reprinted in Teng Gu Yishu Wenji ?????? [Teng Gu?s Essays on Art], edited by Shen Ning ?? (Shanghai: Renmin Meishu Chubanshe, 2003), 92-93. 15 ??????????? ??????????????????? ??????????????????? Teng studied art history in Berlin with the German philosopher Max Dessoir (1867 ? 1947), during which time Heinrich W?lfflin?s (1864 ? 1945) stylistic analysis in art history was still quite popular. Teng had introduced Western methodology to the study of Chinese art, and his work is considered the first attempt to organize the history of Chinese art according to the Western approach.17 Because of the shortage of materials and artifacts, his work is rife with factual errors. (For example, Teng mistook Wang Jian as the son of Wang Shimin, the father of Wang Yuanqi.) Despite these inaccuracies, Teng?s work offered a novel approach to this field. His work deviated significantly from the traditional approach of focusing on the biographies of literati painters and their techniques of brush and ink. Teng regarded the history of Chinese art as an organic whole and divided its development into four periods: Period of Growing (Shengzhang Shidai ???? , until to Han dynasty), Period of Mixing (Hunjiao Shidai ???? , Han to before Tang), Period of Prosperity (Changsheng Shidai ???? , Tang to Song), and Period of Stagnation (Chenzhi Shidai ???? , Yuan to Qing). Teng considered cultural openness as a necessary foundation for the creation of great art, and in this sense he criticized the prejudice and the bias of the Four Wangs. 17 Xue Yongnian ??? , preface, Teng Gu Yishu Wenji ?????? [Teng Gu?s Essays on Art], edited by Shen Ning ?? (Shanghai: Renmin Meishu Chubanshe, 2003). 16 CHEN HENGKE ??? (1876 - 1923) Like many of his contemporaries, Chen Hengke was both a painter and scholar. Chen Hengke ??? (1876 - 1923), who was also known as Chen Shizeng ?? ? , studied in Japan, and after returning to China, taught art in Beijing. In 1919 Chen organized the Society for Research in Chinese Painting (Zhongguo Huaxue Yanjiu Hui ??????? ) promoting the styles of Song and Yuan painters, where he was joined by Jin Cheng, Xiao Qianzhong (??? 1883 ? 1944) and others.18 In a time when the traditional value was questioned and western realism in art was believed to be superior to Chinese literati painting, Chen defended the traditional Chinese painting in his article ?Wenrenhua zhi Jiazhi? ?????? (The Value of Literati Painting), which was first written in 1921 in vernacular language and then rewritten in 1922 in literary Chinese.19 What is literati painting? Chen argued that ?it is painting bearing the nature and the taste of the literati. It is not particularly concerned with artistic techniques of painting. It must show the many amusements of the literati, which are elements not represented in the 18 Michael Sullivan, Art and Artists of Twentieth-Century China (Berkely, CA: University of California Press, 1996), 8. 19 Both versions of Chen?s essay were included in Zhongguohua Taolunji ? ? ? ? ? ? [Collected Essays on the Chinese Painting], edited by Yao Yuxiang ??? (Beiping [Beijing]: Lida Shuju, 1932), 1-10. 17 painting itself.?20 (??????????????????? ?????? ????????????????????????????????? ??? ) 21 In traditional art criticism of China, the authorship of a literati painting is more valued than its actual artistic quality, and literati painting is considered superior to painting done by professional painters. Chen?s argument also reflected such idea. Literati painting has become the symbol of Chinese culture, and Chen?s defense of literati painting was in fact a defense of Chinese culture when bombarded with Western challenges. Chen wrote Zhongguo Huihuashi ????? (History of Chinese Painting) in around 1919 and it was first published in 1925. It is not any surprise that Chen?s opinions on the Four Wangs were quite positive. Of Wang Shimin, for example, Chen said: Wang Shimin ? has mastered the fine ink of Dachi [Huang Gongwang] in his composition, coloring, and delineating. Wang has learned the secret of art and during his later years his painting became mature and spiritual. 22 20 The English translation is adopted from Lai Kuo-Sheng, Rescuing Literati Aesthetics: Chen Hengke (1876 ? 1923) and the Debate on the Westernization of Chinese Art. MA Thesis. University of Maryland, College Park, 1999, 57. 21 Chen Shizeng ??? , ?Wenrenhua zhi Jiazhi? ?????? [The Value of Literati Painting]. Huixue Zazhi ???? [Painting Study Magazine], 1922. Reprinted in Chen Shizeng ??? , Zhongguo Huihuashi ????? [History of Chinese Painting], edited by Xu Shucheng ??? (Beijing: Zhongguo Renmin Daxue Chubanshe, 2004), 177. 22 Chen Shizeng ??? , Zhongguo Huihuashi ????? [History of Chinese Painting], edited by Xu Shucheng ??? (Beijing: Zhongguo Renmin Daxue Chubanshe, 2004), 154. 18 ??? ?? ????? ??????????????????? ?????????? On the reason why the paintings of the Four Wangs were so influential, Chen proclaimed, ?the paintings of the Four Wangs are grandeur and majestic, and the charm is everlasting. They are truly the model of their time.? 23 (??????? ??????????????? ? ) Chen?s criticism of the Four Wangs reflected his conviction of the value of literati painting and his words were not much different from traditional writings on art. DENG YIZHE ??? (1892 ? 1973) Deng Yizhe ??? (1892 ? 1973) was one of the many scholars in the first half of twentieth century China who studied Western philosophy. Deng was the descendent of Deng Shiru ??? , the great calligrapher and seal carver of Qing dynasty. Deng studied Japanese in Japan from 1907 to 1911 and later studied philosophy in the US from 1917 to 1923. After returning to China, Deng taught philosophy and art history at various schools. Deng wrote many articles not only on art, but also calligraphy, drama, literature, philosophy, and music. 23 Chen Shizeng, Zhongguo Huihuashi , 196. 19 In his article ?Yishujia de Nanguan? ?????? (The Crisis of Artists) of 1928, Deng articulated what he saw as the fundamental difference between Chinese and Western landscape painting. In his view, When the Western landscape painter begins to paint, he has nothing in his mind; all the images are derived from nature. Colors, distance, and volumes all become the elements for painting. Besides these elements he will have nothing to rely upon, and he thinks without these nobody can understand his art. The Western painter has nothing to offer from his inner self but only to copy nature anyway.24 ??????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ??????????????????? While the Western painting is ?spiritless,? Deng implied, the Chinese painter about to paint a landscape already has the whole image in his mind, and when he paints, he paints with his heart. In contrast to their pride in Chinese art, the Chinese intellectuals? bias against, or inability to appreciate, western oil painting is quite apparent. Nevertheless, in the article Deng suggested that the innermost 24 Deng Yizhe ? ? ? , ?Guohua Luyan? ? ? ? ? [Casual Remarks on National Painting]. Originally in Chenbao Fukan ? ?? ? [Sumplementary to the Morning News] (May 31, 1926); included in Deng Yizhe ??? , Yishujia de Nanguan ?????? [The Crisis of Artists] (Beiping [Beijing]: Gucheng Shushe Chuban, 1928). Revised and published again in 1935. Reprinted in Deng Yizhe Quanji ????? [Complete Works of Deng Yizhe] (Hefui: Anhui Jiaoyu Chubanshe, 1998), 110. 20 feelings of the painter must be communicated effectively through visual means. Landscape painting is the expression of the painter?s inner self, and the techniques of brushwork are only the means. Even though Deng endorsed literati painting as the expression of one?s inner self, he had avoided focusing on the literati painter himself, who is normally extolled simply because of the painter?s literary cultivation. Deng?s analysis of the history of Chinese painting focused on the concept of qiyun ?? , a term that has been vaguely used to refer to the highest quality in Chinese painting. In Deng?s writings, qiyun may be used to refer to the feeling or mood the artist felt and communicated through his art. Of the Four Wangs, Deng wrote: [Since the Four Wangs] landscape painting has become the piling up of brushstrokes, and has lost its spirit; it is not worth seeing any more. If we look at the landscapes of Wang Shigu [Wang Hui] (some of his works are pure and vigorous?these are different from painters in his school), they seem to be similar to reading books: the scenes of stones or mountain rivers, whether thick or thin, realistic or suggestive, all are the results of the movements of brushstrokes, as if the viewers were reading the lines in a book. This kind of art does not have any spirit and this is the dead end of landscape painting.25 25 Deng Yizhe ??? , ?Guohua Luyan? ???? [Casual Remarks on National Painting], 112. 21 [??? ? ] ?????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ????? The art of the Four Wangs, in Deng?s opinion, had not captured any real feeling of nature, but instead was merely made up of blocks of patterns. Deng?s criticism of the Four Wangs focused on style and artistic weaknesses, and Deng shied away from the debate on the Four Wangs from merely a cultural or political viewpoint. Lin Fengmian ??? (1900 ? 1991), the great creative painter of the twentieth century who had successfully integrated positive traits from both the Eastern and Western approaches in art, wrote a short response to Deng?s article, which was published together with Deng?s. Lin said: I think Western art is more objective in its formal construction. The spiritual thing is less significant because of the highly developed forms . . . Eastern art is more subjective in its forms. But because its forms are not fully developed, the expression of emotions has not been fully met, and art has degenerated into ink-playing. In fact the weakness of Western art is just the strength of Eastern art; and the weakness of Eastern art is just the 22 strength of Western art. Should the weakness and strength be complemented, the new art of the world will appear.26 ?????????????????????????????? ???????????? ?? ??????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ?????????? Lin?s opinions are worth considering because of the innovation in his own work, where Lin successfully created new visual languages to communicate his feelings. For Lin, art is the unity of subjective feeling and objective visual means. This is precisely what the Four Wangs lack. HU PEIHENG ??? (1891 ? 1962) Hu Peiheng ??? (1891 ? 1962) was a painter who had practiced painting by learning from ancient masters from Wang Meng to Wang Hui. Hu also wrote many scholarly articles, mainly on Wang Hui. Despite the indiscriminating negations of the traditional culture during his time, Hu?s writings were mainly scholarly, and devoid of any revolutionary tones. 26 Deng Yizhe ??? , ?Guohua Luyan? ???? [Casual Remarks on National Painting], 115. 23 In the article ?Zhongguo Shanshuihua Xiesheng de Wenti? ????????? ? (The Issue of Sketching in Chinese Landscape Painting) of 1920, Hu advocated ?sketching from real life with the help of ancient techniques? (??? ? ). He said, ?If we want to improve the Chinese landscape painting, we have to pay attention to the issue of sketching from real life.? 27 (??????????? ????? ? ) Hu criticized recent painters? blind imitation of ancient masters without learning from nature: ?The recent painters did not learn the essence [of ancient masters] . . . but only covered the canvas with all sorts of symbols; they had lost the ancient masters? techniques of sketching from real life.? 28 (???? ??? ?? ?????????????????????? ? ) Hu?s Wang Shigu Huafa Juewei ?????? ? (On the Painting of Wang Shigu [Wang Hui]) was published in Beijing in 1938. In this book Hu examined the biographies of Wang Hui, Wang?s writings on painting, Wang?s learned techniques of ancient painters, comments on Wang by later scholars, schools that were derived from Wang, etc. 27 Hu Peiheng ??? , ?Zhongguo Shanshuihua Xiesheng de Wenti? ?????????? [The Issue of Sketching in Chinese Landscape Painting], 1920. Reprinted in Yihai Gouchen, Jindai Zhongguo Meishu Lunji ? ? ? ? , ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? [Collected Essays on Art in Modern China], edited by He Huaishuo ??? (Taibei: Yishujia Chubanshe, 1991), 3:51. 28 Hu Peiheng, ?Zhongguo Shanshuihua Xiesheng de Wenti,? 52. 24 On Wang Hui?s learned techniques of ancient painters, Hu wrote: ?Shigu was able to achieve resemblance in his imitation of Song and Yuan painters,?29 (???? ??????? ? ) and ?[Wang Hui] had put his feeling of nature into his work and so his work was original. Nevertheless his work had the characters of ancient masters.?30 (????????????????????? ? ) According to Hu, Wang Hui was not a blind imitator of the ancient painters; rather he achieved his originality through his own attunement with nature. Wang Hui had not focused on any particular painter, Hu wrote, because Wang Hui said: ?So rich is the techniques and spirit of painting that no one painter or one school could exhaust them.?31 (????????????????????? ? ) Hu then analyzed Wang Hui?s strengths and the weaknesses. Hu listed the strengths of Wang?s work: ?Shigu has truly mastered the art of painting . . . and his work is without the sense of stiffness and estranged-ness;? (??????? ??? ?? ??????? ? ) ?Wang?s work was original with new ideas;? (???????? ) ?even though Wang?s painting is said to be in the style of some painter, it still has its own character,? (??????????????? ?? ) and is ?true to the natural scene,? (???? ) etc.32 Of Wang?s weaknesses, Hu wrote: ?Wang?s brushwork is not good. When executing painting, his brush 29 Hu Peiheng ??? , Wang Shigu Huafa Juewei ?????? ? [On the Painting of Wang Hui] (Beiping [Beijing]: Liulichang Baowenzhai ???????? , 1938), 3. 30 Hu Peiheng, Wang Shigu Huafa Juewei, 5. 31 Hu Peiheng, Wang Shigu Huafa Juewei, 6. 32 Hu Peiheng, Wang Shigu Huafa Juewei, 12. 25 goes too fast. The brushwork is tiny and wet, and the stroke is too short. It is all exposed and without the sense of reserve.? (??????????????? ?????????????????? ) ?Wang Hui can paint thick works, but not loose ones. Shigu [Wang Hui] had adopted the fashionable trend of his time by drawing meticulous details and complicated landscapes. Wang had done this for a long time without innovation and it had become his habit,? (?????? ?????????????????????????????? ) etc.33 FU BAOSHI ??? (1904 ? 1965) Born into a poor peasant family in Jiangxi Province, Fu Baoshi ??? (1904 ? 1965) had to support his family when he was a boy by working in a chinaware shop, which gave him the opportunity to see Chinese painting and seal engraving. Here Fu began to teach himself calligraphy, painting, and seal carving. Later Fu managed to attend art school and after graduation he taught in primary and middle schools. With the help of Xu Beihong, Fu went to Japan to study the history of Asian art for two years. Upon his return to China Fu taught art at various art schools. From 1957 Fu served as the vice chairman of the Chinese Artists? Association, and director of the Xiling Seal Society (Xiling Yinshe ???? ). Fu also wrote many scholarly works on art. In his Zhongguo Huihua Bianqian Shigang ?????? ?? (History of the Changes of the Chinese Painting) of 33 Hu Peiheng, Wang Shigu Huafa Juewei, 13. 26 1931, Fu gave a high appraisal of Qing culture, saying ?the Qing culture was as the sun at its peak, and everything is good.?34 (????? ??????? ?? ??? ? ) He commented that among the numerous painters, the Four Wangs and Wu [Wu Li] and Yun [Yun Shouping] ?had the greatest influences, whose achievement was able to brighten the whole Qing dynasty.?35 (??????? ???? ) Fu?s comments on the Four Wangs were as follows: Wang Shimin: He is good at both brush and ink; he masters the dry and wet brushstrokes as if they were made instinctively. Such details as the grass and trees are rendered patiently and rich in gestures; Shimin is unique without comparison . . . 36 ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????? ?? Wang Jian: 34 Fu Baoshi ??? , Zhongguo Huihua Bianqian Shigang ?????? ?? [History of the Changes of the Chinese Painting], introduction by Cheng Mingshi ??? (Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chubanshe, 1998), 73. 35 Fu Baoshi, Zhongguo Huihua Bianqian Shigang, 81. 36 Fu Baoshi, Zhongguo Huihua Bianqian Shigang, 81. 27 The landscape he conceived in his mind is already unusual; his works, whether ink or colored, were meticulous and rich in varieties; the air of cultivated refinement is shown naturally.37 ?????????????????????????????? ??????????????????? Wang Hui: Wang often exchanges the light-green for the ink. Besides his broken scenes we could not say Wang resembles any school. He might be better at imitating the ancient masters than originating his own school . . . ?Wang Hui?s art is out of craftsmanship.? . . . I consider this as the ultimate judgment. 38 ?????????????????????????????? ?????? ????? ????????????? ?? ????? ??? ?? ?.. ?????????? Wang Yuanqi: 37 Fu Baoshi, Zhongguo Huihua Bianqian Shigang, 81. 38 Fu Baoshi, Zhongguo Huihua Bianqian Shigang, 82. 28 The scene is pure and serene, and his brushwork is vigorous. The composition is grand and elegant, and the brushwork is plain. This Wang Hui could not achieve. 39 ?????????? ?? ????????????????? ???????? The early Fu had praised the Four Wangs warm-heartedly. During this time traditional Chinese painting was still highly valued and practiced by some painters such as Chen Shizeng and Fu Baoshi even though it was no longer the predominant style. In 1944 Fu published a short article on the history of Chinese landscape painting, ?Zhongguo Shanshuihua Lun? ? ? ? ? ? ? (On the Chinese Landscape Painting), where he challenged the then popular view that ?Chinese painting was in a state of decline since the Yuan dynasty.? Fu said that Chinese painting at the end of Ming and early Qing dynasties, especially the landscape painting with innovative brushworks, ?had shined light as never before.?40 (???????????? .) Fu thought highly of Dong Qichang?s ??? (1555 ? 1636) painting, where ?the clouds boundless, [and the picture] serene and sweet, his brushwork perfect? (? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ), and praised Dong?s landscape ?for 39 Fu Baoshi, Zhongguo Huihua Bianqian Shigang, 82-83. 40 Fu Baoshi ? ? ? , ?Zhongguo Shanshuihua lun? ? ? ? ? ? ? [Studies on the Chinese Landscape Painting]. Wenshi Zazhi ???? [Magazine of Literature and History] 3, no. 3 & 4 combined (1944). Reprinted in Yihai Gouchen, Jindai Zhongguo Meishu Lunji ???? , ??? ????? [Collected Essays on Art in Modern China], edited by He Huaishuo ??? (Taibei: Yishujia Chubanshe, 1991), 3:23. 29 inheriting the past and ushering in the future.?41 (???????????? ) Despite his positive view on Dong Qichang, the predecessor of the Four Wangs, Fu did not mention anything about the Four Wangs, whom he had praised before. He seemed to have changed his opinion of the Four Wangs in some respect. Fu?s late article ?On the Chinese Landscape Painting? was written in 1944, when China was still fighting the war against Japan. The sense of nationalism and patriotism is very strong in Fu?s narration of the history of Chinese painting, especially in his writing on the Yuan and Qing dynasties when China was under foreign rule. Fu praised those painters who maintained their integrity and remained loyal to the former imperial court. Fu did not mention the Four Wangs in his article, the reason seeming to be that, because of the Four Wangs? involvement in the Qing government, Fu might have considered them disloyal to the Chinese native ruler and therefore not worth the title of artist. YU JIANHUA ??? (1895 ? 1979) Yu Jianhua ??? (1895 ? 1979), a noted art historian, learned painting and calligraphy in Beijing when he was young, and later from Chen Shizeng. In one article Yu praised Chen for being able to take a new approach besides the Four Wangs.42 Yu wrote many articles on Chinese art and devoted his whole life to 41 Fu Baoshi, Zhongguo Shanshuihua lun, 22. 42 See Yu Jianhua ??? , ?Chen Shizeng Xiansheng de Shengping Ji Qi Yishu? ?????? ?????? [The Life and Art of Chen Shizeng]. In Yu Jianhua Meishu Lunwen Xuan ??? 30 Chinese art education. Different from his teacher Chen Shizeng, Yu had a negative view of the Four Wangs. Yu criticized the lack of creativity of the Four Wangs in his Zhongguo Huihuashi ????? (History of Chinese Painting) of 1936: Wang Shimin . . . has not been out of Huang Gongwang and Dong Qichang?s styles; he only knows of imitation, and no innovation. Therefore the Qing landscape painting has declined. In the past Wang was credited as the one who inherited the past and ushered in the future, but I consider him as the one who starts the bad art; this is no exaggeration.43 ??? ?? ???????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ???????????? Wang Jian ? only knows the ancient masters, not himself. He is only a copier of ancient paintings. What credit does he have?44 ?? ?? ???????????? ????????????? ? ? ????? [Yu Jianhua?s Essays on Art], edited by Zhou Jiyin ??? (Jinan: Shandong Meishu Chubanshe, 1986), 343-354. 43 Yu Jianhua ??? , Zhongguo Huihuashi ????? [History of Chinese Painting] (Shanghai: Shanghai Shudian, 1984), 176. 44 Yu Jianhua, Zhongguo Huihuashi, 177. 31 Wang Hui . . . is good at depicting the landscape in the style of the Northern School with his brushworks of the Southern School. His brushwork is neat and colorful; these are his advantages. But his brushwork is weak, without a sense of powerfulness. In his painting the scenes are trivial, not spectacular. He only appeals to popular taste through his complex brushwork and use of rich colors.45 ?? ?? ????????????????????????? ??????????????????????????????? ????? Wang Yuanqi?s compositions are always the same, and his brushwork is weak. His ink is not smooth, and his colors are without variation. He does not dare to take one step away from Huang Gongwang . . . I do not know how he could achieve the status of leading painter in his time, enjoying his fame among his contemporaries as well as receiving the acclaim of the generations after him.46 ??? ?? ???????????????????????? ???????????????????? ?? ??????? ????????????????????????????? 45 Yu Jianhua, Zhongguo Huihuashi, 177-178. 46 Yu Jianhua, Zhongguo Huihuashi, 178-179. 32 While Yu looked down upon the Four Wangs, he praised the Four Monks [Shitao ?? (1642 ? 1707), Kuncan ?? (1612 ? 1673), Bada Shanren ???? (1626 ? 1705), and Honren ? ? (1610 ? 1664)] among others, who were contemporaries of the Four Wangs. Yu admired Shitao most, saying: Shitao is able to create new forms out of the old traditions without incorporating any bad habits of his time. His art is unique without any negative influence of the two Schools of Zhe and Wu. Because of the marvelous composition, the elegant brushwork, the unconventional and graceful inscriptions, his art is truly immortal.47 ?? ?? ?????????????????????????? ??????????????????????????? In his article ?Qishiwu Nian Lai de Guohua? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? (Chinese Painting in the Last Seventy-Five Years) of 1947, Yu ?passionately advocated painting from real life in order to save the old style of imitation without content.?48 (??????????????? ? ) Yu implicitly criticized the Four Wangs? lack of creativity, and showed his disapproval of the trend started by the Four Wangs: 47 Yu Jianhua, Zhongguo Huihuashi, 119. 48 Yu Jianhua ??? , ?Qishiwu Nian Lai de Guohua? ???????? [The Chinese Painting in the Last Seventy-Five Years]. Shen Bao ? ? , 21 September 1947, Shanghai. Reprinted in Yu Jianhua Meishu Lunwen Xuan ???????? [Yu Jianhua?s Essays on Art], edited by Zhou Jiyin ??? (Jinan: Shandong Meishu Chubanshe, 1986), 62. 33 [Painters since the Four Wangs] just copied the heads and the feet [of human body] without any spirit, and without any vision. The brushwork was weak and the content empty. The movement has produced no great painters.49 ?????????????????????????????? ????? ??????????? Yu?s analysis of the Four Wangs during the 1930s and 1940s mainly focused on the brushwork. And we shall see later that after the 1950s Yu applied the Marxist theory of classes to analyze the history of art. LIU SIXUN ??? Liu Sixun ? ? ? ?s Zhongguo Meishu Fadashi ? ? ? ? ? ? ? (The Development of Chinese Painting) was written in 1937 and first published in 1946. In his book Liu praised the Qing painting, and of the Four Wangs, Liu said: Wang Shimin: His control of the wrist is enviable, and the composition of the ink is elegant; his brushstrokes seem to be formed freely, the mountains created naturally. In his late years his art verged on sublime. 49 Yu Jianhua, ?Qishiwu Nian Lai de Guohua,? 59. 34 ?????????????????????????????? ????????? Wang Jian: His art is vigorous and archaic, and he is good at the brush methods of both cun ? and ran ? ; even though his work is delicate, it does not impair the elegance in it. In either light green or ink painting, there is something of a cultivated refinement between the brushworks. 50 ?????????????????????????????? ????????????????????????? Liu seemed to have borrowed the common view from previous scholars on the Four Wangs in his book, and there seemed to be very little of his own contribution. Yet the views on the Four Wangs in Liu?s work were representative of the then prevailing views on the Four Wangs. Liu?s writing on the history of Chinese painting was the continuation of such a tradition in which the literati painting occupies the central theme in the narration of art history. (In his book Liu listed numerous painters, most of whom are literati painters.) QING ZHONGWEN ??? (1895 ? 1974) 50 All the above four paragraphs are from Liu Sixun ??? , Zhonguo Meishu Fadashi ???? ??? [The Development of Chinese Painting] (Shanghai: Shangwu Yinshuguan, 1946), 113. 35 Qin Zhongwen was another painter of traditional Chinese art who wrote The history of Chinese painting (Zhongguo Huihua Xueshi ? ? ? ? ? ? ). Qin Zhongwen ??? (1895 ? 1974) learned painting from Chen Shizeng and other painters by imitating the Four Wangs and other painters up to the Four Great Painters of Yuan dynasty. In 1915 Qin joined the Painting Methods Research Society organized by Cai Yuanpei and directed by Chen Shizeng. Before 1937 Qin was a lecturer at the National Academy of Art in Beijing. After 1945 Qin taught Chinese painting history at the Beijing University. 51 Qin?s history of Chinese painting followed the typical, traditional approach of focusing on the biographies of painters. In his History of Chinese Painting of 1934, Qin gave a very positive assessment of the Four Wangs: The above Four Wangs, Wu, and Yun are considered the Six Great Painters of Qing dynasty; they are either enjoying high social status or great scholarship, and they had lived a long life. They are very skillful painters, and their school of art is canonic. They had been the examples for the world for three hundred years.52 ?? ????????????????????????????? ?????????? ??????????????????? 51 For a brief biography of Qin Zhongwen, see Michael Sullivan, Art and Artists of Twentieth- Century China (Berkely, CA: University of California Press, 1996), 312. 52 Qin Zhongwen ??? , Zhongguo Huihua Xueshi ?????? [History of Chinese Painting] (Beiping [Beijing]: Lida Shuju, 1934), 154. 36 Qin?s book seemed to contain little, if any, original thought concerning the history of Chinese painting. Qin Zhongwen, described by Michael Sullivan as a ?conservative old guohua specialist,? 53 was in fact defending the traditional Chinese painting and his own understanding of art history. This is reasonable since Qin himself learned painting through the Four Wangs and other masters. The traditional style of painting was still struggling to survive in a time of disbelief, and some artists defended the value of such a tradition. PAN TIANSHOU ??? (1897 ? 1971) Pan Tianshou ? ? ? (1897 ? 1971) was another great painter of twentieth century, who studied painting under Wu Changshuo ??? (1844 ? 1927) and Western drawing and painting from Li Shutong ??? (1880 ? 1942). Since 1928 Pan had been professor of the National Art Academy in Hanghzou (Zhongguo Meishu Xueyuan ?????? ), and from 1944-47 Pan served as its director. Pan was also a scholar and wrote Zhongguo Huihua Shilue ????? ? (Concise History of Chinese Art) in 1928, and later he corrected and expanded his book and published Zhongguo Huihuashi ????? (History of Chinese Art) in 1936. His analysis of the Four Wangs took early scholarship into consideration. Pan said of Wang Hui: 53 Art and Artists of Twentieth-Century China (Berkely, CA: University of California Press, 1996), 114. 37 Wang Hui . . . learns from the Two Wangs [Wang Shimin and Wang Jian] of his contemporary, as well as the Song and Yuan painters; Wang Hui values the delicate and gentleness in art. To judge positively, Wang is able to assimilate the various styles of Northern and Southern schools of Song and Yuan dynasties; to judge negatively, Wang inherits only the delicacy of the court painting style of Ming dynasty as well as the two schools of Wu, and this has made the Qing painting more occupied with imitating the forms than development. The reason is that there is no other way to convey the prosperity of that time; historically this is because of the political circumstances and the excess of authoritarianism.54 ?? ?? ????????????????????????? ??????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ????? Unlike Fu Baoshi who wrote from the point of view of painters, and who particularly valued the integrity of artists, Pan analyzed the history of painting during the early Qing dynasty from the perspective of the ruling class. Pan saw the political need for the ruling Manchu regime to culturally conquer the Chinese of Han ethnic majority after physically conquering them. The mood in the works 54 Pan Tianshou ? ? ? , Zhongguo Huihuashi ? ? ? ? ? [History of Chinese Painting] (Shanghai: Renmin Meishu Chubanshe, 1983), 228. 38 of the Four Wangs is that of peace and content, wrote Fu. The Four Wangs themselves are scholar-officials and their art is the expression of their world view. The ruling regime saw the positive effects of the works of the Four Wangs and promoted them, hoping to create a sense of order and peace, wrote Fu. The new approach of analyzing the history of Chinese art from social and political points of view was markedly different from the traditional scholarship of the May Fourth period, which focused on brush and ink. YAO YUXIANG ??? Yao Yuxiang ? ? ? edited The Collected Essays on the Chinese Painting (Zhongguohua Taolunji ???? ?? ) in the early 1930s, and had a positive view regarding the Four Wangs. Like Pan Tianshou, Yao also turned his focus to the social aspect of the Four Wangs. In his ?Lun Siwang Yu Qingdai Huajie Zhi Guanxi? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? (On the Relationship between the Four Wangs and the Art World in Qing Dynasty) Yao wrote: The people in Qing dynasty all revered the Four Wangs . . . [Wang Shimin and Wang Jian] understood the spiritual essence of Dong Yuan ?? (d. 962) and Juran ? ? (c. 10th century) very well, and believed they deserved the name of great masters. When Shigu [Wang Hui] and Lutai [Wang Yuanqi] appeared, they followed Yanke [Wang Shimin] and Lianzhou [Wang Jian] . . . They happened to live in a peaceful and 39 prosperous time. Because the authority wanted to win the support of society, the Four Wangs were promoted to prominent status and served as the leaders for art . . . Those mediocre scholars who wanted to be promoted followed either Wang Shimin or Wang Yuanqi, and learned from either School of Yushan or Loudong. They boasted themselves as belonging to one school or another . . . while ordinary people and businessmen only knew Loudong and Yushan school painters by name, not truly knowing their art; The Four Wangs boasted as connoisseurs and made irresponsible judgment. As a result many painters imitated one school or another, and both good and bad paintings were created. Therefore art has been so low and this was the reason for the declining of art in Qing dynasty.55 ????????????????? ?? [????? ] ???? ???????????????? ?? ????????? ?? ?????????????????????????????? ??????????????? ?? ???????????? ?????????????????????????????? ???????? ?? ??????????????????? ???????????????????????????? ?? 55 Yao Yuxiang ??? , ?Lun Siwang Yu Qingdai Huajie Zhi Guanxi? ?????????? ? [On the Relationship between the Four Wangs and the Art World in Qing Dynasty]. In Zhongguohua Taolunji ???? ?? [Collected Essays on the Chinese Painting], edited by Yao Yuxiang ??? (Beiping [Beijing]: Lida Shuju, 1932), 319. 40 ?????????????????????????????? ?????? In the preface to his book, Yao expressed his dissatisfaction with his contemporary painters whom he considered either the slaves of the ancient masters or the blind followers of Western painting. Yao also criticized the narrow-mindedness of his contemporary painters who buried themselves in their own specific field.56 Yao admired the Four Wangs, but disparaged the thoughtless imitation of mediocre painters and the general public?s blind worship of the Four Wangs. WU HUFAN ??? (1894 ? 1968) Even though the Four Wangs had generally been criticized, they still received positive reviews from art critics. Wu Hufan ??? (1894 ? 1968),57 the famous art connoisseur, was himself a painter who once served at the Shanghai Zhongguo Huayuan ? ? ? ? ? ? (Shanghai Institute of Chinese Painting), and was a member of the Xiling Yinshe ? ? ? ? (Xiling Seal Society). Wu?s own landscapes were modeled after the Four Wangs and Wu had studied Dong Qichang. It is no surprise that Wu?s comments on the Four Wangs were quite 56 See preface, Yao Yuxiang ??? (ed.), Zhongguohua Taolunji ???? ?? [Collected Essays on the Chinese Painting] (Beiping [Beijing]: Lida Shuju, 1932). 57 For more information concerning Wu Hufan?s connoisseur work, see Clarissa Von Spee, Wu Hufan: A Twentieth Century Art Connoisseur in Shanghai (Berlin: Reimer, 2008). 41 favorable. In the colophon in 1938 to Wang Hui?s ?Fang Guan Tong Xishan Qing?ai? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? (Landscape after Guan Tong?s ?Streams and Mountains Clearing after Mist?),58 Wu wrote: I have seen about forty-odd paintings by Shigu [Wang Hui] in the last twenty years. Among them seventeen or eighteen are very refined and detailed, and this handscroll modeled after Guan Tong?s ?Streams and Mountains Clearing after Mist? is the best. It is known that, after being instructed by Yanke [Wang Shimin] to copy the masterpieces of the Song and Yuan dynasties around the age of forty, Shigu achieved the Great Synthesis in his art. Therefore, the finest of Shigu?s paintings were done between the ages of forty and fifty, and his works modeled after ancient masters are particularly good. He excelled in painting in the Song manner, but was less interested in imitating the Yuan masters. His skill is superior to his expression of spiritual resonance; his works in color are better than those in ink monochrome. This scroll was executed in the brush manner of Guan Tong at forty-seven. Not only is it the greatest work of Shigu?s whole life, but it also could not have been done by anyone else of the Ming and Qing periods or later. Judging from what I have seen, among the Song masters, Shigu?s imitations of the styles of Guan Tong and Fan Kuan [ca. 960 ? ca. 1030] are his most marvelous. Occasionally I have seen a couple of them in albums, but have not seen any long handscrolls or huge hanging scrolls. 58 Handscroll, 1678, ink and color on paper, 29.3 x 353 cm, Shanghai Museum. See Fig. 1. 42 Then I saw this work twenty years ago. For years I could not forget it. Now I have it again. It is indeed like the line in the poem by Yan Yuanxian [Yan Shu, 991 ? 1055], ?As if they once knew me, swallows return.? In mid-autumn of the wuyin year [1938], I asked for the opinion of Sun Bangrui, my senior, on whether he agrees with me. Wu Hufan inscribed in the Plum Vista Studio.59 ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ??????????????? ??????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ???????????????????????? ?????? ??????????????????? ??????????? ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ??????? 60 59 Translation modified from Maxwell K. Hearn (ed.), Landscapes Clear and Radiant: The Art of Wang Hui (1632 - 1717) (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art; New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 206. 60 Maxwell K. Hearn (ed.), Landscapes Clear and Radiant: The Art of Wang Hui (1632 - 1717) (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art; New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 206. 43 In another of Wang Hui?s painting ?Fang Juran Shanshui? ? ? ? ? ? (Landscape in the Style of Juran),61 Wu Hufan wrote: Light Transmitted from Huanghe [Wang Meng, 1308 ? 1385] This painting?s brush method may be traced back to that of master Ju [Juran, active ca. 960-85] through that of Wang Shuming [Wang Meng], therefore, its ?breath and soul? are heroic and full, and it may be reckoned a masterpiece by Qinghui [Wang Hui]. Wu Hufan inscribed.62 ???? ???????? ?????????????????????? 63 As an art critic, Wu has focused on the artistic merit of Wang Hui?s work and emphasized on its stylistic connections with other painters. GAO JIANFU ??? (1879 ? 1951) The Gao Brothers of Gao Jianfu ??? (1879 ? 1951) and Gao Qifeng ??? (1889 ? 1933) had been influential in Southern China. In modern China 61 Hanging scroll, 1664, ink on paper, 131 x 65.5 cm. See Fig. 2. 62 Translation by Shi-Yee Liu, in Maxwell K. Hearn, ed., Landscapes Clear and Radiant: The Art of Wang Hui (1632 - 1717) (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art; New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 188. 63 As cited in Maxwell K. Hearn, ed., Landscapes Clear and Radiant: The Art of Wang Hui (1632 - 1717) (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art; New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 188. 44 Guangzhou had been most exposed to the Western culture, and the two brothers advocated the blending of both Eastern and Western approaches in art and established the Lingnan School (Lingnan Pai ? ? ? ). In his article ?Wode Xiandai Guohuaguan? ??????? (My View on Modern Chinese Art),64 written during the War of Anti-Japanese Aggression, Gao Jianfu stated: Since the Four Great Painters of Yuan, the court painting style had been ignored and the literati painting had been promoted. This had lasted since the beginning of Yuan through Ming and Qing dynasty till the Republican Period, which had been the dominant style of painting in the previous six hundred years. Even though there are some slight changes during the time, how many painters can have different styles during the six hundred years, where there may be hundreds of different schools . . . Unfortunately until the modern time of the revolutionary new Republic of China, the art style of all of China, except Western style painting, is the old traditional style.65 ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ????????????????????????? ?? ?? 64 For the discussion on Gao?s major text, see Ralph Croizier, Art and Revolution in Modern China, The Lingnan (Cantonese) School of Painting, 1906 ? 1951 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1988), 110-114. 65 Gao Jianfu ??? , ?Wo de Xiandai Guohuaguan? ??????? [My View on Modern Chinese Art]. Reprinted in Ershi Shiji Zhongguo Meishu Wenxuan ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? [Selected Works on Fine Arts in 20th Century], edited by Lang Shaojun ? ? ? and Shui Tianzhong ??? (Shanghai: Shanghai Shuhua Chubanshe, 1999), 1:502. According to the editor Yu Feng ?? , Gao?s article was composed during the War of Anti-Japanese Aggression (1937- 1945). 45 ?????????????????????????????? ???????? Gao Jianfu expressed a similar attitude as Kang Youwei and Chen Duxiu. He said, ?After I have followed Dr. Sun Yat-sen ? ? ? [1866 ? 1925] for political revolution, I have found it necessary to revolutionize the art of China.?66 (??? ?????????????????????????? ? ) Gao Jianfu advocated innovation and learning from nature, while opposing sticking to old conventions and blindly imitating the ancient masters. Gao did not want to abandon the tradition totally, and he wanted his new national Chinese painting to possess a distinctly Chinese character. Gao praised such qualities as spirit resonance (Qiyun Shengdong ? ? ? ? ) of the old Chinese painting, and believed that certain scientific methods such as perspective were lacking. 67 In Gao?s text the words Qiyun Shengdong seems less a technical term than a reference to the essence of traditional Chinese painting. Gao?s concept of Guohua (national painting) must have some connection to Nihonga in Japan, where he studied from 1906 to 1908. The style in his painting seems closer to Nihonga than traditional Chinese painting. Gao?s vision was to make Chinese painting modern but still Chinese. Therefore Gao needed the support of the traditional style of Chinese art before the Four Wangs. 66 Gao Jianfu, ?Wo de Xiandai Guohuaguan,? 506. 67 Gao Jianfu, ?Wo de Xiandai Guohuaguan,? 510-11. 46 HUANG BINHONG ??? (1865 ? 1955) Huang Binhong was a great painter of the literati tradition in the twentieth century, who wrote many articles on art. Huang Binhong ??? (1865 ? 1955) was born in Shexian, Anhui Province into a family of scholars and painters and received a classical education. In 1907 Huang left his hometown for Shanghai where he served as the editor of Guocui Xuebao ???? (Journal of the Quintessence of National Culture), director of the art department at the Commercial Press, and also taught art at several schools. In 1937 Huang worked in the Palace Museum in Beijing inspecting cultural artifacts. During the war with Japan Huang lived in Beijing and devoted his time to writing and painting. In 1948 Huang moved to Hangzhou and taught art at the Hangzhou National Art College and the Art Institute of Zhejiang until his death. In a time when the traditional technique of brush and ink seemed incapable of further innovation, Huang still searched deep within the tradition. He had faith in the traditional Chinese painting of brush and ink. Both Huang?s practices of painting and his theory of Chinese painting are deeply imbedded in the literati tradition.68 As Huang himself was seeking innovation in the Chinese painting from brushwork, his analysis of the Four Wangs naturally focused on the methods of brushwork, style, and taste. This was the traditional Chinese scholarship on painting. In his Guhua Wei ??? (On the Ancient Paintings) of 1925, he wrote: 68 Jason C. Kuo, Transforming Traditions in Modern Chinese Painting, Huang Pin-hung?s Late Work (New York: Peter Lang, 2004) offers a good analysis of Huang?s theory and his late style of painting. 47 Yuanzhao [Wang Jian]?s brushwork is more tangible than Yanke [Wang Shimin]?s. Shimin can grasp the spirit of landscape by his intangible brushwork, and his work is vigorous and graceful. In Wang Jian?s work traces of strong brushwork can be seen, and his imitations capture the spirit as well. Both are surely belonging to the best.69 ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ????????????????????? Shigu [Wang Hui] has mastered the Six Methods, and his composition is balanced: there is no contemporary painter who has surpassed him. But he has left too apparent the traces of his brushworks which have been harmful to the charms of his painting . . . In the past two hundred years there are more and more people imitating Wang Hui. People only imitate Wang Hui but do not know what Wang Hui had learned from; this is the reason for the decline of painting in the Qing dynasty.70 ?????????????????????????????? ??????? ?? ???????????????????? ????????????????????? 69 Huang Binhong ? ? ? , ?Guhua Wei? ? ? ? [On Ancient Paintings]. Xiaoshuo Shijie Congkan ????? ? [The World of Novels], 1925. Reprinted in Huang Binhong Yishu Shuibi ??????? [Essays on Art by Huang Binhong], edited by Lu Fusheng ??? (Shanghai: Wenyi Chubanshe, 2001), 59. 70 Huang Binhong, ?Guhua Wei,? 60. 48 Wang Yuanqi?s works are mature while not sweet, simple while not rough, bland yet broad, hard yet pure, and the air of cultivated refinement is seen in the canvas . . . Wang?s landscapes are as graceful as the flowing clouds, misty and luxuriant without end. His brushworks flow naturally without the sense of rigidness or being confined.71 ?????????????????????????????? ?? ?? ????????????????????????? ??????? ?????? During his early career Huang had been imitating the old masters, and his favorable comments on the Four Wangs also revealed his sympathy to the old literati style. As Huang developed his own distinctive style during his later years, his opinion on the traditional literati painting, especially the Four Wangs, changed. In his ?Jin Shushinian Huazhe Ping? ??????? (Comments on Painters of Recent Decades) of 1930, Huang said: It seems that painters from late Ming dynasty learned from Dong Qichang. They established Yunjian and Loudong Schools and called themselves the Southern School. Scholars had regarded Yanke [Wang Shimin], Yuanzhao [Wang Jian], Qinghui [Wang Hui] and Lutai [Wang Yuanqi] the ?Four Wangs.? Those who had obtained paintings from the Four Wangs believed they no longer had to learn from ancient painters. Many fake paintings appeared among the genuine works and circulated from one hand to 71 Huang Binhong, ?Guhua Wei,? 61. 49 another, which were imitated repeatedly and there were no literati families who did not possess such paintings. Therefore they had disregarded the artistic rules from the masters in Tang, Song and Yuan dynasties . . . There were numerous painters in the Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces who made their livings by imitating the paintings from the Four Wangs. Because of endless imitation, the genuine artistic values were not carried out.72 ?????????????????????????????? ??????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ??? ?? ???????????????????????? ????????????? In the past when Huang Dachi [Gongwang] made comments on the painting, what he hated most was sweetness and mediocrity. No painters had been free from these faults since the School of Loudong. Painters from the School of Xin?an at the end of Ming dynasty learned from the great masters in the past, while since the Reign of Qianlong [1736 ? 1796] 72 Huang Binhong ??? , ?Jin Shushinian Huazhe Ping? ??????? [Comments on the Painters in Recent Decades]. (Shanghai) Dongfang Zazhi ???? [The Oriental Magazine] 27, no. 1 (1930):155-157. Reprinted in Yihai Gouchen, Jindai Zhongguo Meishu Lunji ???? , ? ??????? [Collected Essays on Art in Modern China], edited by He Huaishuo ??? (Taibei: Yishujia Chubanshe, 1991), 2:155. 50 and Jiaqing [1796 ? 1821] most literati painters had acquired the poor habits of the Four Wangs. What a pity that painting had been declining.73 ?????????????????????????????? ???????? ?????????????????????? ???????????? Commenting on a painting by Wang Hui ?Landscape after Wang Meng?s ?Travelers amid Autumn Mountaints,? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? (Lin Wang Meng Qiushan Xingl?),74 Huang said: Wang Qinghui [Wang Hui] used the brushwork of Yuan painters to build mountains and valleys [in the style] of the Tang and Song periods. In this work, mountains and streams are round and full, while grass and trees are resplendent and lush. Though copied from Huanghe Shanqiao?s [Wang Meng?s] painting, it actually captures the spirit of Dong Beiyuan [Dong Yuan]. It was because, by studying a wide range of ancient masters, he was well grounded in the tradition. Those who examine this painting should treasure it with great care. In the early spring of the yiyou year [1945], Huang Binhong inscribed.75 73 Huang Binhong, ?Jin Shushinian Huazhe Ping,? 159. 74 Hanging scroll, ink on silk, 58.7 x 26.7 cm. See Fig. 3. 75 Translation by Shi-Yee Liu, in Maxwell K. Hearn, ed., Landscapes Clear and Radiant: The Art of Wang Hui (1632 - 1717) (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art; New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 214. 51 ??????????????? ??????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ????????????? 76 In the painting Wang Hui does seem to have successfully incorpated various styles from previous dynasities. In the painting between the high rising mountains is a river leading outsides with several boats on it. A smaill village is located at the foot of the mountains and travelers are seen on the road. Huang, as the great literati painter, keeps the spirit of literati painting alive. Huang?s comments on the history of Chinese painting were more scholarly and showed less political influence. Yet, we must keep in mind that as he had created his own distinct style in his later years, he grew more critical of past painters. For Huang, the Four Wangs were no longer the painters he could learn from, but rather served as the background against which his own genius was made clear. Huang avoided the debate on whether realism should be introduced into Chinese painting, or social reality should become the subject matter for painting. Those debates seem irrelevant to him. Huang wanted people to know that his great innovation was within the literati tradition and his criticism of Chinese art history also focused on literati painting. XU BEIHONG ??? (1895 ? 1953) 76 As cited in Maxwell K. Hearn, ed., Landscapes Clear and Radiant: The Art of Wang Hui (1632 - 1717) (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art; New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 214. 52 In the early half of the twentieth century, many Chinese painters studied abroad, mainly in Japan and Paris. Some were intrigued by vividness of the realistic quality of Western painting. Therefore, they sought to revolutionize the literati tradition in Chinese art through the realistic art. Notable painters among these are Xu Beihong ??? (1895 ? 1953) and Lin Fengmian ??? (1900 ? 1991), Xu being the more influential one. Xu studied Western Art in Paris and was fascinated by the realistic art found in Europe. As a student in Paris Xu only studied realist painting, and formed his aesthetic view of respecting only those paintings that were ?true to life,? and applied this principle in judging all the works of art in history, both East and West. When he returned to China Xu helped establish various art schools and served as professor. After 1949 Xu served as the chairman of the Chinese Artists? Association, president of the Central Academy of Fine Arts, and became one of the most influential authorities in the art world of China in the 1950s. Xu Beihong was passionate for socialist realism in art and used his position and fame to advocate for the realistic style. Xu intended to create a radical revolutionary discourse in art. In his ?Xin Yiyu Yundong zhi Huigu yu Qianzhan? ??????????? (Review and Prospect of the New Art Movement) of 1943, Xu Beihong said of Dong Qichang and the Four Wangs: Because of his status as well as being a great collector, Dong Qichang created such an atmosphere that a painter may not be knowledgeable about nature and things, but he must be aware of the styles and schools of the 53 ancient masters, otherwise he would be a pitiful person. Dong was quite arrogant not only because of his fame, but also because of his wealth; this was very bad. Therefore there were the Four Wangs and the Mustard Garden Painting Manuel, which was only for fame and profit.77 ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ????????????? Xu expressed his opinions on the history of Chinese art in many of his writings. In his ?Xin Guohua Jianli zhi Buzhou? ?? ? ????? (The Procedures to Establish New National Painting) of 1947, for example, he used similar satirical tone calling the paintings by Dong Qichang and the Four Wangs ?works of hypocritical clich?.? 78 (? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ) Similar to the reformers during the May Fourth Movement such as Kang Youwei and Chen Duxiu, Xu may have thought it necessary to vehemently attack the old traditions if one wanted to incite any revolutionary change. Xu?s strong position spoke to his 77 Xu Beihong ??? , ?Xin Yishu Yundong zhi Huigu yu Qianzhan? ??????????? [The Retrospect and Prospect of New Art Movement], Chongqing Shishi Xinbao ?? ???? [New Times], 15 March 1943. Reprinted in Xu Beihong Yishu Wenji ??????? [Essays on Art by Xu Beihong], edited by Xu Boyang ??? and Jin Shan ?? (Taibei: Yishujia Chubanshe, 1987), 2:428. 78 Xu Beihong ??? , ?Xin Guohua Jianli zhi Buzhou? ???????? [Procedures to Establish the New National Painting]. Beiping ?? : Shijie Ribao ??? ? World Daily, 16 October 1947. Reprinted in Ershi Shiji Zhongguo Meishu Wenxuan ?????? ???? [Selected Works on Fine Arts in 20th Century], edited by Lang Shaojun ? ? ? and Shui Tianzhong ??? (Shanghai: Shanghai Shuhua Chubanshe, 1999), 1:717. 54 political and institutional strategy as well as his artistic conviction. For Xu, ?if he had been able to avoid modernism in Paris, he was no longer able to do so in Shanghai.?79 Here at home Xu found himself in the center of a cultural debate. The strong tone seemed necessary for Xu to hold his position when socialist realism was still not the predominant ideology.80 By now we have reviewed the various opinions on the Four Wangs during the Republican Period, which should be viewed in their historical contexts. With increasing cultural exchange during the early twentieth century, the introduction of Western-style realism into Chinese art seems inevitable, and how to treat the traditional brush and ink painting is under debate. The Four Wangs, the great painters in the literati tradition in Qing dynasty, have become the focus of the debate. Some thinkers attacked the Four Wangs as a cultural strategy for the modernization of Chinese art through the Western approach, such as Kang Youwei and Chen Duxiu. Others, such as Jin Cheng and Chen Shizeng, found it necessary to defend the Four Wangs in order to uphold the literati tradition, which they regarded as the essence of Chinese art. Some criticized the Four Wangs from scholarly and artistic points of view, such as Yu Jianhua and Deng Yizhe, because they did not find any innovation in their art. Some literati painters, such as Fu 79 Eugene Y. Wang, ?Sketch Conceptualism as Modernist Contingency,? in Chinese Art: Modern Expressions, edited by Maxwell K Hearn and Judith G Smith (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2001), 113. 80 For more on the cultural debate in the late 1940s, see Richard Vinograd, ?Relocations: Spaces of Chinese Visual Modernity,? in Chinese art: Modern Expressions, edited by Maxwell K Hearn and Judith G Smith (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2001): 162-181. 55 Baoshi and Qin Zhongwen, praised the Four Wangs, either out of artistic conviction or as a way to defend themselves. The great literati painter Huang Binhong?s opinion on the Four Wangs shifted over time as his own style matured. 56 CHAPTER II: EVALUATIONS OF THE FOUR WANGS DURING THE PEOPLE?S REPUBLIC PERIOD (1949 ? present) Mao Zedong ??? (1893 ? 1976) is without question the most important figure in twentieth century China to shape both the political and intellectual landscape of the country. In his Zai Yanan Wenyi Zuotanhui shang de Jianghua ?? ???? ?????? (Talks at the Yanan Forum on Art and Literature) of 1942, Mao called for a socialist realist art of the people as a support for the revolutionary cause of the Communist Party.81 Mao?s sense of art was clearly based on the class struggle and Mao believed art must serve the masses, and therefore artists and writers must learn from the people because ?in the life of the people itself lies a mine of raw material for art and literature, namely, things in their natural state, things crude, but also most lively, rich and fundamental.?82 For Mao, the art of the people must have the practical function of reflecting the life of the people and educating them at the same time. Mao?s call had a profound influence on the direction of Chinese art and literature, especially when the Communist Party fully took power. Since then the idea that art should serve politics has been firmly established under China?s Communist rule and social realism has become the dominate ideology in art. 81 See Mao Zedong ??? , Zai Yanan Wenyi Zuotanhui shang de Jianghua ?? ???? ?? ???? [Talks at the Yanan Forum on Art and Literature] (Huadong Xinhua Shudian, 1949). Bonnie S. McDougall?s Mao Zedong?s ?Talks at the Yan?an Conference on Literature and Art?: A Translation of the 1943 Text with Commentary (Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, The University of Michigan, 1980) offers commentary to the historical background, compares the major changes from the 1943/1944 text to the 1952/1966 text, and compiles major editions and translations. 82 Mao Zedong, Talks at the Yanan Forum on Art and Literature (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1956), 22. 57 XU BEIHONG ??? (1895 ? 1953) History called for socialist realism in art and Xu was the central figure to realize that goal. Xu?s opinion on art had moved closer to the official ideology of the Communist Party of China since the foundation of the People?s Republic of China in 1949. Marxist class theory was apparent in Xu?s ?Mantan Shanshuihua? ?? ??? (Random Talks on Landscape Painting) of 1950: [Such ancient painters as Shen Zhou ?? (1427 ? 1509), Qiu Yin ?? (1502/03 ? 1552), and Yuan Jiang ?? (1671 ? c. 1746)] were all capable of learning from nature as well as their own feeling, their works rejected the vulgar taste of the ruling class, but were full of joy of reclusive dwelling; these were successful works done by literati painters with great efforts. While those painters like Dong Qichang are just inferior literati painters of high official ranks who wanted to master the art of painting without laboring . . . As for the Four Wangs, they merely imitated the ancient masters without any innovation; and then Li Liweng [Li Yu ?? (1610 ? 1680)] cooperating with some painters, compiled the Mustard Garden Painting Manuel for those bourgeois students to master the art of painting in three months, just to follow the fashionable trend. This had smothered the life of Chinese painting.83 83 Xu Beihong ? ? ? , ?Mantan Shanshuihua? ? ? ? ? ? [Random Talks on Landscape Painting]. In Xin Jianshe ??? [New Development] (Monthly) 1, no. 12 (1950). Reprinted in Xu Beihong Yishu Wenji ??????? [Essays on Art by Xu Beihong], edited by Xu Boyang ?? ? and Jin Shan ?? (Taibei: Yishujia Chubanshe, 1987), 2:575. 58 [????????????? ] ???????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ????????????? ??????????????? ?? ????????????????????? ?? ?????? ??????????????????????????? ??? ???????????????????????????? ? It is clear that the prevailing political opinion dominated Xu?s thoughts on the history of art. Xu applied Marxist theory of social classes to his writing on Chinese art. At the end of the article Xu summarized his political idea on the history of Chinese art: Therefore we need the art of socialist realism in our time. The landscapes showing the cultivated pleasures of a leisurely life, even though they had achieved great accomplishment in history, could not have any instructional function for the people, nor any other positive influence . . . If we have talented painters, let them paint the stories of heroes (such as heroes in war), all kinds of models who had shown that we are fortunate of living in such a great era . . . [These works of social realism] can provide aesthetic enjoyment as well as encouragement to people, are they not better than the landscapes of Shixi [?? , Kuncan ?? (1612 ? 1673)] and Shitao [?? (1642 ? 1707)]?84 84 Xu Beihong, ?Mantan Shanshuihua,? 581-582. 59 ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ?? ????????????????????????????? ??????????????????????????? ?? [?????? ] ??????????????????????? ?? WANG XUN ?? (1916 ? ) With socialist realism in art as the dominant ideology, new textbooks were needed to meet the new political requirement. Wang Xun?s Zhonguo Meishushi ???? ? (History of Chinese Painting) was written in 1956, but was not published until 1980s, edited by his students. It was widely used and circulated as the textbook from 1950s to 1970s for the Chinese Central Academy of Fine Arts. Wang Xun ?? (1916 ? ) studied philosophy at Tsinghua University, and in the 1940s and 1950s he taught art history at various schools. In 1957 Wang Xun helped establish the department of art history at the Chinese Central Academy of Fine Arts. Even though in his History of Chinese Art Wang tried to analyze painters? stylistic shifts, the tone of the prevailing political ideology was still apparent, especially in his narration of the artists? social background. Wang praised the achievement of 60 the Four Wangs in their employment of dry brush and ink,85 but criticized their lack of creativity: In their work they had given up the pursuit of expressing the content; yet it is different from the works by Shen Zhou and Wen Zhengming, whose works stress the poetic theme; the Four Wangs had ?Fang ? (copying) Dachi [Huang Gongwang]?, and ?Lin ? (after) Juran? as their titles; they had imitation as the purpose.86 ?????????????????????????????? ??????????????????????????? ??? ? ?? ???? ????????????? The content Wang Xun mentioned here is no doubt referring to the realistic depiction of life that socialist realism requires. The value of literati painting can no longer serve the political need of the New China. YAN LICHUANG ??? Another textbook, Zhongguo Meishu Shilue ?????? (A Concise History of Chinese Painting), was written in 1958 by Yan Lichuan ?? ? and the revised edition was published in 1980. In this book, the Marxist ideology of class struggle 85 Wang Xun ? ? , Zhongguo Meishushi ? ? ? ? ? [History of Chinese Art] (Shanghai: Renmin Meishu Chubanshe, 1985), 420. 86 Wang Xun, Zhongguo Meishushi, 420-421. 61 completely dominated the text. Yan considered the literati painters as members of the bourgeois class who simply exploited the working class. Yan wrote in the 1958 edition of paintings in Ming and Qing dynasties: Paintings in Ming and Qing dynasties ?were based on the convention of forms, devoid of real life. The themes had become narrower and narrower, and the images in the painting were lack of change. Therefore the Ming and Qing paintings will inevitably lead to formalism.?87 ???? ?????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????? ? This reminds us the suffering of Lin Fengmian whose art was criticized during the Cultural Revolution for being an example of formalism without any social relevance. In his revised edition of 1980, Yan kept his fundamental opinions unchanged and still applied the Marxist doctrine to the history of art: The literati painters of Ming and Qing dynasties, who had controlled the art establishment, alligned themselves with the ruling class. They avoided the struggles of real life, and their minds were empty. Influenced by the idea of literati painting from previous dynasties, the trends of ?back to the ancients? and formalism had been strengthened among schools, and the sectarianism had been established. Painters had no mind for ideas, 87 As cited by Lang Shaojun ?? ? , ??Siwang? zai Ershi Shiji? ??? ? ????? [The Four Wangs in the Twentieth Century], in Qingchu Siwang Huapai Yanjiu lunwenji ??????? ???? [Theses on Research of Four Wangs? Painting in Early Qing Dynasty], edited by Duoyu Bianjibu ????? (Shanghai: Shanghai Shuhua Chubanshe, 1993), 858-859. 62 contents, or subject matters in painting, but only dwelled in landscapes of trees and stones, and few forms of birds and insects to express their emotions and ideals . . . Therefore they could only compete with each other in the techniques of brush and ink. The state of art, inevitably, declined.88 ?????????????????? ?? ????????? ???????????????? ???? ??????????? ?????????????????????? ???????? ?????????????????????????????? ? ??? ?? ???? ?? ??????????????????? ???????????????? Particularly of the Four Wangs, Yan wrote: [The Four Wangs, Wu, and Yun] had enjoyed their ability to imitate ancient paintings. They had only pursued various brush techniques, and satisfied in the elegance of brushworks. All their paintings are the same, devoid of power and grandeur. Because of such ?orthodox? or ?mainstream?, it reflected the decline of art in that time.89 88 Yan Lichuan ??? , Zhongguo Meishu Shilue ?????? [A Concise History of Chinese Painting] (Beijing: Renmin Meishu Chubanshe, 1980), 284. 89 Yan Lichuan, Zhongguo Meishu Shilue, 297. 63 [???? ] ????????????????????????? ?????????????? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ???????????? But Yan praised Wang Hui: Wang Hui . . . because of his imitation of Yuan and Ming painters, his brushworks and forms are prudent and concrete, his composition of the scene has a sense of wholeness, and the spirit is throughout the picture. In his ?Sleepy Crow in Autumn Forest? both the brushwork and coloring are concurrently vigorous and calm, which goes beyond ordinary elegance. His composition is more natural without any built-up blocks. This Wang Shimin could not achieve.90 ?? ?? ????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????? It is no surprise that Yan selected the realistic painting ?Kangxi Emperor on His Southern Inspection Tour? (Kangxi Nanxue Tu ????? )91 and praised it. 90 Yan Lichuan, Zhongguo Meishu Shilue, 297-298. 91 See Fig. 4 for a detail of the painting. 64 ?Kangxi Emperor on His Southern Inspection Tour? [Kangxi Nanxue Tu], even though it is a court painting extolling the emperor to facilitate a sense of prosperity, it draws the traditional approaches from such great works as ?Peace Reigns over the River? ????? . The scene in the painting is spectacular, and the drawings are meticulous. All the way from Beijing to Shaoxing, the painting includes thousands of figures and many cityscapes and rural scenes. It reflects to a certain extent the agricultural productions and industrial and commercial activities in the city during Qing dynasty.92 ??????? ?? ???????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ??? ??????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ????? In the works of Xu Beihong, Wang Xun and Yan Lichang the Marxist doctrine completely dictated the writing of art history from 1950s to the early 1980s. It can be imagined that since the new People?s Republic of China the mood of challenging nature had become the prevailing social emotion, and literati painting was unable to offer anything to this state of mind. The call for socialist realism in art seems inevitable during that time. Unfortunately, art criticism was not unaffected by the prevailing political thinking, and Marxist ideas were applied to the study of art history. 92 Yan Lichuan, Zhongguo Meishu Shilue, 298. 65 HU PEIHENG ??? (1891 ? 1962) Hu Peiheng continued to write on art until the 1950s. Hu?s monologue Wang Shigu ??? was published in 1958 and the content was pretty much the same as the book Wang Shigu Huafa Juewei ?????? ? (On the Painting of Wang Shigu [Wang Hui]) he wrote 20 years before. It is clear that the dominant socialist realism advocated by Mao Zedong and Xu Beihong influenced Hu?s thinking. Hu himself had made explicit that ?the purpose of our research of Wang Shigu . . . is to serve the creation of painting of socialist realism.?93 (????????? ?? ?? ??? ???????? ??? ??? ) It is not surprising that the painting The Kangxi Emperor on His Southern Inspection Tour ????? , of which Wang Hui was the chief painter, was also mentioned in Hu?s late book and praised for its realistic achievement in depicting the life of the people during that time.94 In his book Hu stressed the lack of realism in Wang Hui?s work: ?The biggest weakness of Wang Shigu is that he did not turn his eyes to the real life and he had not learned enough from life. But his work was not totally without the joy of life.?95 (??????????????????????????? 93 Hu Peiheng ??? , Wang Shigu ??? (Shanghai: Renmin Meishu Chubanshe, 1958), 2. 94 Hu Peiheng, Wang Shigu, 19. 95 Hu Peiheng, Wang Shigu, 32. 66 ?????? ) Hu?s remark was less radical and more scholarly than that of Xu Beihong. YU JIANHUA ??? (1895 ? 1979) Yu continued his writing on Chinese painting after 1949. In one article on Wang Yuanqi published in 1961, Yu criticized Wang Yuanqi, claiming that his painting was not true to nature and could not have an instructional function to the people. Yu said that he did not like Wang Yuanqi in the past because he judged him from the standpoint of brush and ink techniques; he thought that now one must make judgment based on broad perspective in order to have an accurate judgment about a painter or his work.96 Yu considered the Four Great Painters of Yuan dynasty passive because they retreated into the mountains. The works of the Four Wangs, Yu wrote, are only serving the ruling class. Therefore all these works are politically reactionary. Artistically, Wang Yuanqi?s work, Yu continued, is also reactionary because it is not true to nature. These works can neither encourage nor educate people. Yu?s writings after the 1950s were clearly influenced by Mao Zedong?s thoughts on art and literature. While sharply criticizing the Four Wangs, Yu exalted the Four Monks. The Four Wangs were considered serving the ruling class, while the Four Monks were 96 Yu Jianhua ??? , ?Ye Tan Wang Lutai Hua? ?????? [On the Paintings of Wang Yuanqi], Wen Hui Bao ?? ? , 26 July 1961. Reprinted in Yu Jianhua Meishu Lunwen Xuan ?? ?????? [Yu Jianhua?s Essays on Art], edited by Zhou Jiyin ??? (Jinan: Shandong Meishu Chubanshe, 1986), 323. 67 considered loyal to the former dynasty. Such contrasting judgment has been influential up to today, and many critics still consider the Four Wangs and the Four Monks and their followers in direct opposition to one another in both their artistic style (creation versus imitation) and their character (loyal versus disloyal to the former court). Such comparison is certainly derived from the fact that social and political aspects of art history have been weighed more than artistic merits. Especially during the early years of the People?s Republic of China, politics dominated every aspect of cultural affairs. TONG SHUYE ??? (1908 ? 1968) Tong Shuye ??? (1908 ? 1968) was a famous historian of ancient Chinese history, who also wrote many articles on art history. Tong?s article ?Wang Lutai Huihua de Pingjia Wenti? ?????????? (The Issue of Evaluating the Paintings of Wang Lutai [Yuanqi]) was written in 1961. Tong?s writings were not without political tones, but besides that his works were mainly scholarsly. There was nothing good in the ideas and contents of his painting. It was just about the ideas and contents of the literati landscape painting, and I will not bother to say much. His major contribution lies in the methods of brush and ink. In this respect, we could not deny his achievement.97 97 Tong Shuye ??? , ?Wang Lutai Huihua de Pingjia Wenti? ?????????? [The Issue of Evaluating the Paintings of Wang Lutai (Yuanqi)]. In Tong Shuye Meishu Lunji ???? 68 ??????????????????????????????? ????????????????? ?????????????? ???????????? Besides that, his analysis of Wang Yuanqi seemed to deviate very little from traditional scholarship on the criticism of art. On Wang Yuanqi?s brush, for example, Tong wrote: ?the brushstroke of Lutai [Wang Yuanqi] was full of strength but the sharp edge was not exposed.?98 (????????????? ? ? ? ) On the spirit of Wang Yuanqi?s painting, Tong wrote: ?The spirit resonance was very special. [His painting] was boundless and broad, pure and romantic. It was worth considering and left with good impression.?99 (???? ???????????????????????????? ) Tong compared Wang Yuanqi with Huang Gongwang and Dong Qichang and praised Wang?s innovation in brush techniques. Tong also did not agree with the opinion that Wang Yuanqi?s landscapes were mere imitations, reflecting nothing from nature. Tong said Wang?s painting was based on his observation of the landscapes in the Jiangnan region. The excellence in Lutai?s composition was shown in the fact that the whole canvas was filled and not much blank area was left to indicate ??? (Art Essays of Tong Shuye), edited by Tong Jiaoying ??? (Shanghai: Guji Chubanshe, 1989), 665. 98 Tong Shuye, ?Wang Lutai Huihua de Pingjia Wenti,? 667. 99 Tong Shuye, ?Wang Lutai Huihua de Pingjia Wenti,? 667. 69 clouds or mists. The whole canvas was one, elegant and deep. This was achieved because [Wang Yuanqi] was learning from Zijiu [Huang Gongwang] on the one hand and the nature on the other hand.100 ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????? It might be the case that Tong had to disguise his true opinions on the Four Wangs due to the political climate. Besides this, his judgment of Wang Yuanji was purely scholarly and full of insight. WANG BOMIN ??? Wang Bomin?s Zhongguo Huihuashi ????? (History of Chinese Painting) was finished in 1966 and was first published in 1982. In the preface Wang Bomin set the tone for the whole book: ?art has class character.?101 (???????? ) In this book Wang quoted theories from Marx, Engels, and Lenin to support his analysis. He had criticized the Four Wangs for their imitations of the ancient masters without any learning from nature. 100 Tong Shuye, ?Wang Lutai Huihua de Pingjia Wenti,? 669. 101 Wang Bomin ? ? ? , Zhongguo Huihuashi ? ? ? ? ? [History of Chinese Painting]. (finished in 1966.) (Shanghai: Renmin Meishu Chubanshe, 1982), preface, 2. 70 NIE CHONGZHENG ??? From late 1980s the political climate has become favorable for academics, especially for cultural affairs. Nie Chongzheng ? ? ? ?s article on the Four Wangs was written for the Zhongguo Meishu Quanji published in 1989, which is meant to be a brief and yet authoritative account of early Qing art history. Different from the previous discussions on the Four Wangs which were influenced by political ideologies, Nie?s article readdressed the issue from a scholarly point of view. In general Nie had given a positive judgment of the Four Wangs and quoted Qing scholars such as Qin Zuyong ??? (1824 ? 1884) in his criticism102. Of Wang Shimin, for example, Nie wrote: ?his brushstroke is reserved, and his style is vigorous and elegant.?103 (???????????? ?? ) Of Wang Hui, Nie wrote: ?his brushstroke is exposed, not reserved.?104 (? ?????????? ? ) Nie praised Wang Hui?s ability to depict nature and commented that as a professional painter, Wang Hui did not strictly adhere to Dong Qichang?s Dichotomy of Northern and Southern Schools.105 102 Qin?s landscape is based on the style of Wang Shimin and hiss opinion on the Four Wangs is quite favorable. For a brief biography of Qin and examples of his painting, see Li Zhujin ??? and Wan Qingli ??? , Zhongguo Xiandai Huihuashi Wanqing Bu 1840 ? 1911 ?????? ? ???? 1840 ? 1911 [History of Modern Chinese Painting in Late Qing Period 1840 ? 1911] (Taibei: Rock Publishing International, 1997), 38. 103 Nie Chongzheng ??? , ?Qingchu Liujia jiqi Huihua Yishu? ?????????? [The Six Great Painters of Early Qing Dynasty and Their Painting], in Zhongguo Meishu Quanji ?? ???? (??? 10: ???? ? ) [Selected Works of Chinese Art. Painting. Vol. 10: Painting during Qing Dynasty, Part II] (Shanghai: Renmin Meishu Chubanshe, 1989), 3. 104 Nie Chongzheng, ?Qingchu Liujia jiqi Huihua Yishu?, 5. 105 Ibid. 71 At the end of his article, Nie referred briefly to the debate of the Four Wangs during the twentieth century. There were many more painters besides the Four Wangs during the Qing dynasty, Nie wrote, who only learned from their teachers of the established conventions without any innovation; but it is due to the Four Wangs? great achievement that they got most attention. Nie pointed out, ?Because of the huge influence of the Four Wangs, it is inevitable that they had been discussed and judged either positively or negatively.?106 (??????? ???????????????????? ) Overall Nie criticized the Four Wangs? imitations of the old painters without innovation, but affirmed their excellent brushworks. INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON THE FOUR WANGS In 1992 an international conference was organized in Shanghai on the paintings of the Four Wangs. More than fifty international scholars attended the conference, which was considered by the participants ?the only discussion on the Four Wangs during the twentieth century that was purely scholarly.?107 In this thesis three essays from the conference proceedings will be mentioned to illustrate the views on the Four Wangs during the early nineties. Lu Fusheng ?? 106 Ibid., 12. 107 Duoyun Bianjibu ????? , Qingchu Siwang Huapai Yanjiu lunwenji ????????? ?? [Theses on Research of Four Wangs? Painting in Early Qing Dynasty] (Shanghai: Shanghai Shuhua Chubanshe, 1993), 928. 72 ? ?s article ?Siwang Lungang? ???? (General Remarks on the Four Wangs) offered a general and philosophical discussion on the Four Wangs concerning their historical and artistic development. Lu proposed an approach that emphasized on the intrinsic development of art history rather than a patron-painter relationship or the duality of orthodox/non-orthodox. A painter will always enter into the history of art in a certain point in its development. Painting is an ever evolving and changing historical form, which is constantly producing new painters and new paintings, thus forming a dynamic process with connections of painters. The intrinsic dynamics of art history will set its general norms and choices in its development. This is the historical truth in art, the result of its intrinsic dynamics. To study the Four Wangs from the intrinsic dynamics will help us see things clearly without many details. We will be free from such modes of thinking as to whether they served the court or they retreated into the mountains, whether they are conservative or innovative. This approach will offer a new starting point with profound significance.108 ??????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? 108 Lu Fusheng ??? , ?Siwang Lungang? ???? [General Remarks on the Four Wangs], in Qingchu Siwang Huapai Yanjiu lunwenji ??????????? [Theses on Research of Four Wangs? Painting in Early Qing Dynasty], edited by Duoyun Bianjibu ????? (Shanghai: Shanghai Shuhua Chubanshe, 1993), 3. 73 ?????????????????????????????? ???? ?? ??????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ???????? ?????????????? While Liu Gangji ??? expressed different ideas from Lu in his article ?Siwang Lun? ??? (On the Four Wangs), Liu did not believe that art is independent of its historical context. Instead, Liu pointed out the connections between the paintings of the Four Wangs and contemporary trends in literature and poetry. Seen from a larger historical background, the school of the Four Wangs was the product of the cultural policy and cultural trend during the Kangxi Reign [1662 ? 1723]. During this period in literature there was classical prose advocated by Fang Bao [1668 ? 1749], in poetry ?gentleness and honesty? were advocated by Shen Deqian [1673 ? 1769] who put emphasis on the instructional function of poetry. And in the field of painting it was the Four Wangs who were the major representatives. There was an obvious commonality among the three art forms in their aesthetic trend; this was the same cultural trend manifested in different art fields.109 109 Liu Gangji ??? , ?Siwang Lun? ??? [On the Four Wangs], in Qingchu Siwang Huapai Yanjiu lunwenji ??????????? [Theses on Research of Four Wangs? Painting in Early Qing Dynasty], edited by Duoyun Bianjibu ? ? ? ? ? (Shanghai: Shanghai Shuhua Chubanshe, 1993), 19. 74 These were the products of what the Emperor Kangxi had required ?pureness, truth, elegance, and integrity? from Confucian values.110 ?????????????????????????????? ????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????? ??????????????????????????? In Xue Yongnian ??? ?s article ?Lun Siwang? ??? (On the Four Wangs), Xue praised Wang Hui for his ability to learn from various painters as well as from nature. Xue summarized, in his article: . . . The art of the Four Wangs was highly valued by the Qing rulers and was even regarded as the orthodox, and no other painters or schools can achieve this status. There are two reasons for this. First, the Four Wangs, especially Wang Yuanqi and Wang Hui, did have new achievement in their language of the landscape painting. This is why such great painters as Wu Changshuo [1844 ? 1927] had praised them highly. Second, even though their art was not without the common aesthetics accepted by all classes, it still mainly reflected the value of the literati class, whose spiritual life tended to recognize the idea that ?the truth shall not change as 110 Liu Gangji, ?Siwang Lun,? 30. 75 long as the heaven does not change.? This is why the Qing rulers had chosen the Four Wangs to support their cultural construction instead of Shitao, a man of great personality and expressive spirit. If we ignore the first reason, we will simply regard the art of the Four Wangs as the embodiment of the feudal culture and thoughts and fail to see the artistic achievement and experience of the Four Wangs. If we ignore the second reason, we will not clearly see the limitation of the Four Wangs.111 ?? ??????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ?????? ???????? ????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????? ????????????????? ????????????? ??????????????????????????? 111 Xue Yongnian ??? , ?Lun Siwang? ??? [On the Four Wangs], in Qingchu Siwang Huapai Yanjiu lunwenji ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? [Theses on Research of Four Wangs? Painting in Early Qing Dynasty], edited by Duoyun Bianjibu ????? (Shanghai: Shanghai Shuhua Chubanshe, 1993), 98. 76 CHAPTER III: CONCLUSION In this thesis I have examined the reception of the Four Wangs during twentieth century China and the debates concerning traditional Chinese culture in a time of great confusion. Since the introduction of Western painting in an unprecedented scale in the early twentieth century, traditional Chinese painting has been re- examined in a new light. Whether or not the literati style deserves the highest status it used to enjoy has been under fierce debate. The Four Wangs of early Qing dynasty have become the symbol for the literati painting, and the debate on the Four Wangs is also a reflection of the attitude towards the literati painting. Those who wish to introduce the Western realistic style attack the Four Wangs, while those who are defending them find it necessary to uphold the tradition of literati painting as a whole. With the advent of socialist realism, advocated by Mao Zedong politically and Xu Beihong artistically, the literati style can no longer stay relevant and the Four Wangs received severe criticism. When the political environment became friendlier in the late 1980s, discussion surrounding the Four Wangs started to focus, once again, on the artistic rather than the political. No longer were the Four Wangs a symbol for any cultural ideologies or employed as a strategy for political discussion. Throughout this paper I have examined the aesthetic value of the Four Wangs? painting. After the long debates in the twentieth century on the Four Wangs, both during the Republican and the People?s Republic Periods, the value of the Four Wangs?s work will be appreciated again. 77 The root of this debate is found in Chinese philosophy. Confucianism has long been the dominating intellectual and moral guide for the Chinese literati class as well as the common people. The Confucian?s preaching of social involvement means that art should have a social function. From Confucian?s belief in the ability of art in improving morality and society to Cai Yuanpei?s support for the aesthetic education replacing religion, utilitarianism of art has long been part of traditional thinking. In literati theory, painting has become a way of self- cultivation. All these are in fact the utilitarianist approaches to art. Different from the Western intellectual tradition, in China, art has never been associated with metaphysics in any sense. Metaphysics is not fully developed and art is seldom discussed from the metaphysical perspective. Art has been regarded as a way to improve the self or the society. It is not surprising that the debate on the Four Wangs became a debate about traditional Chinese art itself during the first half of the twentieth century. It is also not any surprise that Marxist ideology became the dominant ideology as of 1949, when art became a tool for improving society, receiving wide intellectual support. From this perspective we can begin to understand the complexity of the debate on the Four Wangs in twentieth century China. 78 List of Illustrations Fig. 1 Wang Hui ?? (1632 ? 1717), Landscape after Guan Tong?s ?Streams and Mountains Clearing after Mist? ?Fang Guan Tong Xishan Qing?ai? ??? ? ? ? ? , detail, 1678. Handscroll, ink and color on paper, 29.3 x 353 cm, Shanghai Museum. Image after Hearn, Maxwell K., ed. Landscapes Clear and Radiant: The Art of Wang Hui (1632 - 1717) (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art; New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 96. [See text page 35] Fig. 2 Wang Hui ?? (1632 ? 1717), Landscape in the Style of Juran, ?Fang Juran Shanshui? ????? , hanging scroll, 1664, ink on paper, 131 x 65.5 cm, Princeton University Art Museum. Image after Hearn, Maxwell K., ed. Landscapes Clear and Radiant: The Art of Wang Hui (1632 - 1717) (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art; New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 24. [See text page 37] Fig. 3 Wang Hui ?? (1632 ? 1717), Landscape after Wang Meng?s ?Travelers amid Autumn Mountaints, ?Lin Wang Meng Qiushan Xingl?? ??????? . Hanging scroll, ink on silk, 58.7 x 26.7 cm, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Image after Hearn, Maxwell K., ed. Landscapes Clear and Radiant: The Art of Wang Hui (1632 - 1717) (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art; New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 76. [See text page 43] Fig. 4 Wang Hui ? ? (1632 ? 1717) and others, Kangxi Emperor on His Southern Inspection Tour ?Kangxi Nanxun Tu? ? ? ? ? ? . Scroll Seven Depicting the Journey from Wuxi to Suzhou and Tiger Hill, datable to 1698. Detail showing Kangxi?s disembarkation at the Chang Gate. Ink and color on silk, 67.8 x 2190 cm, University of Alberta, Mactaggart Art Collection, Edmonton. Image after Hearn, Maxwell K., ed. Landscapes Clear and Radiant: The Art of Wang Hui (1632 - 1717) (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art; New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 170. [See text page 54] 79 APPENDIX I: CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF ARTICLES AND BOOKS PUBLISHED DURING THE REPUBLICAN PERIOD (1911 ? 1949) 1917 Cai Yuanpei ??? . ?Yi Meiyu Dai Zongjiao Shuo? ??????? [Aesthetic Education Replacing Religion], Speech at the Beijing Shenzhou Xuehui ?? ???? [Beijing China Society], 1917. First published in Xin Qingnian ? ? ? (New Youth) 3, 6 (August 1917). Reprinted in Cai Yuanpei Meixue Wenxuan ? ? ? ? ? ? ? [Cai Yuanpei?s Essays on Aesthetics], 68-73. Beijing: Beijing University Press, 1983. Kang Youwei ? ? ? . Wanmucaotang Canghuamu ? ? ? ? ? ? ? [Wanmucaotang Painting Collection Catalogue], 1917. Reprinted in Ershi Shiji Zhongguo Meishu Wenxuan ?????????? [Selected Works on Fine Arts in 20th Century], edited by Lang Shaojun ??? and Shui Tianzhong ??? , 1:21-25. Shanghai: Shanghai Shuhua Chubanshe, 1999. 1918 Chen Duxiu ? ? ? . ?Meishu Geming? ? ? ? ? (Art Revolution). Xin Qingnian ? ? ? (New Youth) 6, no. 1 (1918). Reprinted in Ershi Shiji Zhongguo Meishu Wenxuan ? ? ? ? ? ? ?? ? ? [Selected Works on Fine Arts in 20th Century], edited by Lang Shaojun ? ? ? and Shui Tianzhong ??? , 1:29-30. Shanghai: Shanghai Shuhua Chubanshe, 1999. 1919 Cai Yuanpei ??? . ?Zai Beida Huafa Yanjiuhui zhi Yanshuo Ci? ????? ??????? [Speech at the Research Institute of Painting Techniques of Beijing University]. Beijing Daxue Rikan ?????? (Beijing University Daily), October 25, 1919. Reprinted in Cai Yuanpei Meixue Wenxuan ??? ? ? ? ? [Cai Yuanpei?s Essays on Aesthetics], 80-81. Beijing: Beijing University Press, 1983. 1920 Hu Peiheng ??? . ?Zhongguo Shanshuihua Xiesheng de Wenti? ?????? ???? [The Issue of Sketching in Chinese Landscape Painting], 1920. Reprinted in Yihai Gouchen, Jindai Zhongguo Meishu Lunji ???? , ?? ?????? [Collected Essays on Art in Modern China], edited by He Huaishuo ??? , 3:51-54. Taibei: Yishujia Chubanshe, 1991. 80 Jin Cheng ? ? . ?Jin Gongbei Jiangyanlu? ? ? ? ? ? ? [Lectures of Jin Cheng]. Huixue Zazhi ? ? ? ? (Magazine on Painting Studies), Peking University Huixue Zazhishe ????????? , 1920. Reprinted in Ershi Shiji Zhongguo Meishu Wenxuan ?????????? [Selected Works on Fine Arts in 20th Century], edited by Lang Shaojun ??? and Shui Tianzhong ??? , 1:43-47. Shanghai: Shanghai Shuhua Chubanshe, 1999. 1922 Chen Shizeng ??? . ?Wenrenhua zhi Jiazhi? ?????? [The Value of Literati Painting]. Huixue Zazhi ???? [Painting Study Magazine], 1922. Reprinted in Chen Shizeng ? ? ? , Zhongguo Huihuashi ? ? ? ? ? [History of Chinese Paintin], edited by Xu Shucheng ? ? ? , 177-187. Beijing: Zhongguo Renmin Daxue Chubanshe, 2004. 1925 Chen Shizeng ??? . Zhongguo Huihuashi ????? [History of Chinese Painting]. Jinan: Hanmo Yuan Meishu Yuan, 1925. Reprinted and edited by Xu Shucheng. Beijing: Zhongguo Renmin Daxue Chubanshe, 2004. Huang Binhong ??? . ?Guhua Wei? ??? (On Ancient Paintings). Xiaoshuo Shijie Congkan ????? ? [The World of Novels]. Shanghai: Shangwu Yinshuguan, 1925. Reprinted in Huang Binhong Yishu Shuibi ?????? ? [Essays on Art by Huang Binhong], edited by Lu Fusheng ??? , 24 -78. Shanghai: Wenyi Chubanshe, 2001. Teng Gu ? ? . Zhongguo Meishu Xiaoshi ? ? ? ? ? ? [Short History of Chinese Art], 1925. First published by Shangwu Yinshuguan (The Commercial Press), 1935. Reprinted in Teng Gu Yishu Wenji ?????? [Teng Gu?s Essays on Art], edited by Shen Ning ? ? , 71-93. Shanghai: Renmin Meishu Chubanshe, 2003. 1928 Deng Yizhe ??? . ?Guohua Luyan? ?? ?? [Casual Remarks on National Painting]. Chenbao Fukan ? ?? ? [Sumplementary to the Morning News] (May 31, 1926); In Deng Yizhe ??? , Yishujia de Nanguan ?????? (The Crisis of Artists). Beiping [Beijing]: Gucheng Shushe Chuban, 1928. Revised and published again in 1935. Reprinted in Deng Yizhe Quanji ??? ? ? (Complete Works of Deng Yizhe), 106-115. Hefui: Anhui Jiaoyu Chubanshe, 1998. ___. Yishujia de Nanguan ? ? ? ? ? ? [The Crisis of Artists]. Beiping [Beijing]: Gucheng Shushe Chuban, 1928. 81 Yu Jianhua ??? . ?Xiandai Zhongguo Huatan de Qingkuang? ??????? ?? [Situations on the Modern Chinese Art World]. Zhen Mei Shan ??? [Truth, Beauty, Good] 2, no. 2 (1928). Reprinted in Yu Jianhua Meishu Lunwen Xuan ???????? [Yu Jianhua?s Essays on Art], edited by Zhou Jiyin ??? , 63-73. Jinan: Shandong Meishu Chubanshe, 1986. 1929 Chen Xiaodie ? ? ? . ?Cong Meizhan Zuopin Ganjue dao Xiandai Guohua Huapai? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? [Schools of Modern Chinese Painting as Seen in the Works in Exhibition]. Meizhan Huikan ??? ? [Collected Essays on the Art Exhibition], published by the Editorial Board of the First National Art Exhibition [Diyijie Quanguo Meishu Zhanlanhui Bianjizu Faxing ??????????????? ], 1929. Reprinted in Ershi Shiji Zhongguo Meishu Wenxuan ?????????? [Selected Works on Fine Arts in 20th Century], edited by Lang Shaojun ??? and Shui Tianzhong ??? , 1:197-199. Shanghai: Shanghai Shuhua Chubanshe, 1999. 1930 Huang Binhong ? ? ? . ?Jin Shushinian Huazhe Ping? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? [Comments on the Painters in Recent Decades]. (Shanghai) Dongfang Zazhi ???? (The Oriental Magazine) 27, no. 1 (1930): 155-157. Reprinted in Yihai Gouchen, Jindai Zhongguo Meishu Lunji ???? , ??????? ? [Collected Essays on Art in Modern China], edited by He Huaishuo ?? ? , 2:155-159. Taibei: Yishujia Chubanshe, 1991. 1931 Jin Cheng ? ? . ?Huaxue Jiangyi? ? ? ? ? [Lectures on Painting]. Hushe Yuekan ???? [Hushe Monthly] July 1931, Vol. 21. Reprinted in Meishu Lunji ???? [Essays on Art], Vol. 4, Zhongguohua Taolun Zhuanji ?? ?? ??? [Special Issue on Chinese Painting], edited by Shen Peng ?? and Chen L?sheng ??? , 5-7. Beijing: Renmin Meishu Chubanshe, 1986. Fu Baoshi ? ? ? . Zhongguo Huihua Bianqian Shigang ?? ?? ?? ? ? [History of the Changes of the Chinese Painting]. Nanjing: Nanjing Shudian, 1931. Reprinted and introduced by Cheng Mingshi ? ? ? . Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chubanshe, 1998. 1932 Yao Yuxiang ??? . ?Lun Siwang Yu Qingdai Huajie Zhi Guanxi? ????? ?????? [On the Relationship between the Four Wangs and the Art World in Qing Dynasty]. In Zhongguohua Taolunji ???? ?? [Collected 82 Essays on the Chinese Painting], edited by Yao Yuxiang ??? , 319-320. Beiping [Beijing]: Lida Shuju, 1932. 1934 Qin Zhongwen ??? . Zhongguo Huihua Xueshi ?????? [History of Chinese Painting]. Beiping [Beijing]: Lida Shuju, 1934. 1936 Pan Tianshou ??? . Zhongguo Huihuashi ????? [History of Chinese Painting]. Shanghai: Shangwu Yinshuguan, 1936. Reprinted in Shanghai: Renmin Meishu Chubanshe, 1983. 1937 Yu Jianhua ? ? ? . Zhongguo Huihuashi ? ? ? ? ? [History of Chinese Painting]. Shanghai: Shangwu Yinshuguan, 1937. Reprinted in Shanghai: Shanghai Shudian, 1984. 1938 Hu Peiheng ? ? ? . Wang Shigu Huafa Juewei ? ? ? ? ? ? ? [On the Painting of Wang Hui]. Beiping [Beijing]: Liulichang Baowenzhai ???? ???? , 1938. Xu Beihong ? ? ? . ?Lun Zhongguohua? ? ? ? ? [On Chinese Painting]. Finished in 1938, and first published in (Bejing) Meishu ?? [Art], no. 6 (December 1978). Reprinted in Xu Beihong Yishu Wenji ??????? (Essays on Art by Xu Beihong), edited by Xu Boyang ??? and Jin Shan ? ? , 2:357-368. Taibei: Yishujia Chubanshe, 1987. 1942 Mao Zedong ??? . Zai Yanan Wenyi Zuotanhui shang de Jianghua ?? ?? ?? ?????? (Talks at the Yanan Forum on Art and Literature). [No publication place]: Huadong Xinhua Shudian, 1949. 1943 Xu, Beihong ??? . ?Xin Yishu Yundong zhi Huigu yu Qianzhan? ????? ? ? ? ? ? ? [The Retrospect and Prospect of New Art Movement]. (Chongqing) Shishi Xinbao ?? ?? ?? (New Times), 15 March 1943. Reprinted in Xu Beihong Yishu Wenji ??????? (Essays on Art by Xu Beihong), edited by Xu Boyang ??? and Jin Shan ?? , 2:427-433. Taibei: Yishujia Chubanshe, 1987. 1944 83 Fu Baoshi ??? . ?Zhongguo Shanshui Hualun? ?????? [Studies on the Chinese Landscape Painting]. Wenshi Zazhi ? ? ? ? [Magazine of Literature and History] 3, no. 3 & 4 combined (1944). Reprinted in Yihai Gouchen, Jindai Zhongguo Meishu Lunji ? ? ? ? , ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? [Collected Essays on Art in Modern China], edited by He Huaishuo ??? , 3:13-24. Taibei: Yishujia Chubanshe, 1991. 1946 Liu Sixun ??? . Zhonguo Meishu Fadashi ??????? [The Development of Chinese Painting]. Shanghai: Shangwu Yinshuguan, 1946. 1947 Xu Beihong ? ? ? . ?Xin Guohua Jianli zhi Buzhou? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? [Procedures to Establish the New National Painting]. (Beiping) Shijie Ribao ???? [World Daily], 16 October 1947. Reprinted in Ershi Shiji Zhongguo Meishu Wenxuan ?????????? [Selected Works on Fine Arts in 20th Century], edited by Lang Shaojun ??? and Shui Tianzhong ??? , 1:716-718. Shanghai: Shanghai Shuhua Chubanshe, 1999. Yu Jianhua ??? . ?Qishiwu Nian Lai de Guohua? ???????? [The Chinese Painting in the Last Seventy-Five Years]. Shen Bao ? ? , 21 September 1947, Shanghai. Reprinted in Yu Jianhua Meishu Lunwen Xuan ? ??????? [Yu Jianhua?s Essays on Art], edited by Zhou Jiyin ??? , 58-62. Jinan: Shandong Meishu Chubanshe, 1986. 84 APPENDIX II: CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF ARTICLES AND BOOKS PUBLISHED DURING THE PEOPLE?S REPUBLIC PERIOD (1949 ? PRESENT) 1950 Xu Beihong ??? . ?Mantan Shanshuihua? ????? [Random Talks on Landscape Painting]. Xin Jianshe ??? (New Development) (Monthly) 1, no. 12 (1950). Reprinted in Xu Beihong Yishu Wenji ??????? [Essays on Art by Xu Beihong],edited by Xu Boyang ??? and Jin Shan ?? , 2:573- 582. Taibei: Yishujia Chubanshe, 1987. 1958 Hu Peiheng ??? . Wang Shigu ??? . Shanghai: Renmin Meishu Chubanshe, 1958. Yan Lichuan ? ? ? . Zhongguo Meishu Shilue ? ? ? ? ? ? [A Concise History of Chinese Painting]. Beijing: Renmin Meishu Chubanshe, 1958, 1980. 1961 Tong Shuye ??? . ?Wang Lutai Huihua de Pingjia Wenti? ???????? ?? [The Issue of Evaluating the Paintings of Wang Lutai (Yuanqi)]. In Tong Shuye Meishu Lunji ??????? (Art Essays of Tong Shuye), edited by Tong Jiaoying ??? , 663-670. Shanghai: Guji Chubanshe, 1989. Yu Jianhua ??? . ?Ye Tan Wang Lutai Hua? ?????? [On the Paintings of Wang Yuanqi]. Wen Hui Bao ? ? ? , 26 July 1961. Reprinted in Yu Jianhua Meishu Lunwen Xuan ???????? [Yu Jianhua?s Essays on Art], edited by Zhou Jiyin ? ? ? , 323-330. Jinan: Shandong Meishu Chubanshe, 1986. 1966 Wang Bomin ??? . Zhongguo Huihuashi ????? [History of Chinese Painting]. Shanghai: Renmin Meishu Chubanshe, 1982. 1988 Nie Chongzheng ??? . ?Qingchu Liujia jiqi Huihua Yishu? ??????? ??? [The Six Great Painters of Early Qing Dynasty and Their Painting]. In Zhongguo Meishu Quanji ?????? (??? 10: ???? ? ) [Selected Works of Chinese Art. Painting. Vol. 10: Painting during Qing Dynasty, Part II], 1-12. Shanghai: Renmin Meishu Chubanshe, 1989. 1993 85 Duoyun Bianjibu ????? . Qingchu Siwang Huapai Yanjiu lunwenji ??? ???????? [Theses on Research of Four Wangs? Painting in Early Qing Dynasty]. Shanghai: Shanghai Shuhua Chubanshe, 1993. Liu Gangji ??? . ??Siwang? Lun? ??? ?? [On the Four Wangs]. In Qingchu Siwang Huapai Yanjiu lunwenji ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? [Theses on Research of Four Wangs? Painting in Early Qing Dynasty], edited by Duoyun Bianjibu ????? , 17-45. Shanghai: Shanghai Shuhua Chubanshe, 1993. Lu Fusheng ??? . ??Siwang? Lungang? ??? ??? [General Remarks on the Four Wangs]. In Qingchu Siwang Huapai Yanjiu lunwenji ????? ?? ? ? ? ? [Theses on Research of Four Wangs? Painting in Early Qing Dynasty], edited by Duoyun Bianjibu ????? , 1-16. Shanghai: Shanghai Shuhua Chubanshe, 1993. Xue Yongnian ? ? ? . ?Lun ?Siwang?? ? ?? ? ? [On the Four Wangs]. In Qingchu Siwang Huapai Yanjiu lunwenji ??????????? [Theses on Research of Four Wangs? Painting in Early Qing Dynasty], edited by Duoyun Bianjibu ? ? ? ? ? , 79-100. Shanghai: Shanghai Shuhua Chubanshe, 1993. 86 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Beijing Chubanshe. Fugu Huasheng: Wang Shigu ???? : ??? [The Great Master of Restoration: Wang Shigu]. Beijing Chubanshe, 2005. Beijing Gongyi Meishu Chubanshe. 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