ABSTRACT 
 
 
Title of Thesis: HOBOKEN EXCHANGE: TRANFORMING 
A GATEWAY INTO AN EXPERIENTIAL 
DESTINATIONS FOR CONSUMERS  
  
 Andrea Vincent De Carlo, Master of 
Architecture, Master of Real Estate 
Development 
  
Thesis Directed By: Matthew Bell FAIA, Professor, School of 
Architecture, Planning, Preservation, and Real 
Estate Development 
 
 
Hoboken Terminal contains five modes of public transportation, each of which, 
connects Hoboken to its surrounding municipalities, the rest of New Jersey, and to 
New York City. Hoboken Exchange explores how public transportation could be used 
as a means to capture the value of people in an area. Through the use of a market hall, 
this project looks to connect detached places, capitalize on commuter movement, and 
utilize flexible design to ensure adaptation to future social and market needs.  
  
HOBOKEN EXCHANGE: TRANSFORMING A GATEWAY INTO AN 
EXPERIENTIAL DESTINATION FOR CONSUMERS    
 
 
 
By: 
 
Andrea Vincent De Carlo 
 
 
 
 
 
Thesis submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the  
University of Maryland, College Park, in partial fulfillment 
of the requirements for the degree of 
[Master of Architecture] 
[2019] 
 
 
Advisory Committee: 
Matthew Bell, Professor/ Chair 
Karl Du Puy, Professor Emeritus 
Brian Kelly, Professor 
Maria Day-Marshall, Clinical Associate Professor 
Tanya Bansal, Clinical Assistant Professor 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
? Copyright by 
Andrea Vincent De Carlo 
2019 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
Dedication 
Thank you to my family, friends, and teachers for not only helping me throughout this 
profession, but also making me a better person in the process.  
ii 
 
 
 
Table of Contents 
Dedication ..................................................................................................................... ii 
List of Figures ............................................................................................................ viii 
Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................. 1 
Chapter 2: The Evolution of Retail ............................................................................... 3 
2.1 Downtown Shopping .......................................................................................... 3 
2.2 Highways and the Creation of Suburbs .............................................................. 3 
2.3 The Regional Mall .............................................................................................. 4 
The Mall Creator: Victor Gruen ........................................................................... 5 
The Regional Mall Format .................................................................................... 6 
2.4 Big Box Commodity Retailers ............................................................................ 9 
2.5 The Death of the Regional Mall ........................................................................ 10 
2.6 Commodity Retail vs. Specialty Retail ............................................................. 10 
Commodity Retail ............................................................................................... 11 
Specialty Retail ................................................................................................... 12 
Chapter 3: The Consumers of Tomorrow ................................................................... 14 
3.1 The Baby Boomers ........................................................................................... 14 
How did they shop in the past? ........................................................................... 15 
How does aging effect the way in which they shop? .......................................... 15 
How to they shop now? ....................................................................................... 16 
3.2 The Millennials ................................................................................................. 17 
Millennial Use of Technology ............................................................................ 17 
iii 
 
 
 
How they shop .................................................................................................... 18 
Chapter 4: Public Market History ............................................................................... 21 
4.1 European ........................................................................................................... 21 
Market Regulations ............................................................................................. 22 
4.2 Islamic ............................................................................................................... 22 
4.3 United States ..................................................................................................... 23 
4.4 Fall Out of Public Markets ................................................................................ 24 
Industrialization of Agriculture ........................................................................... 24 
4.5 Reintroduction ................................................................................................... 25 
Place Creation and Public Image ........................................................................ 25 
Health and Environmental Concerns .................................................................. 26 
Economic Opportunity ........................................................................................ 27 
Chapter 5: Public Market Typologies ......................................................................... 29 
5.1 Open Air Market ............................................................................................... 29 
Farmers Market ................................................................................................... 31 
Urban Impact ...................................................................................................... 32 
5.2 Street Markets ................................................................................................... 33 
Bazaar ................................................................................................................. 35 
Urban Impact ...................................................................................................... 37 
5.3 Markets in Public Buildings.............................................................................. 39 
Multi Use Public Building .................................................................................. 40 
5.4 Market Sheds .................................................................................................... 42 
iv 
 
 
 
Open Air Sheds ................................................................................................... 43 
5.5 Enclosed Market Houses ................................................................................... 43 
Pike Place Market ............................................................................................... 44 
Urban Impact ...................................................................................................... 46 
5.6 Central Markets ................................................................................................. 48 
Center Market ..................................................................................................... 49 
5.7 Wholesale Terminal Markets ............................................................................ 50 
Terminal Market ..................................................................................................... 52 
5.3 Urban Impact ................................................................................................ 55 
Chapter 6: Retail Innovations and Design Impact ...................................................... 57 
6.1 Autonomous Vehicles ....................................................................................... 57 
6.2 Augmented Reality ........................................................................................... 59 
6.3 Automated Checkout ........................................................................................ 61 
6.4 Smart Locker Terminals ................................................................................... 63 
Chapter 7: Hoboken Analysis ..................................................................................... 65 
7.1 Site Selection Matrix ..................................................................................... 65 
7.2 Demographics ............................................................................................... 66 
7.3 Site Movement .............................................................................................. 71 
8.4 Site Analysis ................................................................................................. 77 
8.5 Site Opportunities ......................................................................................... 81 
Incomplete Street Wall ....................................................................................... 81 
Street Termini ..................................................................................................... 82 
v 
 
 
 
Disconnect Places ............................................................................................... 83 
Chapter 9: Design ....................................................................................................... 85 
9.1: To Create, Renovate, and Connect Place ......................................................... 85 
Place Creation and Renovation ........................................................................... 85 
Place Connection ................................................................................................ 88 
9.2 Capture the Value of People ............................................................................. 88 
Masterplan Street Termini .................................................................................. 89 
North Elevation ................................................................................................... 90 
East Elevation ..................................................................................................... 90 
First Floor Plan ................................................................................................... 91 
Second Floor Plan ............................................................................................... 91 
Typical Office Plan ............................................................................................. 92 
Commuter Movement Throughout Building ...................................................... 92 
Building Transects .............................................................................................. 93 
Arrival Perspectives ............................................................................................ 94 
9.3 Flexible Design ................................................................................................. 96 
Hudson Place Flexibility ..................................................................................... 96 
Green Roof Flexibility ........................................................................................ 97 
Typical Retail Flexibility .................................................................................... 99 
Market Hall Flexibility ..................................................................................... 100 
Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 104 
Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 105 
vi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
vii 
 
 
 
List of Figures 
Figure 1: Northland Center Centripetal Plan (source: Maitland, Barry) ...................... 7 
Figure 2: Mayfair, Milwaukee Dumbbell Plan (source: Maitland, Barry) ................... 7 
Figure 3: Lakehurst Center 3 Anchor Plan (source: Maitland, Barry) ......................... 8 
Figure 4: Woodfield Mall 4 Anchor Plan (Maitland Berry) ......................................... 8 
Figure 5: Commodity Retail Price vs. Convenience Example (Source: Egelanian) ... 12 
Figure 6: Open Air Market (source: author) ............................................................... 31 
Figure 7: Street Market (source: author) ..................................................................... 35 
Figure 8: Bazaar of Kashan (Source: Moohavi) ......................................................... 36 
Figure 9: First Floor Market with Second Floor Town Hall (source: author) ............ 39 
Figure 10: Old Market House Fayetteville, NC - Fist Floor Plan (Credit: Biggs, 
Archie A.) ................................................................................................................... 40 
Figure 11: Old Market House Fayetteville, NC - Second Floor Plan (Credit: Biggs, 
Archie A.) ................................................................................................................... 41 
Figure 12: Old Market House Fayetteville, NC - South Elevation (Credit: Biggs, 
Archie A.) ................................................................................................................... 41 
Figure 13: Market Shed (source: author) .................................................................... 42 
Figure 14: Enclosed Market (source: author) ............................................................. 44 
Figure 15: Pike Place Market (Source: City of Seattle) .............................................. 46 
Figure 16: Civitas Diagram (source: Leon Krier) ....................................................... 47 
Figure 17: Central Market (source: author) ................................................................ 49 
viii 
 
 
 
Figure 18: Wholesale Terminal (source: author) ........................................................ 52 
Figure 19: Fulton Fish Market Plan (Source: Library of Congress) ........................... 54 
Figure 20: Dedication of New Market Building, 1939 (Source: New York Public 
Library) ....................................................................................................................... 54 
Figure 21: AV rideshare drop off zone (Source: Author) ........................................... 59 
Figure 22: Augmented Reality Diagram (Source: Author) ......................................... 61 
Figure 23: Self Checkout Security Threshold Diagram (Source: Author) ................. 63 
Figure 24: Site Location Map (Source: Author) ......................................................... 66 
Figure 25: Population Growth (Source: US Census 2016) ......................................... 67 
Figure 26: Hoboken Age Graph ( Source: US Census) .............................................. 68 
Figure 27: Median Household Income Change (Source: US Census) ........................ 69 
Figure 28: Median Income Values (Source: Zillow Home Value Index) ................... 70 
Figure 29: Hoboken PATH Movement (Source: Author, ARC GIS) ......................... 72 
Figure 30: Hoboken NJ TRANSIT Movement (Source: Author, ARC GIS) ............. 73 
Figure 31: Hoboken Light Rail Movement (Source: Author, ARC GIS) ................... 74 
Figure 32: Hoboken Bus Movement (Source Author, GIS) ....................................... 75 
Figure 33: Hoboken Ferry Movement (Source Author, GIS) ..................................... 76 
Figure 34: Hoboken Movement Synthesis (Source: Author, GIS) ............................. 77 
Figure 35: Hoboken Boundaries (Source: Author, ARC GIS) ................................... 78 
Figure 36: Streets (Source: Author, ARC GIS) .......................................................... 79 
Figure 37: Landmarks (Source: Author, ARC GIS) ................................................... 80 
Figure 38: Synthesis (Source: Author, ARC GIS) ...................................................... 81 
ix 
 
 
 
Figure 39:Incomplete Street Wall (Source: Author, ARC GIS) ................................. 82 
Figure 40: Terminating Streets (Source: Author, ARC GIS) ..................................... 83 
Figure 41: Disconnected Space (Source: Author, ARC GIS) ..................................... 84 
Figure 42: Places Diagram (Source: Author) .............................................................. 85 
Figure 43: Warrington Plaza (Source: Author) ........................................................... 86 
Figure 44: Hudson Place (Source: Author) ................................................................. 86 
Figure 45: Washington Street Alley (Source: Author) ............................................... 87 
Figure 46: Hudson Railyards Park (Source: Author) .................................................. 87 
Figure 47: Hoboken Place Connection Diagram (Source: Author) ............................ 88 
Figure 48: Masterplan Street Terminus (Source Author) ........................................... 89 
Figure 49: North Elevation (Source: Author) ............................................................. 90 
Figure 50: East Elevation (Source: Author) ................................................................ 90 
Figure 51: First Floor Plan (Source: Author) .............................................................. 91 
Figure 52: Second Floor Plan (Source: Author) ......................................................... 91 
Figure 53: Typical Office Plan (Source: Author) ....................................................... 92 
Figure 54: Movement Through Building (Source: Author) ........................................ 92 
Figure 55: Market Hall Transect (Source: Author) ..................................................... 93 
Figure 56: Lobby Transect (Source: Author) .............................................................. 93 
Figure 57: Bus Terminal Transect (Source: Author) .................................................. 94 
Figure 58: Walking from NJ TRANSIT (Source: Author) ......................................... 94 
Figure 59:  Eating on the Mezzanine Level (Source: Author) .................................... 95 
Figure 60: Commuting from Sinatra Drive (Source: Author) .................................... 95 
x 
 
 
 
Figure 61: Arriving from NJ TRANSIT Bus (Source: Author) .................................. 96 
Figure 62: Taxi Pick Up Drop Off (Source: Author) .................................................. 97 
Figure 63: Hudson Place Market Festival (Source: Author) ...................................... 97 
Figure 64: Flexible Farm-to-Table Roof (Source Author) ......................................... 98 
Figure 65: Flexible Roof Event Space (Source Author) ............................................. 98 
Figure 66: Typical Retail Demising Walls (Source: Author) ..................................... 99 
Figure 67: Open West Market (Source Author) ....................................................... 100 
Figure 68: 10'X10' Merchant Stall (Source: Author) ................................................ 101 
Figure 69: 20'X10' Merchant Stall (Source: Author) ................................................ 101 
Figure 70: 20'X10' Prepared Food Stall (Source: Author) ........................................ 102 
Figure 71: 15'X10' Prepared Food Stall (Source: Author) ........................................ 102 
Figure 72: Through Circulation (Source: Author) .................................................... 103 
Figure 73: Gauntlet Circulation (Source: Author) .................................................... 103 
Figure 74: Pocket Retail Space (Source: Author) ..................................................... 103 
 
  
xi 
 
 
 
Chapter 1: Introduction 
Retail is more than just commercial establishments where people go to replenish 
goods to survive. It is an integral piece of the public realm in any city or 
neighborhood. In Stephen A. Kliment?s book, Retail and Mixed-Use Facilities, 
Kliment states, ?Shopping is the whole foundation of communal life. Whether in the 
form of a shopping center, a freestanding store, or a street-level shop, retail space 
makes up the bottom 30 feet of every city. It is the ?glue? that holds the city 
together?.1 Shopping is an activity in itself that inspires social interaction and gives 
people the ability to enjoy the city in which they live or in which they are visiting.  
Markets are a type of retail center that take on multiple forms in the urban 
environment. Throughout history, the markets have responded to place and time in 
order to provide the city with the ability to shop for produce. Although the primary 
uses of markets have changed over time, they are still establishments that attract 
people. The shape and size of market is a direct response not only to societal needs, 
but also to the urban scape. From markets that form from open space to large retail 
 
1 Kliment, Stephen A, Vilma Barr, and Jerde Partnership International. 2004. Building 
Type Basics for Retail and Mixed-Use Facilities. Building Type Basics. New York: 
Wiley. 
 
1 
 
 
 
entities that need direct access to infrastructure, the requirements of each type vary in 
the city.   
 
2 
 
 
 
Chapter 2: The Evolution of Retail 
2.1 Downtown Shopping 
Before the creation of automobiles, consumers shopped in the downtowns of major 
cities. Downtown shopping consisted of general stores and full line department stores. 
General stores carried general merchandised items that supplied consumers with a 
variety of supplies. Department stores followed general store and were one-stop shops 
for everything a person needed in to sustain their daily life. They had separate 
departments that catered to different needs anywhere from clothing, to hardware, to 
kitchen supplies, to toys, and everything in-between.2 Department stores allowed the 
luxury for shoppers to compare products and prices while staying in the same 
location.3 
 
2.2 Highways and the Creation of Suburbs 
The advent of the mass production of the automobile forever changed the retail 
environment. Before the automobile, trains and ports created a system that connected 
major cities. It made sense that these cities acted as anchors with development 
 
2 Peiser, Richard B, and David Hamilton. 2012. Professional Real Estate 
Development: The ULI Guide to the Business. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: Urban Land 
Institute. 
3 Tokosh, Joseph. 2019. ?Is the Macy?s in My Mall Going to Close? Uncovering the 
Factors Associated with the Closures of Macy?s, Sears, and J.C. Penney Stores.? 
Growth & Change 50 (1): 403?23. doi:10.1111/grow.12269. 
3 
 
 
 
occurring along the train line as a connecting stitch. As cars became more popular, 
people were not confined to the train line anymore; they were able to travel outward 
in any direction from the city. Individuals who were able to leave the congestion of 
the city and purchase cheap land took the opportunity.4  
 
The expansion of the suburbs continued in 1956 when the United States of America 
passed the Interstate Highway Act. This act allowed for the investment of $25 billion 
in funding highway infrastructure for 41,000 miles roads.5 More access allowed for 
further out reach into the isolated areas in the country.  
 
2.3 The Regional Mall 
The displacement of people into the suburbs created a demand for retail outside of the 
city. Downtown retailers took advantage of the demand and took their businesses in a 
trade area that would serve the suburban communities. In their article, ?Dead Malls: 
Suburban Activism, Local Spaces, Global Logistics? in the International Journal of 
Urban and Regional Research, Vanessa Parlette and Deborah Cowen state, ?The 
 
4 Squires, Richard. 2008. ?The Interstate Sprawl System.? Society 45 (3): 277?82. 
doi:10.1007/s12115-008-9081-9. 
5 Boarnet, Marlon G. ?National Transportation Planning: Lessons from the U.S. 
Interstate Highways.? Transport Policy 31 (January 2014) 73-82. 
doi;10.1016/j.tranpol.2013.11.003 
 
4 
 
 
 
regional mall became the ubiquitous retail form across the North American suburban 
landscape, touted by developers as the harbingers of community and shopping 
convenience in the shifting tide of urban form and investment?. The regional mall 
was a cultural staple to the suburban residents. 6 
 
The Mall Creator: Victor Gruen 
Victor Gruen was Jewish refugee from Vienna who escaped Hitler?s reign. He was a 
major contributor to chain store, department store, shopping center, and downtown 
designs.  In the biography, Mall Maker, M. Jeffery Hardwick claims, ?Gruen wanted 
to make shopping into a delightful and amusing way for people to while away their 
hours, temporarily to transcend their own concerns?. After World War II, Gruen and 
his partners? business ventures fell until the department store, Milliron, requested a 
suburban store in southern California. With a new typology had to come a new school 
of thought. Milliron wanted an innovative center that was more than just a department 
store in a suburb. Gruen saw the addition of highway systems and the popularity of 
cars and introduced his version of a shopping center focused on the automobile. 
Milliron was a huge success and gave him public notoriety. From there he introduced 
the enclosed shopping center when working on Montclair Shopping Center in 
 
6 Parlette, Vanessa, and Deborah Cowen. 2011. ?Dead Malls: Suburban Activism, 
Local Spaces, Global Logistics.? International Journal of Urban & Regional Research 
35 (4): 794?811. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2427.2010.00992.x. 
5 
 
 
 
Houston, Texas. This center would be covered due to the humidity in Houston, have 
two department stores, and a pedestrian street lined with window-shopping. 
Eventually, the project suffered from insufficient funds, but Gruen continued his 
pursuit of the shopping center. Following projects continued to suffer until Gruen 
realized that Department stores had the capital to partner with a developer to finance 
the project. Northland in Detroit was created in 1954 and was one of the most popular 
shopping centers in the country. The creation of the center propelled Gruens career to 
future malls and various Urban renewal projects.7   
 
 
The Regional Mall Format 
Victor Gruen?s initial plans of regional malls consisted of a ?merchandising plan? 
where anchor tenants would be the regional draw while leading shoppers past 
secondary tenants. From this philosophy different shapes and plans were formed. The 
first example is of Northland Center, which incorporates the centripetal form where 
the department store is centralized and all the secondary stores form around it.  
 
A better situation for secondary tenants is the ?dumb bell? plan with two anchors on 
opposite ends and secondary retail in between. An example of this center is Mayfair 
 
7 Hardwick, M. Jeffrey, and Victor Gruen. 2004. Mall Maker: Victor Gruen, Architect 
of an American Dream. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 
6 
 
 
 
Shopping Center in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The overall concept was applied to 
centers with three or four centers; all of which having anchors at the end. 8 
 
 
Figure 1: Northland Center Centripetal Plan (source: Maitland, Barry) 
 
 
Figure 2: Mayfair, Milwaukee Dumbbell Plan (source: Maitland, Barry) 
 
 
 
8 Maitland, Barry. 1985. Shopping Malls: Planning and Design. New York: Nichols. 
7 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3: Lakehurst Center 3 Anchor Plan (source: Maitland, Barry) 
 
 
 
Figure 4: Woodfield Mall 4 Anchor Plan (Maitland Berry) 
 
Victor Gamble wanted these centers to mimic urban main streets, but failed to 
do so. They were located in the middle of open areas and were surrounded 
8 
 
 
 
with parking.9 Many different layouts and schemes were varied over the 
regional mall, but the consistent factor was the department store anchors that 
the surrounding population required. 
 
2.4 Big Box Commodity Retailers 
Two categories of stores are mentioned in the ULI Retail Manuscript that led to the 
demise of department stores. Discount stores, such as Walmart, were able to reduce 
their operating costs, undercut the pricing of department stores, and locate themselves 
more conveniently to population clusters. These stores specialized in a model that 
provided consumers with cheaper products for everyday needs. In addition, the 
introduction of ?Big Box Retailers?, also known as ?Category Killers?, aided to the 
decline of department stores. The Big Box Retailers specialized in selling a specific 
commodity more conveniently at a lower cost point than the department stores. This 
model provided consumers with the convenience to go to a store that contained 
variety of a specific type of product. In both models, pricing and convenience were 
better provided at the discount store and big box retailer. These stores vary anywhere 
from 20,000 square feet for more specialized items to 120,000 square feet for the 
more general products. Examples of these ?category killers? include Toys R? Home 
Depot, PetsMart, Staples, and Us. Their ability to receive products directly from 
 
9 Maitland, Barry. 1990. The New Architecture of the Retail Mall. New York: Van 
Nostrand Reinhold. 
9 
 
 
 
manufacturers and order products in large quantities allowed them to set lower prices 
for the merchandise. 10   
 
2.5 The Death of the Regional Mall 
This transition in the way people were shopping for their commodity goods took 
people away from shopping at regional malls. At their peak, there were over 3000 
regional malls located in the United Stated. Currently, there are around 1,100 left in 
operation. In the book, The Death and Life of the Shopping Mall, Josh Sandburn 
states, ?Since 2002, department stores have lost 448,000 jobs at a 25% decline, while 
the number of closures this year (2017) is on pace to pace to surpass the worst depths 
of the Great Recession?11. Currently, the regional malls that remain are best in class 
specialty retail centers for their given trade area. People in the suburbs no longer need 
to go to a regional mall on a consistent basis.  
2.6 Commodity Retail vs. Specialty Retail 
Although the main goal of any retailer is to sell goods, not all of them operate the 
same way. In order to achieve a better understanding of how retailers work, it is 
 
10 Parlette, Vanessa, and Deborah Cowen. 2011. ?Dead Malls: Suburban Activism, 
Local Spaces, Global Logistics.? International Journal of Urban & Regional Research 
35 (4): 794?811. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2427.2010.00992.x. 
11 Sanburn, Josh. 2017. ?The Death and Life of the Shopping Mall.? Time 190 (5): 
40?45. 
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=asn&AN=124223221&site=e
host-live. 
10 
 
 
 
imperative to understand the differences between commodity and specialty retail. The 
distinction between the two is based on their intrinsic philosophies of how and what 
to sell to consumers. These philosophies influence the type of product that is sold, the 
purpose of shopping, and the design methodology of the entity.  
 
Commodity Retail 
The commodity retail model is focused on price and convenience. It is established on 
the convenience of the product and the price of the goods being sold. The 
convenience and price of items are directly correlated depending on the accessibility 
to the retailer. When a retailer is more convenient to get to, the prices of the products 
are generally higher. If the retailer is less convenient to get to, the prices are generally 
lower. An example provided in the ULI Manuscript written by Nick Egelanian shows 
the choice of a shopper on purchasing paper towel at four different locations. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Option 1 Option 2 Option 3 Option 4 
11 
 
 
 
Retailer CVS Safeway Target Costco 
Pharmacy Grocery Store   
  
Location Four city 1.5 miles 5.5 miles 14.5 miles 
blocks from from the from the from the 
the Costumer consumer consumer consumer 
    
Price of $3.13 per roll $2.99 per roll $2.29 (multi $1.79 (bulk 
Product   pack)  pack) 
  
Figure 5: Commodity Retail Price vs. Convenience Example (Source: Egelanian) 
 
After studying the example, there are certain themes that appear between the 
types of retailers. The distance of the store, the price of the product, and the 
size of the store all factor into how they are selling their goods. As the 
distance is further and further from the concentration of the population, the 
retailer has to have a reason for people to shop at their location; thus, selling 
their products cheaper and in larger quantities.  
Specialty Retail 
Specialty retail has a different set of values, which separates it from the 
commodity retail model. The specialty retail model works by looking at the 
12 
 
 
 
product selection and overall place of the retailer. It is predicated on the 
spending of the discretionary income and the use of discretionary time. The 
trade area of a specialty retail center can span across states depending on the 
extent of the trade area is. These centers offer an experience that cannot be 
found on regular basis. People will travel further distances to these centers 
because of the attraction of the experience as a whole. The major concepts of 
price and convenience, which are found in the commodity retail model, do not 
apply to the specialty retail model. 
 
Inherently, the two types of retail do not work effectively when in the same center. If 
a place is a destination, it is no longer convenient. The addition of commodity retail 
will be detrimental to the quality of stores in a specialty center.  In addition, the rents 
in specialty centers are much higher than the rents in commodity centers. A 
commodity retailer will find it more advantageous to be located in an area that 
focuses on the price convenience model.  
13 
 
 
 
Chapter 3: The Consumers of Tomorrow 
Inherently, human beings are consumers of goods and produce and the way we have 
gone about consuming throughout history has evolved. In order to understand future 
shopping tendencies, it is important to explore different generations of shoppers. 
Important factors to look at include shopper values, upbringings, daily needs, 
discretionary incomes, spending power, and various other data. In retail design, it is 
important to know who is shopping and what they are going   
 
The two important generations to look at are the Baby Boomers and the Millennials. 
Both generations account for around 70 million people and are both around 25% of 
the United States population.  The shopping trends of aging Baby Boomers and the 
rising Millennials will determine how retail is handled in the present and in the future.  
 
3.1 The Baby Boomers 
The Baby Boomer was born after World War II between the year 1946 and 1964. By 
the year 2025, 20% of the United States population will be over 65 years old.12 With 
improvements in healthcare and medicine, this generation projects to be older for a 
 
12 Parment, Anders. 2013. ?Generation Y Vs. Baby Boomers: Shopping Behavior, 
Buyer Involvement and Implications for Retailing.? Journal of Retailing and 
Consumer Services 20 (2): 189?99. doi:10.1016/j.jretconser.2012.12.001. 
 
14 
 
 
 
longer amount of time than any other generation in the past. At one point, they 
accounted for the most spending power in the United States. This is the cohort of 
whom major retailers used to form their marketing strategies around. Baby Boomers 
are an extremely important consumer profile that should not be overlooked when 
designing a retail center. 
How did they shop in the past? 
It is important to understand that the Baby Boomers are accustomed to a certain way 
of shopping. This generation grew up in a time when shopping was revolved around 
automobiles. Two major facets of retail are how people get to the site and how people 
get the products from the store to their home. Shopping centers had to be able to 
accommodate the ability to be accessible by car and the ability to provide parking to 
the consumer. 
How does aging effect the way in which they shop? 
Benjamin Franklin once cleverly stated that there are two constants in life: Death and 
Taxes. As human beings get older, their physical abilities diminish. Old activities that 
used to be easy get harder to do such as getting out of a car, bending over to reach for 
an item, having to walk across the entire store to get the needed item, or reading a 
label on medication. It is important to be able to account for the aging population in 
the design of retail. With all the discussion on making areas more vibrant and 
15 
 
 
 
focusing on the millennial shopper, it is still important to account for the other fifth of 
the population in retail design.13 
How to they shop now? 
There has been research done on how older generations shop now. Older generations 
have certain trends when shopping for items. Based on past experience and past 
purchases, they have a better idea of what suits them. In the terms of clothing, they 
already have an established wardrobe and are less likely to experiment with new 
brands and new looks. They exploratory shopping consists of matching items with 
their current wardrobe.14 
Overall the Baby Boomer generation has an established pattern in the way they shop. 
They are experienced and have been around many products, which leads them to 
knowing what stores they like to shop at and what brands have worked for them. 
When designing for this age group, it is important to take into account their physical 
abilities.  
 
 
13 Underhill, Paco. 1999. Why We Buy: The Science of Shopping. New York: Simon 
& Schuster. 
14 Underhill, Paco. 1999. Why We Buy: The Science of Shopping. New York: Simon 
& Schuster. 
16 
 
 
 
3.2 The Millennials 
Generation Y or the Millennial Generation is named after the transition into the new 
millennium. Millennials account for 25% of the United States population and they are 
just catching their footing on the total spending power in the United States15. It is not 
fair to generalize all Millennials as having the same habits; however, they do 
generally share similar upbringings and use in technology. 
Millennial Use of Technology 
Generation Y grew up in a time of rapid technological development and are widely 
regarded as technologically savvy. This is the first generation that has had the Internet 
available to them since the moment they were born.16 The Internet is now a part of 
their everyday life. It is estimated that 97% of United States Millennials own a mobile 
devise and 94% own a computer.17 Key aspects of the Internet to look at are the 
access to information and applications that are used on a daily basis. Today, 
information is readily available to anyone. This provides consumers with the ability 
to become exposed to new items and research products at leisure prior to purchase. 
The application of the internet stems to checking social media, to ordering ride 
 
15 Calienes, Elizabeth, Candy Carmel-Gilfilen, and Margaret Portillo. ?Inside the 
Mind of the Millennial Shopper: Designing Retail Spaces for a New 
Generation.? Journal of Interior Design 41, no. 4 (2016): 47?67. 
16 Holicza, Peter, and Esmeralda Kad?na. 2018. ?Smart and Secure? Millennials on 
Mobile Devices.? Interdisciplinary Description of Complex Systems 16 (3?A): 376?
83. doi:10.7906/indecs.16.3.10. 
17 Mangold, W.G. and Smith, K.T., 2012. Selling to Millennials with online reviews. 
Business Horizons, 55(2), pp.141-153. 
17 
 
 
 
shares, to transferring money; making most daily needs possible through the touch of 
a finger.  
How they shop 
Millennials are cautious about what others think about the products they own more 
than past generations.  In the article, ?The Mannmaven: An Agent for Diffusing 
market Information?, Klaus-Peter Wiedmann , Gianfranco Walsh, and Vincent-
Wayne Mitchell describe mavens as both consumers and marketers. They are 
distributors of market information to their peers. The information they researched 
revolves around the concept that the younger generation relies on their peers for 
product information more than commercial sources.18 With their ability to research 
and shop via the Internet, they have the capacity to look beyond just basic product 
information. This generation is able to look at what values the brand has and look to 
purchase from companies that share similar ones.19  This adds a pressure on brands 
and shopping centers to become relatable and personable to the Millennial 
Generation.   
 
 
18 Wiedmann, Klaus-Peter, Gianfranco Walsh, and Vincent-Wayne Mitchell. "The 
Mannmaven: an agent for diffusing market information." Journal of Marketing 
Communications 7, no. 4 (2001): 195-212. 
19 Mangold, W.G. and Smith, K.T., 2012. Selling to Millennials with online reviews. 
Business Horizons, 55(2), pp.141-153. 
18 
 
 
 
The best way for shoppers to understand the product they are purchasing is to look at 
reviews provided by other consumers. Two terms used in the article ?Inside the Mind 
of the Millennial Shopper: Designing Retail Spaces for a New Generation.? are 
?webrooming? and ?showrooming?. Webrooming describes the act of browsing 
products online and purchasing them in store while showrooming describes browsing 
in store and purchasing the item online. Both examples show how Generation Y are 
using technology to find the best value for their purchase, but still value looking at a 
product in store.20 Both methods give shoppers the ability to eliminate some options 
before they actually finalize a purchase.  
Although each generation has their own values and methods in which they elect to 
shop, they still act based on individual motives, social motives, and on impulse.21  It 
is important for retailer to understand that they need to be flexible. Having both a 
physical and online presence is the standard for stores in today?s environment. This 
gives all generations the ability to browse, research, and buy items however they best 
feel comfortable. In brick and mortar stores, it is important take into account the 
physical limitations of human beings and the ?dynamics of shopping?. People need to 
 
20 Calienes, Elizabeth, Candy Carmel-Gilfilen, and Margaret Portillo. ?Inside the 
Mind of the Millennial Shopper: Designing Retail Spaces for a New Generation.? 
Journal of Interior Design 41, no. 4 (2016): 47?67. 
21 Tauber, Edward M. "Why Do People Shop?" Journal of Marketing 36, no. 4 
(1972): 46-49. doi:10.2307/1250426. 
19 
 
 
 
be able to navigate through a store, access goods, and be able to experience the 
product prior to purchase.22  
 
 
22 Underhill, Paco. 1999. Why We Buy: The Science of Shopping. New York: Simon 
& Schuster. 
20 
 
 
 
Chapter 4: Public Market History 
The market hall typology as we have seen it today is a development of many different 
components from the past. Markets were important elements in any developed city. 
From the origins of the market in Europe, to the Middle East, to the United States, 
there has been a clear procession of the implementation and success of markets.   
4.1 European 
Markets have historically been areas where the exchange of goods took place. In 
ancient Greece, the agora was a flexible open space that was used for administrative, 
political, and religious activity; but was also a place of trade and commerce. Vendors 
would set up temporary stalls or rented spaces in stoas to sell and trade goods. 
Likewise, in ancient Rome, the forum acted as the public commerce area. Some of 
these market areas are still used today, such as the Piazza Erbe in Verona, Italy. 
Commerce hubs were not just places in open squares; streets were also areas trade. In 
the Islamic tradition, Bazaars offered the trade of goods, warehouses, inns, public 
baths, and other uses that supported the market.23   
France and Great Britain in the nineteenth began to design buildings that would 
contain the market. The constructions of the markets were based on the French state 
promoting the use of iron to support their iron industry. The use of iron allowed for 
architects to improve on the design of the typology by creating trusses to allow for 
 
23 Tangires, Helen. Public markets. WW Norton & Company, 2008. 
21 
 
 
 
light and air to get into the building while also eliminating the use of columns in the 
market space.  
Market Regulations 
It was important for a city to place and enforce laws in order to make the market 
appealing for vendors to sell their goods and to protect the public from unfair trade 
practices. Merchants and traders wanted to know that they would have the 
opportunity to be competitive in the market. A major regulation was to fight against 
forestalling. Forestalling is the purchasing of product before they reached the market. 
Cities would also try to instill ?market peace? which would entail the maintenance of 
roads, the protection against thieves, and keeping the market in good order. Finally, 
the separation of certain products sold was important in creating a desirable location.  
Certain trades would only be able to operate at certain times and in certain locations. 
For example, the fish and meat vendors would be grouped together in separate 
locations in the market to keep the smell away from the rest of the vendors.24 
 
4.2 Islamic 
The word Bazaar originated in Middle Persia and Armenia. The word means market 
place and is a gathering of shops where goods and services are traded. Over the 
course of history, the word spread to other civilizations and acquired three separate 
 
24 Tangires, Helen. Public markets. WW Norton & Company, 2008. 
22 
 
 
 
definitions: the marketplace, the market day, and the market as a whole. ?The Islamic 
civilization was founded on the traces or pre-Islamic empires whose economies 
depended on entirely on trade and agriculture? The bazaar in pre-Islamic Arabia 
existed as either urban markets or seasonal temporary markets. The temporary 
markets would be hosted in different areas at different times of the months to 
encourage travel from one bazaar to another. The expansion of Islamic lands led to 
the development and placement of bazaars in different territories. Over time, the 
bazaars became integral pieces in the urban planning of cities. 25 
4.3 United States 
More than a mere convenience, it was the duty of the state to 
provide facilities for the buying and selling of food. ? Helen 
Tangires 
Cities and towns in the United States needed to facilitate the ability for people to buy 
and trade food. The United States market customs, typologies, practices, and laws 
paralleled its European origins. Governments knew that markets were the towns/cities 
primary source of food and therefore made sure that they were properly located, 
financed, publicly supported, and flexible in design. In the early 20th century, officials 
believed that markets would be able to alleviate the rising food costs and lack of fresh 
 
25 Gharipour, Mohammad, ed. The Bazaar in the Islamic City: Design, Culture, and 
History. Oxford University Press, 2012. 
23 
 
 
 
foods. The United States Department of Agriculture created the Bureau of Markets in 
1917. The Bureau developed a model market system for cities around the United 
States based on their size and location. The USDA assisted in food marketing, 
storage, and distribution.  
4.4 Fall Out of Public Markets 
Although markets were at one time, the major source of goods and produce in a city, 
they fell out of favor from the public.  More convenient and cheaper options were 
created and the number of patrons in attendance decreased.  
Industrialization of Agriculture 
The markets in the United States struggled as the agriculture became industrialized 
and as large corporations were able to undercut pricing. The industrial production of 
food began in the 1920s. After World War I, the price of running a farm was more 
expensive than the revenue that farmers made from the produce. Farmers needed to 
take a business approach to the way they farmed. The first generation of college 
educated agriculture experts knew that they needed to be smarter about the trade and 
change the ways farming was thought of. Large-scale production, specialized 
machines, standardization of processes and products, reliance on managerial 
expertise, and continual evocation of efficiency were the standard in factory ran 
farms. In 1922, the Bureau of Agricultural Economics was established. This 
government entity ultimately formed national policy on the standard and practices of 
24 
 
 
 
farmers.26 The constant pressure to feed the American population required the 
agriculture business to continue to promote efficiency of food production. More 
farmland was created, while the number of farmers decreased. This mass production 
and corporate control of food was a major threat to markets. Local vendors could not 
compete with the efficiency of the supply chain and the supermarkets price point. 
Markets in areas that could not support them ultimately closed.  
4.5 Reintroduction 
In recent years, the benefits of public markets have been revalued. Markets allow for 
the creation of special places in communities that could use a generation of value. 
The additions of markets provide a public space that the community could benefit 
from, an opportunity for the city to improve its image, give the population a healthier 
food source, and support local business  
Place Creation and Public Image 
Public markets add an element of place that cannot be duplicated in a grocery store. 
In the United States, markets are no longer an area of convenience and efficiency. 
Grocery stores have taken over as the areas to purchase food for convenience and 
lower price point. Markets cannot compete with the price point of large grocery 
giants; therefore, they are predicated on the place and produce model of retail. Public 
 
26 Fitzgerald, Deborah Kay. Every farm a factory: The industrial ideal in American 
agriculture. Yale University Press, 2003. 
25 
 
 
 
markets have left the commodity retail category and are now in the specialty retail 
category. The foods and services offered at a public market are typically priced at a 
higher range, but in return, the produce and place are of higher quality. The places 
that these markets created offer areas of social interaction and community events. In 
Rochester, New York, the public market offers events like community garage sales, 
concerts, and artist showcases.27 The ability to come to a market and do more than 
just shop adds a value that commodity retail-oriented grocery store cannot compete 
with.  
Health and Environmental Concerns 
Public markets offer healthier alternatives that support smaller businesses in contrast 
to the large chains of producers. Organic food production started to reemerged as a 
viable market in the 1980s. The federal Organic Foods Production act was passed in 
1990 as a part of the Farm Bill. This act regulates the structure and marketing of the 
organic food industry. Only certain produce could be recognized as truly organic. 
Organic produce is typically sold at farmers markets from vendors who also grow the 
food. Organic foods have restrictions on the type and amount of pesticides that are 
used on plants and limit the amount of antibiotics used in livestock. This reduces the 
amount that both the consumer and famer are ingesting. Pesticides have been 
associated with risks of diseases like Parkinson?s and cancers such as Hodgkin 
 
27 ?City of Rochester.? n.d. SPECIAL EVENTS AT THE PUBLIC MARKET. City of 
Rochester. https://www.cityofrochester.gov/marketevents/. 
26 
 
 
 
Lymphoma.28 To consumers, purchasing straight from the farm offers a notion of 
freshness, cost savings, and support of a small business.29  
Economic Opportunity 
Markets allow small vendors a physical presence in an area in which they could 
thrive. Common entrepreneurs that might be looking for a physical presence in a 
market are online retailers. Online retailers use the Internet as a means to sell 
products. The selling of products both online and in brick and mortar stores is known 
as ?multichannel retailing?.30 In recent years, there has been an evolution from 
multichannel retailers to omni channel retailers. Various factors such as cell phones, 
social media, and tablets have increased the avenues in which retailers could sell and 
market their goods. 31 Each avenue of shopping offers something different to the 
 
28 Mie, Axel, Helle Raun Andersen, Stefan Gunnarsson, Johannes Kahl, Emmanuelle 
Kesse-Guyot, Ewa Rembia?kowska, Gianluca Quaglio, and Philippe Grandjean. 2017. 
?Human Health Implications of Organic Food and Organic Agriculture: A 
Comprehensive Review.? Environmental Health: A Global Access Science Source 16 
(October): 1?22. doi:10.1186/s12940-017-0315-4. 
29 Buck, Daniel, Christina Getz, and Julie Guthman. "From farm to table: The organic 
vegetable commodity chain of Northern California." Sociologia ruralis 37, no. 1 
(1997): 3-20. 
30 Agnihotri, Arpita. 2015. ?Can Brick-and-Mortar Retailers Successfully Become 
Multichannel Retailers?? Journal of Marketing Channels 22 (1): 62?73. 
doi:10.1080/1046669X.2015.978702. 
31 Verhoef, Peter C., Pallassana K. Kannan, and J. Jeffrey Inman. "From multi-
channel retailing to omni-channel retailing: introduction to the special issue on multi-
channel retailing." Journal of retailing 91, no. 2 (2015): 174-181. 
 
27 
 
 
 
consumer. A retailer with the ability to sell using various platforms gives them a level 
of flexibility and foot into multiple channels to sell goods. 32 
 
 
32 Sonneck, Peter, and Cirk S?ren Ott. "Future trends in multi-channel retailing." 
In Retailing in the 21st Century, pp. 221-238. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2010. 
 
28 
 
 
 
Chapter 5: Public Market Typologies 
5.1 Open Air Market 
The open-air market is the first type of organized trade in human society. It is the 
simplest form of a trade center and has been seen in multiple civilizations throughout 
time. In ancient Greece, the agora was a flexible open space that was used for 
administrative, political, and religious activity; but was also a place of trade and 
commerce. Vendors would set up temporary stalls or they would rent spaces in stoas 
to sell and trade goods. Likewise, in ancient Rome, the forum acted as the public 
commerce area. Some of these market areas are still used today, such as the Piazza 
Erbe in Verona, Italy. In colonial America, the markets were very similar to their 
European predecessors.33 Regulations and rules were set in the cities in which they 
operated to create an area where merchants would want to be and an area where the 
public could not be taken advantage. Although the open markets of the past are no 
longer the main source of food for the city, they are still locations where consumers 
get to meet the people who grew and harvested the produce. Today?s open markets 
provide local farmers and local businesses with the ability to sell their goods to the 
public.  
The open-air market typically takes advantage of open publicly owned property. They 
are located in open areas such as a town square to allow for the congregation of 
 
33 Tangires, Helen. Public markets. WW Norton & Company, 2008. 
29 
 
 
 
merchants and vendors. The edges of the square define the borders of the market. 
There are very few, if any, permanent structures located in an open-air market that are 
specifically for retail use. The market utilized previously established public 
infrastructure to accommodate patrons along with their own equipment, accessories, 
and seating.34 In a case study, done by Mark Francis Lucas Griffith called, The 
Meaning and Design of Farmers' Markets as Public Space: An Issue-Based Case 
Study, they two looked at five separate markets, Ithaca Farmers Market in Ithaca, NY, 
Downtown Farmers Market in Salt Lake City, UT, Dane County Farmers Market in 
Madison, WI, Durham Farmer?s Market in Durham, NC, and Davis Farmers Market 
in Davis, CA, to discern similarities in design between them. The first resemblance 
was that each place had permanent features in the area that supported a 
distinguishable character. They described that fountain, entry gates, and seating were 
commonalities that gave the public space the ability to work as an open area in times 
when the market was not in session. The second factor was flexibility, which allowed 
for change based on seasonal and market changes. The third design similarity was 
that each market had a sense of wholeness. The markets felt like a piece of the 
neighborhood along with being cohesive in its own. Finally, the markets each inspired 
social interaction. They included social spaces where people had an opportunity to 
mingle. Although open markets have changed throughout time, the general structure 
remains the same.  
 
34 Tangires, Helen. Public markets. WW Norton & Company, 2008. 
30 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 6: Open Air Market (source: author) 
 
Farmers Market 
A common example of an open-air market is a farmer?s market. Farmers markets are 
seasonal operations that allow for local farmers to sell their produce directly to a 
concentrated population. Vendors sell their products in containers that are propped up 
with temporary structures. They might bring tents for shade and furniture for people 
to utilize. The ability to bring their own equipment affords them ability to stand out 
and be a unique entity within the market. The farmers typically harvest the crop that 
morning or the day before which eliminates the use of preservatives to make it have a 
longer shelf life. This typology is not new, but has had problems due to the low price 
point of grocery store chains. However, farmers markets offer a different experience 
31 
 
 
 
than grocery stores. The vendors area personable and know about the quality and 
processing of their produce.35 Farmers are able to sell their produce at a retail price 
point and not a wholesale price point. They are also able to engage and get direct 
feedback from consumers. Along with the human scaled experience, many markets 
offer entertainers or caterers to patrons.36 
Urban Impact 
Open air markets utilize the open space provided by municipalities. Not every open 
lot of land could become an open market, but this type is more flexible than the others 
due to the innate nature of having the minimal requirements to make. Although there 
is a focus on placing markets in urban squares, they are flexible enough to be places 
in parks and landscape in more suburban areas. No matter where they are located, 
municipalities are strategic in the placement of the markets in the area.  Mark Francis 
and Lucas Griffith state that, ?Successful markets respond to the surrounding 
neighborhood in their planning, design, and operation by integrating community 
groups and their culture into the market. In some cases, adjacent civic institutions and 
retail activities connect to the market through well-planned pedestrian walkways, bi- 
cycle routes, and open space networks. Other neighbor- hood attributes to be 
considered in planning a market include regional transportation systems, public 
 
35 Tangires, Helen. Public markets. WW Norton & Company, 2008. 
36 Trobe, Helen La. "Farmers' markets: consuming local rural produce." International 
journal of consumer studies 25, no. 3 (2001): 181-192. 
32 
 
 
 
transit, overflow parking, and other relevant aspects of the regional landscape?.37 
Despite the ability to place them anywhere, open markets are meant to enhance the 
experience of the city. An example provided by the authors is a location near a 
transportation hub. This gives the ability to eat and shop on their way home from 
work and also gives the vendors a constant flow of people. Another example is 
placing the market near other retail activity. Since people are out to shop, they might 
want to come the market to see what?s available in the market. They are great 
amenities that a city could use to promote certain areas and also help local 
entrepreneurs. 
5.2 Street Markets 
Street markets are similar to open markets in that they utilize public areas that 
the city provides. They differentiate in their shape and how people flow through 
them. Street markets take advantage of the close linear procession that occurs in the 
public realm. These can be located in vacant lots, along streets, or on bridges. The 
term street market could be interpreted in a variety of ways. One of which includes 
street vendors who set up informal temporary shops on streets. These vendors could 
be mobile and provide goods to areas outside the market or stationery along an 
 
37 Francis, Mark, and Lucas Griffith. "The Meaning and Design of Farmers' Markets 
as Public Space: An Issue-Based Case Study." Landscape Journal 30, no. 2 (2011): 
261-79. http://www.jstor.org.proxy-um.researchport.umd.edu/stable/43324378. 
 
33 
 
 
 
established street. The mobile vendors offer their services to individuals who cannot 
get to the city?s defined market space. Street vendors can be flexible in the placement 
of their shops, but they are at the mercy of their own decision as to where the best 
place to sell their goods is. In the past, the vendors would transport their goods via 
foot or by cart and set up shop along a sidewalk to sell their goods.38 In today?s 
world, we see the use of food trucks as mobile flexible modern application of street 
vendors. 
The other type of street market consists of an established area in the middle of 
a wide street. In the academic article, The American Public Market by James M 
Mayo, Mr. Mayo states that ?By locating a market building in a street, city officials 
were able to avoid not only selecting building sites large enough to house the market, 
but also negotiating for land prices after a site had been chosen. Some limitations, 
however, did exist. The local market committee had to locate these buildings on 
streets wide enough to allow traffic to pass on both sides of the market structure. As a 
result, market houses were usually located on major avenues instead of neighborhood 
streets?. The street market was a popular type of market until the mid 19th century 
when the advent of cars created the notion that the streets needed to be vehicular 
based. Many of the street markets were removed in order to make space for cars.39  
 
38 Tangires, Helen. Public markets. WW Norton & Company, 2008. 
39 Mayo, James M. "The American public market." Journal of Architectural 
Education 45, no. 1 (1991): 41-57. 
34 
 
 
 
 
Figure 7: Street Market (source: author) 
 
Bazaar 
An example of a street market in is an Iranian bazaar. Bazaars are seen in many cities 
in the Middle East. They are covered public streets that are surrounded by shops on 
both sides. They could consist of one street or a network of streets. There are two 
primary forms of urban bazaars, planned and unplanned. The unplanned bazaars are 
organic in their procession and were usually dictated based economical needs of a 
city or by access to a public building. As the bazaar developed the building were 
constructed based on the path of the street. Planned bazaars tend to be more rational. 
During times of economic prosperity, planned bazaars were more common. Their 
conceptualization and orientation were based on them becoming the main street in the 
city. Bazaars are areas of socialization, commerce, and cultural interactions. In Mir 
Saeed Moosavi?s article, Bazaar an its role in the development of Iranian Traditional 
35 
 
 
 
Cities, Moosavi states,	?Iranian city planning is based on the idea that the form of 
cities, the shape of streets and spaces, reflected the people who inhabited them as well 
as their culture, religion and interests. Thus, public spaces of the city were of great 
importance for Iranian city planners. The most important of these was the bazaar, 
which housed many activities.? These streets were fundamental in the culture and 
survival of Iranian cities.40 
 
 
Figure 8: Bazaar of Kashan (Source: Moohavi) 
 
 
40 Moosavi, Mir Saeed. "Bazaar and its role in the development of Iranian traditional 
cities." In Conference Proceedings 2005 IRCICA International Conference of Islamic 
Archaeology, Tabriz: Tabriz Azad University, Faculty of Art & Architecture. 2005. 
36 
 
 
 
Urban Impact 
Street Markets are some of the most active spaces in the city. However, they are not 
applicable in every street in a city; they have specific circumstances which allows 
them succeed. Certain streets in cities are residential based, others are service based, 
and some allow for lines of retail. Today, there are very little traces of market 
buildings in the middle of wide streets. It does not make sense from an access 
standpoint or a traffic standpoint. The street markets we see today are market streets 
with ground floor lined retail and some street vendors. These streets are concentrated 
where there is heavy foot traffic and a population that could support them. A lot of 
cities call their market street main street. These areas are typically in the downtowns 
of cities where the density is higher.  
Like in most situations, there are benefits and downsides to successful to street 
vending. There are critiques as to congestion creations, public safety, and the 
professionalism of the vendors. In R. Bromley?s review, Street vending and public 
policy: a global review, he/she weighs the benefits and disadvantages of street 
vendors. The review states that, ?Pedestrians passing through street markets and 
people sitting in stationary or slow-moving vehicles are constantly exposed to the 
sight of goods and services on sale on the streets, and they will often make impulse 
purchases. Additional street vendors gravitate towards the congestion, because that is 
where available demand is concentrated. As a result, through a process of circular and 
cumulative causation, both street sales and levels of congestion are further 
37 
 
 
 
increased?.41 In this sense she is saying that the congestion that market streets cause is 
bad for the city. However, the opinion could be looked at in a sense that it is great for 
the retailers. If the retailers are doing well, the city is collecting sales tax. Another 
critique of the informal street vendor that Bromley makes is their solicitation of 
products to pedestrians and bikers. On one hand it might make people feel 
uncomfortable or unsafe to be approached about buying something, but on the other 
side the vendors are trying to make sales. There should be a level of respect between 
seller and buyer, but unpleasant interacts happens due to individuals? behaviors. 
Streets designed to promote entrepreneurs to set up shops will carry a multitude of 
problems. Design and regulations could help mitigate some of the issues like trash 
and market standards, but there is very rarely a solution that works out for everyone. 
Regardless, the placement of any retail establishment has to be thoroughly thought 
out regarding the population density, demand, and access. Street markets need to be 
located on primary routes that provide pedestrians with easy access to both sides of 
the street.  
 
41 Bromley, R., 2000. Street vending and public policy: a global review. International 
Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 20(1/2), pp.1-28. 
 
38 
 
 
 
 
5.3 Markets in Public Buildings 
This medieval originated typology is an example of both a shared building use and a 
partnership between a capitalism and state. This typology contains the market on the 
ground floor of a public building such as a town hall or courthouse. By allowing the 
vendors the ability to work indoors, the streets and open space are more ordered. As 
populations in cities grew, the space allocated for market use in this typology was no 
longer sufficient.42 The benefit of these structures is their mix of uses in a single 
structure. The mix of uses allows for the building to outlive its intended use and 
continue to be used as a public forum.   
 
 
Figure 9: First Floor Market with Second Floor Town Hall (source: author) 
 
42 Tangires, Helen. Public markets. WW Norton & Company, 2008. 
39 
 
 
 
 
Multi Use Public Building 
Across the United States, there are various examples of buildings with a market on 
the ground floor and public areas on the second floor. Old Market House in 
Fayetteville, North Carolina was built in 1838. It is located at the intersection of four 
major streets. On the first floor, the market was located with an arcade that provided 
cover from the elements. This is where local famers sold the meats and produce. The 
second floor was where the town hall was located. Today, it is no longer used as a 
market hall and the second floor has been repurposed as a library and offices for the 
Fayetteville Chamber of Commerce.43 
 
 
Figure 10: Old Market House Fayetteville, NC - Fist Floor Plan (Credit: Biggs, Archie A.) 
 
43 ?NATIONAL REGISTER OF HISTORIC PLACES INVENTORY - 
NOMINATION FORM.? National Park Service. National Park Service. 
https://www.loc.gov/resource/hhh.nc0020.sheet/?sp=5. 
40 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 11: Old Market House Fayetteville, NC - Second Floor Plan (Credit: Biggs, Archie A.) 
 
 
Figure 12: Old Market House Fayetteville, NC - South Elevation (Credit: Biggs, Archie A.) 
 
41 
 
 
 
5.4 Market Sheds 
Market sheds are the simplest form of a covered market. The structure consists of a 
simple post and beam construction with few walls. The market is not enclosed and is 
open to the elements. The open nature of the structure provides for shade and many 
routes of accessibility into the market. In some cases, multiple sheds would be 
constructed in an organized way to separate buildings by food type. Their placement 
in the city or town was either in between a wide street to still allow for traffic on 
either side or in a market square. Another benefit of these structures was inexpensive 
constructions. 44 
 
Figure 13: Market Shed (Source: Author) 
 
44 Tangires, Helen. Public markets. WW Norton & Company, 2008. 
42 
 
 
 
Open Air Sheds 
Inherently, market sheds are temporary structures that were not meant to last long 
periods of time. Many of them have either been demolished or redone as temporary 
market halls. Centre Market in Wheeling, West Virginia is an example of a market 
shed being renovated as a permanent structure. The original market opened in 1853 
and was joined with a second market in 1890.Thomas Pope designed the original 
market in a Greek Revival style. The combination of the style and available 
construction at the time could be seen in the iron casted Doric columns. Edward B. 
Franzheim designed the adjacent market in conjunction with the original.45 The form 
of the market is linear, which resembles a stoa from ancient Greece. 
5.5 Enclosed Market Houses 
After the World?s Columbian Exposition in 1893, The City Beautiful 
Movement took place within city planning. It was a time when cities were 
encouraging the construction of public buildings and public infrastructure to clean up 
cities and create places people wanted to be in. As a part of the city beautiful 
movement, municipalities believed that the creation of attractive markets would 
improve the quality of urban life.46 In an attempt to make streets more transportation 
based and to create a more civic public space, many of the temporary sheds were torn 
down and replaced with permanent structures. The cities would encourage the use of 
 
45 Tangires, Helen. Public markets. WW Norton & Company, 2008. 
46 Tangires, Helen. Public markets. WW Norton & Company, 2008. 
43 
 
 
 
new materials like concrete, steel, tile, marble, glass, and brick to construct these 
establishments. The enclosed market ultimately allowed for trade to occur all year 
round. The inside of the market kept the food at a moderate temperate and provide 
people shelter from the cold when shopping for food. Since the building would last all 
year round, there was no need to assemble temporary stands or temporary seats within 
the facility. Enclosed markets provided the ability to for the construction of 
permanent fixtures and stands.  
 
 
Figure 14: Enclosed Market (source: author) 
Pike Place Market 
Pike Place Market in Seattle, Washington is an example of an enclosed market hall. 
The site is located on Pike Street and borders Alaskan Way in Seattle?s downtown. 
From 1890 to 1900, the population in Seattle nearly doubled. At the turn of the 
century, the price of food increased which led to unhappy citizens and farmers unable 
to sell their produce. In 1907, the city created a public market where farmers and the 
44 
 
 
 
consumers were able to meet. In the 1920, developer, Frank Goodwin saw an 
opportunity to build arcades that would make up the market. In 1963, the Pike Place 
Project was set to demolish the market for high-rise buildings, but an effort led by 
architect Victor Steinbrueck saved the market and established the Pike Place Market 
Preservation and Development Authority. Pike Place was approved for a renovation 
in 2008, which was completed in 2012 followed by the Pike Place Market Front 
completed in 2017.47 From its conception, Pike Place Market is an example of how 
the demand for a formal retail entity in an area forced the municipality to create one. 
Even when an urban renewal plan attempted to remove the market from the area, 
people petitioned for its preservation. Today, the market is regarded as one of the best 
markets in the United States.  
 
47 "Pike Place Market." History | Pike Place Market. Accessed May 17, 2019. 
http://pikeplacemarket.org/history. 
45 
 
 
 
 
Figure 15: Pike Place Market (Source: City of Seattle) 
 
Urban Impact 
Unlike the open market and the street market, the enclosed market is a physical entity 
that establishes a place of commerce. The market is truly a building acting as a piece 
to a whole city. In the Leon Krier?s Res Publica Res Economica Civitas, Krier 
separates the city into ?res publica? and ?res economica?. The ?res publica? are the 
civic buildings in the city with distinguishable architectural features and are meant for 
public use while the ?res economica? consists of the rest of the buildings like housing 
and commercial uses. Both entities are equally important to the city because without 
one, the other does not exist. The enclosed market hall is a part of the ?res publica? 
side of the spectrum. Although it may not be a publicly owned entity, it is a 
46 
 
 
 
communal commercial hub where the public goes for trade. The building acts as an 
important influence in the lives of the everyday public.  
 
 
Figure 16: Civitas Diagram (source: Leon Krier) 
 
The location of the enclosed market originally started with how the public entity 
would be able to support private enterprise. Retailers started to understand that people 
liked to complete all of their shopping needs in one trip, so locating the market near a 
department store made sense. Another reason for locating the markets in downtowns 
was access from a transportation network to bring people and food to the market. 48 
The main idea behind the location of these public markets is that they need to be 
accessible to the public regardless if they are owned publicly or privately. 
 
48 Mayo, James M. "The American public market." Journal of Architectural 
Education 45, no. 1 (1991): 41-57. 
47 
 
 
 
Downtowns provide the best access and are usually located in the heart of urban 
cities. This affords everyone on the edges of the city an opportunity to access the 
enclosed market.  
 
5.6 Central Markets 
Railroads allowed for the mass transportation of food to the city from the farms. The 
train station became a pivotal location to set up a market. These locations were the 
single point where all the food was coming in. Consumers had the opportunity to 
purchase a variety of items in one location. The central markets would cover city 
blocks and be located in areas with a high density of consumers and businesses. 
These massive areas acted as both a location for the everyday shopper as well as areas 
for secondary markets to purchase supplies. The number of central markets fell as 
grocery chains and supermarkets made the typology obsolete.49   
 
49 Tangires, Helen. Public markets. WW Norton & Company, 2008. 
48 
 
 
 
 
Figure 17: Central Market (source: author) 
 
Center Market 
Les Halles Centrales was the center market in Paris designed by Victor Baltard and 
Victor Emmanuel Callet. Prior to Baltard?s design, the market was disorganized, 
crowded, and had a reputation of being unsanitary. The market consisted of around 
330 temporary structures that were demolished for Baltard?s design. Napol?on III and 
Haussmann pushed Baltard and Callet to construct buildings use iron construction. 
Baltard designed Le Halle with ten market halls using a combination of iron and 
glass. The design organized the markets in two rows of five with glass-covered 
streets. An important aspect to the design was the circulation of air. Building had high 
ceilings, to allow for ventilation. One of the main features of the design was the 
overall organization of space to allow for an easier way to trade and also improve the 
49 
 
 
 
health of the users. 50 As the population in France continued to grow, Les Halle 
became the largest food market in the world. The market was designed to 
accommodate a population of one million people, buy 1900; the population reached 
2.6 million and caused congestion. In 1954 the Parisian government conceived of a 
plan to decongest Paris and in 1959, the French government elected to move the 
markets into the suburbs. In 1969, the demolition of the market began to create an 
urban park and civic area.  
5.7 Wholesale Terminal Markets 
In the early twentieth century, high food prices and fear of food shortages forced 
governments to support the creation buildings that would store and distribute food to 
the area. The advent of railroads and refrigeration allowed for the wholesale selling of 
food. The early wholesale market centers were located in city centers. The three 
factors that removed them from the center were land pricing, shipping accessibility, 
and overcrowding. In 1955, the average rent for a retail center in downtown San 
Francisco was around $40 per square foot while the wholesale terminal was around 
$4. As a property owner, it did not make sense to have the market rent of a large 
entity be $36 less per square foot than retailers a few blocks over. Many of the large 
buildings were demolished and redeveloped as a retail center type of development. 
The other factor that took wholesale terminals out of city centers was the access 
 
50 TenHoor, Meredith. "Architecture and biopolitics at Les Halles." French Politics, 
Culture & Society 25, no. 2 (2007): 73-92. 
50 
 
 
 
provided for delivery of good from outside the city. As population in the cities grew, 
the terminal market did not have any room to expand to accommodate the population. 
The surrounding area felt the impact of the congestion. The trucks could not access 
the terminal, the sidewalks were filled with vendors that spilled out from the market, 
and food that was unable to be stored inside were placed in streets. Food delivery was 
not efficient and it appeared that a change needed to be made in the placement of 
these markets.51 Wholesale terminal markets were created in the more industrial areas 
of the cities where trains and trucks would be able to transport food efficiently. 
Wholesale Terminal Markets were more than just a market, the type consisted of 
administration buildings, restaurants, and retail stores, with a produce shed, packing 
plant, auction house, cold storage plan, slaughterhouse, and various uses that revolved 
around the processing of food. 52 It was in an area outside of the city where people 
would go to cut out the middleman in transporting their food to local vendors. This is 
where restaurants and local businesses would purchase their food in bulk 
 
51 2019. Planning-Org-Uploaded-Media.S3.Amazonaws.Com. Accessed May 17 
2019. https://planning-org-uploaded-media.s3.amazonaws.com/document/PAS-
Report-70.pdf. 
52 Tangires, Helen. Public markets. WW Norton & Company, 2008. 
51 
 
 
 
 
Figure 18: Wholesale Terminal (source: author) 
 
Terminal Market 
Fulton Fish Market was established in 1817 along the East River in New York. At the 
time, the market easily accessed by boats since shipping via waterways was the most 
efficient form of transportation. The market operated, as more than just a fish market, 
it was also an area to buy sails, food, and linen. In 1933, Mayor Fiorello LaGuardia 
made it an objective to reform public markets by demolishing all open-air markets 
and creating indoor markets in their stead. By 1935, the markets were run by the 
Department of Public Markets, Weights, and Measures. The department combatted 
unsanitary conditions and racketeering to establish a proper place for trade. In 1936, 
most of the structure of the existing fish market had collapsed and a new building was 
commissioned. The new market building was completed in 1939 and designed by 
Albert W. Lewis and John D. Churchill. The two accounted for many of the new 
52 
 
 
 
markets designed at the time. The market would be a location for the transportation, 
the preparation, and the selling of fish. It incorporated prefabricated construction and 
fireproofing which were prevalent in the lasted types of industrial buildings at the 
time. The popularity of the automobile grew in the early twentieth century. In the 
1922, the Manhattan Borough President commissioned two major Highways along 
the waterfront. In 1954, creation of FDR drive was thought to help the building by 
separating arterial traffic and local traffic, but instead the highway acted as a divider 
and cut off the area from the city. After, the market struggled and was relocated to 
Hunts Point in the Bronx in 2005.53 Although it was conceived prior to the report, the 
market follows a lot of the criteria provided by the Planning Advisory Authority as to 
its placement.  
 
 
53 "Fulton Fish Market: New Market Building". The Municipal Art Society Of New 
York. Accessed 17 May 2019. 
http://www.newamsterdammarket.org/seaportvision/2008_Municipal_Art_Society.pd
f. 
 
53 
 
 
 
 
Figure 19: Fulton Fish Market Plan (Source: Library of Congress) 
 
 
Figure 20: Dedication of New Market Building, 1939 (Source: New York Public Library) 
 
54 
 
 
 
5.3 Urban Impact 
After the determination by city officials that the wholesale markets were no longer 
appropriate in the city centers, considerations were made to place them in new 
locations. The Planning Advisory Service (PAS) created a list of six considerations 
when choosing the location of a new Wholesale Terminal Market: First, the market 
should be convenient for local buyers. A map depicting travel distances for residence 
would help in determining how far is too far for local buyers. Second, the area should 
also be convenient for out of town buyers. Much of the business generated by 
Wholesale Terminal Markets comes from out of town shoppers looking for produce. 
Although, there is an inherent fact that out-of-town shoppers are not close, the 
location should keep them out of congested areas and provide an ease of access from 
major roads. Third, the market should take into consideration the location of rail lines. 
Since the food being transported is perishable, the delivery time is essential to the 
freshness of the produce. Fourth, much like the rail line consideration, the site should 
be able to be accessed by trucks. Fifth, the market will need the trucks to access the 
market, but it should avoid other vehicular traffic. The addition of streets that 
promote cars to drive by will cause congestion that will be detrimental the efficiency 
of the market. Finally, the price of the land on which to place the market should be 
cheap. The market will take up a lot of land and the price per acre, should be 
55 
 
 
 
considered.54 The type is an example of how time, market influences, physical 
changes, and populations change the effectiveness of a use.55 The wholesale market 
worked in cities when the density was appropriate for them. As population increased 
and new technologies surfaced, they were better served outside of the city.  
The wholesale market has a very different set of urban impacts than the other types of 
markets. Unlike the open-air market and street market, the wholesale terminal market 
is not necessarily utilizing an established urban fabric as a framework for its being, 
instead it is more reliant on public infrastructure. It is a physical entity that 
contributes the food storage and distribution within a city. In the terms of its use, it is 
a piece of the city much like an enclosed market.  However, unlike the enclosed 
market, the way in which a terminal market operates doesn?t lend itself to be a ?res 
public? building in a sea of ?res economica? buildings. The wholesale market is an 
example of how a building that is essential to the public might be constricted in an 
urban setting. The market?s focus on the efficient trade of food causes problems for 
both itself and the city. 
 
54 "Wholesale Produce Markets". Planning Advisory Service 70 (1955): 1-26. 
https://planning-org-uploaded-media.s3.amazonaws.com/document/PAS-Report-
70.pdf. 
55 Tracey-White, John D. Wholesale markets: planning and design manual. No. 90. 
Food & Agriculture Org., 1991.  
56 
 
 
 
Chapter 6: Retail Innovations and Design Impact 
As technologies continue to advance, new innovations will shape how aspects of 
retail are designed.56 The addition of technology in specialty retailing is not meant to 
make the shopping experience more efficient, it is meant to establish a completely 
new experience. Specialty retail is predicated on best in quality products and best in 
place experiences. In the world today, people are mesmerized with new innovations 
and technologies. Implementing design strategies that allow for innovate retailing 
technologies that could enhance the consumer experience will set a retail 
establishment apart from the rest of the competitors.  
6.1 Autonomous Vehicles 
The mass production of the car changed the urban form and culture of the United 
States in the early 1950s. It influenced the way people wanted to live and the way 
they were able to shop. The next huge innovation of transportation systems is 
beginning to be developed. The Automated Vehicle (AV) will have a large impact on 
the economy, on urbanism, and on society. The advancements of self-driving cars 
have greatly developed in the past couple years. Major car and tech companies like 
Google, Volvo, Mercedes, BMW, Audi, Ford, and Nissan are all in the process of 
 
56 Minsker, Maria. 2014. ?More E-Commerce Experiences Are in Store.? CRM 
Magazine 18 (11): 16. http://search.ebscohost.com.proxy-
um.researchport.umd.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=asn&AN=102601161&site=eh
ost-live. 
57 
 
 
 
research and development of AV.57 In the research based article, Planning for Cars 
That Drive Themselves: Metropolitan Planning Organizations, Regional 
Transportation Plans, and Autonomous Vehicles, Erick Guerra explains that the 
future of driving is upon us. He predicts that within the next 20 years, autonomous 
vehicles will be operating on streets and highways.  There is a lot of uncertainty as to 
how to plan for driverless cars because of the potential scale of impact they contain. 58  
Although they will have a large impact, it is possible to speculate some effects the 
cars might have. In the article, Automated vehicles and the rethinking of mobility and 
cities, the authors venture to say that the amount of space needed to park will be 
greatly reduced, older individuals will be able to be transported safely, bikers and 
pedestrians will be feel compelled to go out, and AV will reduce the CO2 levels in 
the atmosphere.59 The impacts of driverless cars could be applied to architectural 
design. The ability to provide drop off areas for individuals taking this method of 
transportation is crucial to avoid congestion along main roads or parking areas. The 
amount of parking spaces could also be significantly decreased due to driverless cars 
being used more frequently than human automated vehicles, especially in a ride share 
 
57 Alessandrini, Adriano, Andrea Campagna, Paolo Delle Site, Francesco Filippi, and 
Luca Persia. "Automated vehicles and the rethinking of mobility and 
cities." Transportation Research Procedia 5 (2015): 145-160. 
58 Guerra, Erick. "Planning for cars that drive themselves: Metropolitan planning 
organizations, regional transportation plans, and autonomous vehicles." Journal of 
Planning Education and Research 36, no. 2 (2016): 210-224. 
59 Alessandrini, Adriano, Andrea Campagna, Paolo Delle Site, Francesco Filippi, and 
Luca Persia. "Automated vehicles and the rethinking of mobility and 
cities." Transportation Research Procedia 5 (2015): 145-160. 
58 
 
 
 
system. Also, there will need to be a new program element or building use that would 
support the maintenance of the fleet of AV. Overall, the impact that this innovation 
has on the future of architecture, urban planning, economics, and culture needs to be 
present in current design strategies.  
 
Figure 21: AV rideshare drop off zone (Source: Author) 
 
6.2 Augmented Reality  
Augmented Reality (AR) ?supplements the real world with (computer generated) 
objects that appear to coexist in the same space as the real world?.60 AR devices could 
 
60 Azuma, Ronald, Yohan Baillot, Reinhold Behringer, Steven Feiner, Simon Julier, 
and Blair MacIntyre. "Recent advances in augmented reality." IEEE computer 
graphics and applications21, no. 6 (2001): 34-47. 
59 
 
 
 
be implemented in a variety of ways. Head worn displays (HWD) consist of the 
technology placed on or in glasses, goggles, and/or helmets that allow the viewer a 
free hand experience of being able to combine virtual reality and real life. More 
commonly, augmented reality could be located on mobile devises. The camera on 
phones is used to show the existing condition in front of the lens while an AR overlay 
in placed on the screen. Currently, this is done by furniture apps to see how a product 
looks in the house and also the social medial app, Snapchat, for photo filters. Finally, 
the AR could be implemented via projected display. In this method, the AR overlay is 
projected directly on a surface. By using a multitude of surfaces, an entire virtual 
room could be created.61  The application of this technology could yield design 
changes in brick and mortar retail. Allowing customers, the ability to look at products 
applied to the situations in which they would use them would yield a whole new type 
of experience. This includes products such as cloths, accessories, furniture, jewelry, 
etc. The addition of virtual reality rooms in retail facilities could prove to be an 
innovative area where shoppers are able to experience items prior to purchase.  
 
 
61 Azuma, Ronald, Yohan Baillot, Reinhold Behringer, Steven Feiner, Simon Julier, 
and Blair MacIntyre. "Recent advances in augmented reality." IEEE computer 
graphics and applications21, no. 6 (2001): 34-47. 
60 
 
 
 
 
Figure 22: Augmented Reality Diagram (Source: Author) 
 
6.3 Automated Checkout 
Twenty years ago, having an individual check-out counter was the standard of leaving 
every store. Then, self-checkout systems became prevalent and the costumers were 
responsible for checking out their own items. Today, the major innovation that could 
eliminate or greatly reduce the amount of checkout counters in stores is automated 
checkout services. In the article, New Automated Checkout Systems, by Thorsten 
Litfin of the University of Applied Sciences in Osnabruek, Germany and Gerad 
Wolfram from METRO Group, the authors discuss a possible future of checkout 
services. The service accounts for costumers to carry around a tablet and scan the 
items as they place them in the cart. At the end of the shopping experience, 
everything is already totaled up and the checkout is made easier. In the two options 
61 
 
 
 
they presented, the checkout could either be carried out with a cashier at the end or 
the costumer becomes his or her own cashier. 62 This study could be taken forward 
and allow customers to use phones as their checkout device in stores. Amazon 
implements this strategy in their brick and mortar stores in 2017. Upon entering the 
store, shoppers scan their phones. The checkout technology accounts for whatever 
they leave the store with and automatically charges their prime account.63  The 
architecture impact of this concept will eliminate the amount of checkout lanes 
needed to serve customers. In turn, this will provide space for more circulation, more 
displays, or a small caf? in the space previously used for checkout.   
 
 
62 Litfin, Thorsten, and Gerd Wolfram. "New automated checkout systems." 
In Retailing in the 21st Century, pp. 189-203. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2010.  
63 Polacco, Alex, and Kayla Backes. "The amazon go concept: Implications, 
applications, and sustainability." Journal of Business & Management 24, no. 1 
(2018). 
62 
 
 
 
 
Figure 23: Self Checkout Security Threshold Diagram (Source: Author) 
 
6.4 Smart Locker Terminals 
A form of omnichannel retailing consists of buying online and picking up in store. 
?Smart Locker Terminals are parcel capable locker units in convenient and public 
locations in living neighborhoods, storing packages for all costumers in a certain area 
for a certain amount of time.? Costumers are able to shop online and chose a location 
for drop off at an assigned locker location. The consumers are then provided with a 
code via email, text, or website to access the locker. Current use of the lockers allows 
people to retrieve their package at their own convenience from a public access 
63 
 
 
 
point.64 An example of the locker use in a brick and mortar store is Amazon Locker. 
Amazons brick and mortar Stores contain lockers where shoppers could retrieve their 
orders.65  
The design application of this method of retailing could be applied to shopping in 
brick and mortar stores. Stores could allocate areas near the front that allow for smart 
lockers where people could access their purchases. The model could be expanded into 
a different type of convenience. The smart lockers could be used as more than just for 
online orders, they could be used in conjunction with automated checkout in brick 
and mortar stores. Costumers would be able to browse a store, select and ring up what 
they would like to purchase, and have the store deliver the product straight to the 
locker. They would be able to access the lockers at the end of their shopping 
experience to avoid carrying purchases around.  
  
 
64 Faugere, Louis, and Benoit Montreuil. "Hyperconnected City logistics: Smart 
Lockers Terminals and last mile delivery networks." In 3rd international physical 
internet conference. 2016. 
65 Rothaermel, Frank T., and Michael McKay. Amazon. com, Inc. McGraw Hill 
Education, 2015. 
 
64 
 
 
 
Chapter 7: Hoboken Analysis  
7.1 Hoboken, New Jersey  
 
Figure 24: Site Selection Matrix (Source: Author) 
 
The location to implement a market building contains many key criteria that need 
to be taken account. As previously mentioned, markets are no longer commodity 
areas where people need to go to replenish their needs. They need to be looked at as 
specialty retail centers that are reliant on the spending of discretionary income. Key 
factors to determine the placement of a center is the population, competition, 
income, and access. The supplemental aspects that relate to place creation and 
accessibility include walkability, public transportation, and the existing 
characteristics of the site.   
65 
 
 
 
 
Figure 25: Site Location Map (Source: Author) 
  
 
Hoboken offers a very unique situation in which the population is young and 
affluent, the city contains a major public university, and five different forms of 
public transportation converge at the Hoboken Terminal.  The site offers the ability 
to both utilize and support the public transportation.  
 
7.2 Demographics 
Population 
An important feature in determining the success of a retail entity is determining if the 
population could support the addition of retail. Hoboken is located in the denser part 
of New Jersey in Hudson County. The city is located on the Hudson River across 
66 
 
 
 
from Manhattan. Hoboken has a population of 54,379 people. Although a quarter of 
the size of other Hudson County cities such as Jersey City and Newark, it is in the 
nexus of the denser parts of New Jersey. Jersey City is located directly to the south of 
Hoboken City and contains a population of 270,750 people and Newark is located to 
the west has a population of 285,156 people. To the north, Union City has a 
population of 70,000 people. Despite having a smaller population, Hoboken has been 
growing. As shown in figure 6, the population increased almost 30% from 2000 to 
2010, and almost 9% from 2010 to 2016. The city has had its population boom, but it 
is still growing at a slower rate.66 
 
 
Figure 26: Population Growth (Source: US Census 2016) 
 
66 Favate, Susan. ?2018 Masterplan Reexamination Report.? 2018 Masterplan 
Reexamination Report. Hoboken, NJ: City of Hoboken, 2018. 
 
 
67 
 
 
 
 
Age and Income 
It is essential to identify the type of people in the area to determine a merchandising 
plan for the market and potential retail. Hoboken is a city filled with young 
professionals. The median age in Hoboken is 31.8 years old. It is significantly 
younger than the rest of Hudson County.  
 
Figure 27: Hoboken Age Graph (Source: US Census) 
 
 
Along with being the very young, it also has a much larger household income than 
the rest of the county. In the 2015 census, the median income in Hoboken was 
$114,381 with only 1.92 people per household. It has increased around $25,000 since 
68 
 
 
 
2000. Figure 8 depicts that the distribution of income is almost equal among those 
making less than $25,000 and those making more than $200,000. Hoboken does have 
disposable income to support a higher end retailer. 67 
 
 
Figure 28: Median Household Income Change (Source: US Census) 
 
Housing: 
To accompany the high-income levels in Hoboken is a high cost of living. There is a 
demand for housing in the area, which is increasing the value of the current stock. 
The median home value as of 2017 is $652,000, which is up from $621,300 in 2016. 
 
67 Favate, Susan. ?2018 Masterplan Reexamination Report.? 2018 Masterplan 
Reexamination Report. Hoboken , NJ: City of Hoboken, 2018. 
 
69 
 
 
 
Around one third of the people in Hoboken own their home. This might be due to the 
high cost of living, transient nature of the people, or the fact that it is very dense and 
opportunity for renters is abundant. Overall, Hoboken is wealthier area in New Jersey 
with a constant flux of new people. It has reached is rise and continues to do so at a 
slower pace.  
 
 
 
Figure 29: Median Income Values (Source: Zillow Home Value Index) 
 
Education 
Hoboken is a very well-educated area in New Jersey. The city contains a population 
in which 94% of the people contain a high school diploma. Also, 75% of the people 
living in the city have a bachelor?s degree or higher. The data might be skewed due to 
70 
 
 
 
the fact that Stevens Institute of Technology is located in the city. There are plenty of 
academics, faculty, and staff who live or rent in Hoboken. This adds to a 
demographic of people with disposable income who would be into new innovative 
specialty retail. 68 
 
7.3 Site Movement 
Hoboken, New Jersey is a gateway into and out of Manhattan, New York. The city 
contains a transient population that is reliant on the public transportation in order to 
commute to and from work. The intermodal city contains five different forms of 
public transportation that all converge at the Hoboken Terminal.  
 
PATH 
The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey train line connects Hoboken to 33rd 
Street and the World Trade Center in Manhattan. The PATH train is the primary 
mode of transportation in Hoboken and is responsible for 30,000 riders on an average 
workday.69 
 
68 ?U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: Hoboken City, New Jersey.? 2019. Census 
Bureau QuickFacts. US Census Bureau. Accessed December 16. 
https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/hobokencitynewjersey. 
69 ?PATH Ridership Report.? PATH Ridership Report. New York, NY: Port 
Authority of New York and New Jersey, 2019. 
 
71 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 30: Hoboken PATH Movement (Source: Author, ARC GIS) 
 
NJ Transit Rail  
NJ Transit Rail is the primary connection into the rest of New Jersey. The rail line 
runs throughout the state making stops at cities such as Morristown, Trenton, 
Bayhead.70 From Hoboken New Jersey, around 19,047 riders commute into and out 
of Hoboken via NJ TRANSIT rail.71 
 
 
70 ?NJ TRANSIT FACTS AT A GLANCE.? NJ TRANSIT FACTS AT A GLANCE. 
NEWARK, NJ: NJ TRANSIT, 2017. 
71 ?FY 2018 Average Weekday Rail Boardings.? FY 2018 Average Weekday Rail 
Boardings. NEWARK, NJ: NJ TRANSIT, 2018. 
 
72 
 
 
 
 
Figure 31: Hoboken NJ TRANSIT Movement (Source: Author, ARC GIS) 
 
Hudson Bergen Light Rail 
The Hudson Bergen Light rail runs through Hudson- Bergen County connecting 
major municipalities like Bayonne, Jersey City and North Bergen. The line has 23 
stops and 3 services. The Hudson Bergen light rail is responsible for moving 51,336 
riders on the average work day.72 
 
72 ?NJ TRANSIT FACTS AT A GLANCE.? NJ TRANSIT FACTS AT A GLANCE. 
NEWARK, NJ: NJ TRANSIT, 2017. 
 
73 
 
 
 
 
Figure 32: Hoboken Light Rail Movement (Source: Author, ARC GIS) 
 
NJ Transit Bus 
The NJ Transit Bus system also connects through the Hoboken Terminal. The bus 
system runs throughout the state of New Jersey; of which, six lines stop at the 
Hoboken Bus Terminal on the north end of the terminal. The six bus lines move about 
35,480 riders on a typical week day.73 
 
73 ?NJ TRANSIT Median Ridership Report Hoboken Terminal.? NJ TRANSIT 
Median Ridership Report Hoboken Terminal. NEWARK, NJ: NJ TRANSIT, 2017. 
 
74 
 
 
 
 
Figure 33: Hoboken Bus Movement (Source Author, GIS) 
 
Ferry    
Finally, the ferry line is operated by New York Waterways. The Ferry is the least 
used mode of transportation, but accounts for 3,500 riders on a workday. It moves 
people to Battery Park City, Wall Street Pier 11, and Midtown 39th street.74 
 
 
74 ?Ferry Costumer Study Report.? Ferry Costumer Study Report. NEWARK, NJ: NJ 
TRANSIT, 2014. 
 
75 
 
 
 
 
Figure 34: Hoboken Ferry Movement (Source Author, GIS) 
 
Synthesis 
All of the mentioned movement systems create a circuit that connects at Hoboken 
Terminal. This does not just incorporate the movement into and out of Hoboken, but 
also the cross movement between transportation methods. In total between 100,000 
and 140,000 people are moving through the Hoboken Terminal on a daily basis.  
76 
 
 
 
 
Figure 35: Hoboken Movement Synthesis (Source: Author, GIS) 
 
8.4 Site Analysis 
Boundaries 
The municipal boundaries of Hoboken are a direct representative of the physical 
boundaries around the city. The city is confined by two man-made boundaries and 
two natural boundaries. The natural boundaries are located at the east end with the 
Hudson River and the west end with the south wing viaduct ridge. Both the north and 
the south borders are defined by rail lines. This creates a city environment that feels 
and works separately from Jersey City and Union City. The confined boundaries 
means that the city must be creative in its growth. 
77 
 
 
 
 
Figure 36: Hoboken Boundaries (Source: Author, ARC GIS) 
 
Streets 
Hoboken is organized by its regular block structure with a series of one-way streets. 
Washington Street is one of the few two-way streets in the city. Washington Street 
acts as the main street in the city with retail on the ground level and office and 
housing above. The street is very vibrant and busy for most of the day. Observer 
Highway is the main vehicular entrance into the city from major arterial roads such as 
the New Jersey Turnpike, Route 78, and Pulaski Skyway. There are three pinch points 
into the city along Jersey Avenue, Marin Boulevard, and Grove Street. This causes 
traffic on Observer Highway every day. Finally, Sinatra Drive is the eastern most 
road that connects Stephens Institute of Technology and the Hoboken Terminal. The 
street is defined with large trees and park space to the Hudson River.  
78 
 
 
 
 
Figure 37: Streets (Source: Author, ARC GIS) 
 
Landmarks 
The parks and municipal buildings are spread throughout the city of Hoboken. There 
is little to no congregation of recreational space and municipal buildings. This creates 
an environment that is truly mixed use. The variety of locations allows for residents a 
variety of options to use. However, there is an extreme lack of public green space in 
the city. About one percent of the city?s area is useable park space.   
79 
 
 
 
 
Figure 38: Landmarks (Source: Author, ARC GIS) 
 
Synthesis 
Despite Hoboken being a smaller city, it does contain all the aspects that a large city 
has to offer. The two square mile city is walkable, contains a variety of places, is 
organized with an orthogonal grid, contains natural amenities, and offers residents the 
opportunity to live within ten minutes of a mega city.  
80 
 
 
 
 
Figure 39: Synthesis (Source: Author, ARC GIS) 
8.5 Site Opportunities 
Incomplete Street Wall 
Upon arriving into Hoboken via automobile or bus, there is a lack of urban 
development and use on Observer Highway. To the north of the site are developed 
parcels ranging from parking garages to apartment buildings. The south end of the 
site is defined by railyard fencing. There is a buffer of parking and a bike lane, 
however the street is not very pedestrian friendly and causes a poor entry condition 
into the city 
81 
 
 
 
 
Figure 40:Incomplete Street Wall (Source: Author, ARC GIS) 
 
Street Termini 
As mentioned previously, Hoboken is defined by both natural and man-made 
boundaries. This results in the street network terminating in those boundaries. The 
east-west streets terminate with vistas into park space or into the Hudson River 
looking at Manhattan, NY. The north-south Streets terminate the Hudson Railyards, 
the bus terminal, or at an office building. There is a large opportunity to capture the 
value of these streets by terminating them in development or park space.  
82 
 
 
 
 
Figure 41: Terminating Streets (Source: Author, ARC GIS) 
 
Disconnect Places 
Within the network of the city, there are inherent connections between major places 
and streets. However, these connections are interrupted with pinch points that lead to 
a discontinuation of space. This can be seen how Washington Street meats Observer 
highway with a surface parking lot and a CVS. It can also be seen how Observer 
Highway Terminates at a bus only entrance into the bus terminal. There is 
opportunity to create a more cohesive complete connection of these places.  
83 
 
 
 
 
Figure 42: Disconnected Space (Source: Author, ARC GIS) 
 
  
  
84 
 
 
 
Chapter 9: Design  
9.1: To Create, Renovate, and Connect Place 
A major principle in capturing the value of land was to create places where 
commuters, shoppers, residents, visitors, and the workforce would be able to shop, 
play, relax, and work. Today, the terminal is only used as a means to get from point A 
to point B. It acts solely as a gateway to and from New York. A variety of places will 
allow people to become immersive within the city.  
Place Creation and Renovation 
 
Figure 43: Places Diagram (Source: Author) 
85 
 
 
 
Warrington Plaza 
 
Figure 44: Warrington Plaza (Source: Author) 
 
Hudson Place 
 
Figure 45: Hudson Place (Source: Author) 
 
86 
 
 
 
Washington Street Alley 
 
Figure 46: Washington Street Alley (Source: Author) 
 
Hudson Railyards Park 
 
Figure 47: Hudson Railyards Park (Source: Author) 
 
87 
 
 
 
Place Connection 
It is important to recognize that place should not just be created, it needs to be 
accessible and connected by some means. By both creating and connecting places the 
users within the city have an opportunity and access to a variety of experiences. 
 
 
Figure 48: Hoboken Place Connection Diagram (Source: Author) 
 
9.2 Capture the Value of People 
The 100,000 to 140,000 people who pass through the terminal every day is substantial 
in terms of foot traffic and potential shoppers. These individuals have the ability to 
contribute to local businesses and boost the city?s economy. Hoboken Exchange looks 
to monetize this foot traffic and create any area that both adds value to the terminal 
and gives the people an area to support the economy. The strategic location of the site 
88 
 
 
 
allows of Hoboken Exchange to terminate Observer Highway and River Street. The 
building is also visible from Manhattan and from Jersey City. The visibility is a 
marketing tool in itself that allows for this intervention to become a piece of 
commuter movement. In order for Hoboken Exchange to establish itself as a piece of 
the city and an entity people want to go to, it needs to both work with the existing 
movement patterns and attempt to provide potential consumers with attractive 
commodities and goods. 
Masterplan Street Termini 
 
Figure 49: Masterplan Street Terminus (Source Author) 
 
89 
 
 
 
North Elevation 
 
Figure 50: North Elevation (Source: Author) 
East Elevation 
 
Figure 51: East Elevation (Source: Author) 
90 
 
 
 
First Floor Plan 
 
Figure 52: First Floor Plan (Source: Author) 
Second Floor Plan 
 
Figure 53: Second Floor Plan (Source: Author) 
91 
 
 
 
Typical Office Plan 
 
Figure 54: Typical Office Plan (Source: Author) 
 
Commuter Movement Throughout Building 
 
Figure 55: Movement Through Building (Source: Author) 
 
92 
 
 
 
Building Transects 
 
Figure 56: Market Hall Transect (Source: Author) 
 
 
Figure 57: Lobby Transect (Source: Author) 
 
93 
 
 
 
 
Figure 58: Bus Terminal Transect (Source: Author) 
 
Arrival Perspectives 
 
Figure 59: Walking from NJ TRANSIT (Source: Author) 
94 
 
 
 
 
Figure 60:  Eating on the Mezzanine Level (Source: Author) 
 
 
Figure 61: Commuting from Sinatra Drive (Source: Author) 
95 
 
 
 
 
Figure 62: Arriving from NJ TRANSIT Bus (Source: Author) 
 
9.3 Flexible Design 
Market demands and cultural norms are constantly shifting. In order to make sure the 
building responds to change was a crucial consideration in the design of Hoboken 
Exchange. Flexible design will allow the created areas the city and the building itself 
to adapt to change.  
Hudson Place Flexibility 
The design calls for Hudson Place to become an intermodal street between rideshares 
and pedestrians. In peak hours, the street can be used with this purpose to 
accommodate heavy travel. However, on less frequently traveled days, like the 
weekends, the street can operate as an event space or public market.  
96 
 
 
 
 
Figure 63: Taxi Pick Up Drop Off (Source: Author) 
 
Figure 64: Hudson Place Market Festival (Source: Author) 
 
Green Roof Flexibility 
Another idea that applies to many commercial buildings is how to utilize the roofs, if 
at all. Hoboken Exchange is designed with the intent to create roof space that allows 
for a farm-to-table garden in which food venders could grow organic produce and use 
97 
 
 
 
it for their own product.  However, this venture might not succeed if the vendors do 
not need to grow their own produce. The roof can easily be modified to accommodate 
event space or outdoor eating space.  
 
 
Figure 65: Flexible Farm-to-Table Roof (Source Author) 
 
 
Figure 66: Flexible Roof Event Space (Source Author) 
98 
 
 
 
 
Typical Retail Flexibility 
The success of the market hall can be optimized and theorized based on existing 
precedents and models. Built-in flexibility allows for Hoboken Exchange to adapt as 
time progresses and to account for the uncertainty of the future. The demising walls 
within the typical retail are used to define what retails today use to fit out their stores. 
However, if Hoboken Exchange is doing well, it has the opportunity to expand the 
market hall format and create Hoboken Exchange West Market.  
 
 
Figure 67: Typical Retail Demising Walls (Source: Author) 
99 
 
 
 
 
Figure 68: Open West Market (Source Author) 
 
Market Hall Flexibility 
The market hall might be the most volatile aspect to the success of the project. By 
creating modular units of market stalls, the orientation, design, feel, capture rate, and 
success of the hall could vary. The modular design of the market stalls includes a 
10?x10? merchant stall, a 20?x10? merchant stall, a 15?x10? prepared food stall, and a 
20?x10? prepared food stall. The stalls can be arranged in a variety of installations in 
an attempt to optimize the capture rate of the people. 
 
100 
 
 
 
 
Figure 69: 10'X10' Merchant Stall (Source: Author) 
 
 
 
Figure 70: 20'X10' Merchant Stall (Source: Author) 
101 
 
 
 
 
Figure 71: 20'X10' Prepared Food Stall (Source: Author) 
 
 
 
Figure 72: 15'X10' Prepared Food Stall (Source: Author) 
102 
 
 
 
 
Figure 73: Through Circulation (Source: Author) 
 
 
Figure 74: Gauntlet Circulation (Source: Author) 
 
 
Figure 75: Pocket Retail Space (Source: Author) 
103 
 
 
 
Conclusion 
Public Transportation is a major asset that municipalities have to offer its citizens. It 
provides people the freedom to travel in an environmentally friendly economically 
beneficial way. The city of Hoboken is a model of the effect that public transportation 
can have on a city. Hoboken Exchange serves is an exploration of how that public 
transportation could be used as a means to capture the value of the people that use 
these modes of movement.  
104 
 
 
 
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