ABSTRACT 

 

 

 

 

Title of Thesis: Revitalizing Cities through Vertical Education  

  

 Daryl Joseph Vargas, Master of Architecture, 

Fall 2022 

  

Thesis Directed By: Professor Matthew Bell, School of Architecture, 

Planning, and Preservation 

 

 

Throughout the years, public educational institutions have taught students from a young age 

various subjects without changing the learning structure or environment. On the other hand, 

recent global events such as the Covid virus have led office spaces to be used less by businesses. 

This thesis proposes the adaptive reuse of existing office space to redesign it as a school to create 

a better environment for enhanced learning by designing effective bioclimatic, sustainable, and 

interactive specialized programming spaces that work in an urban environment to create a better 

learning environment for students and faculty while addressing safety and other urban concerns. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



  

 

 

 

 

REVITALIZING CITIES THROUGH VERTICAL EDUCATION 

 

 

 

by 

 

 

 

Daryl Joseph Vargas 

 

 

 

 

 

Thesis submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the  

University of Maryland, College Park, in partial fulfillment 

of the requirements for the degree of 

Master of Architecture 

2022 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Advisory Committee: 

Professor Matthew Bell, Chair 

Professor Robin Puttock, Committee Member 

Professor David Cronrath, Committee Member 



  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

© Copyright by 

Daryl Joseph Vargas 

2022 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



 

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Preface 

Throughout the years, the educational system has been used to teach the younger 

generations various subjects that prepare them for higher education. However, new 

advancements in technology and design have proven to enhance students’ creative 

minds by redefining environments. As the world advances, educational institutions 

should adopt and redefine the way of teaching students. Throughout this thesis, 

educational theories will be looked at and educational appliances will be tested and 

chosen to apply design tactics to an existing office space in an urban setting to create 

an adaptive school. After this, site analysis and diagramming will be done, and to 

conclude, a design solution will be proposed. 

My parents are both from Colombia, which is in South America and once they 

arrived in the United States, did not have any higher education or good-paying jobs so 

began in the lower class. This meant that when I was born in 1998 and later began my 

education, I went to Viers Mill Elementary School. Viers Mill was 95% minority 

students and low-income level. A year after I graduated, the future president, Barrack 

Obama, visited the school to encourage a better curriculum, and after that new 

development plan began. During this time, I attended A Mario Loiederman Middle 

School, which was also a low-income minority-based school. There was a lot of 

crime nearby and not enough room for improvement, so redevelopment was needed. I 

became interested in educational curriculums and brain development when I began 

high school. At this time, I began to question the educational system because I felt 

like there was not enough preparation for adulthood. Through this thought process, I 



 

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then began to wonder what the best way to was self-teach oneself and came across 

videos that began talking about the science of the development of the brain and a 

more effective way of learning.  

 

 

Figure 1.01 - Do Schools Kill Creativity, 2006 

 

In the ted talk above, Sir Ken Robinson, a British author, speaker, and advisor 

on the education system discussed the idea that children have an extraordinary 

capacity for innovation, yet educational systems limit the capacity by limiting the 

brain to work only towards a few functional items. Robinson goes on to speak about 

being prepared to be wrong, but if you are not prepared, you will never come up with 

anything original, yet nowadays, there is a stigma that if you are wrong, it is the worst 

thing. Unfortunately, educational systems imprint our minds to think that mistakes are 

the worst thing you can make, therefore the educational system is educating people 

out of their creative capacities. Sir Ken argues that intelligence is diverse, interactive, 



 

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and distinct. However educational systems make some creative and intelligent people 

believe they are not intelligent because what they are diverse in is stigmatized. But 

what people do not realize is that creativity is the process of having original ideas that 

have value, not just to humans, but to all of life. Educational systems right now are 

preparing students for the future, yet the future is unknown, so if creativity and ideas 

are shut down now, what will happen if we need them 50 years later? Robinson talks 

about the idea of the future and how it needs to adopt a new conception of human 

ecology which reconstitutes our conception of the richness of human capacity and 

that the task of educational systems is to educate the whole being of a human being 

for them to be prepared for whatever the future holds. As I thought about this idea, I 

wanted to investigate people’s satisfaction with their jobs and found out that in a 

study conducted in 2022, 65% of employees in the US are satisfied with their jobs.1 

As I continued my thesis, I became interested in how I could design or propose a 

place where students would feel encouraged to learn but also continue to expose their 

creativity.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
1 11 Surprising Job Satisfaction Statistics, 2021 



 

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Dedication 

 

I dedicate my thesis work to my younger brother Benjamin David Lee Greer. Since 

you were born, I have always wanted you to exceed my success and create your story 

of great achievements and goals that will overcome every obstacle you face. I created 

this thesis because I want you to read it one day and expand your mind and become a 

great leader and a good person to everyone. My love for you is shown through my 

actions and this thesis. I would like you to continue this research in some part of your 

life and help others one day. 

 

I also dedicate this work to a fellow friend of mine, Gary O’Riley who has passed 

away. I met Gary on the first day when I began working at TPC Potomac Golf 

Course. He was an older gentleman who worked hard despite his age and health 

problems. He was a great worker and an overall content person who loved his work 

and his family. Unfortunately, I never got to say goodbye to him before his passing 

and found out only after I returned to work the following summer. Gary, with this 

thesis that I dedicate to you as well, thank you for all the great times and for being an 

incredible worker and a good person. May you rest in peace Gary O’Riley. 



 

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Table of Contents 

 

 

Preface........................................................................................................................... ii 
Dedication ..................................................................................................................... v 
Table of Contents ......................................................................................................... vi 

List of Figures ............................................................................................................ viii 
Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................. 1 

History of Public Education in the United States ..................................................... 1 
People involved in a Learning Environment ............................................................ 5 

Office Spaces in the City ........................................................................................ 10 
Opportunity for Improved Learning ....................................................................... 12 

Chapter 2: Educational Theories ................................................................................. 13 

4 Main Educational Philosophies............................................................................ 13 

Dutch Structuralism ................................................................................................ 16 
Montessori Educational Model ............................................................................... 17 
The Waldorf Model................................................................................................. 20 

The Reggio Emilia Model ....................................................................................... 22 
Finland Educational Model ..................................................................................... 24 
The Gagne Learning Theory ................................................................................... 26 

Designing a Course Theory .................................................................................... 27 
Education through Covid 19 Theory....................................................................... 28 

Therapeutic spaces in Schools ................................................................................ 29 

Chapter 3: Sustainable Design Strategies for Academic environments...................... 30 

Passive Design Strategies ....................................................................................... 30 
Biophilic Design ..................................................................................................... 34 

Active Learning Strategies ...................................................................................... 37 
Program Design ...................................................................................................... 38 
Staff Friendly Environments ................................................................................... 42 

Technology ............................................................................................................. 42 

Security ................................................................................................................... 44 
Chapter 4: Educational Environments ........................................................................ 46 

Avenues: The World School ................................................................................... 46 
BASIS Independent School .................................................................................... 47 
Discovery Elementary School................................................................................. 49 

Chapter 5:  Potential Site Selection ............................................................................ 53 
Site Matrix .............................................................................................................. 53 

Whittier Elementary School .................................................................................... 54 
District of Columbia Housing Authority ................................................................ 56 
DC Housing Finance Agency ................................................................................. 58 

Chapter 6:  Design Solution ........................................................................................ 60 
Introduction of Design Tactics................................................................................ 60 

Site Context ............................................................................................................. 60 
Opportunities........................................................................................................... 62 
School Issues ........................................................................................................... 64 



 

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Site Analysis ........................................................................................................... 66 
Initial Diagraming ................................................................................................... 70 

Final Project ............................................................................................................ 74 
Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 85 

Bibliography ............................................................................................................... 87 
 

 

 

 

This Table of Contents is automatically generated by MS Word, linked to the 

Heading formats used within the Chapter text.   

 

 

 

 

 

 



 

 

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List of Figures 

 

Figure 1.01 – Do schools kill creativity, 2006. Ted Talk with Sir Ken Robinson 

Figure 1.02 - First Public School in America, 1635. National Geographic Resource 

Library 

Figure 1.03 - Percentage distribution of teachers in public elementary schools by 

instructional level and sex, School years 1998-2000 and 2017-2018. National Center 

for Education Statistics 

Figure 1.04 – Enrollment of public elementary schools by level, Fall 2009 through 

Fall 2018. National Center for Education Statistics 

Figure 1.05 – Poll for right ideas for public education, 2017. Hart Research 

Associates 

 

Figure 2.01 - Adapted from Ornstein’s and Oliva’s Educational Philosophies. From 

the dissertation of Dr. David E. Diehl entitled “A Study of Faculty-Related Variables 

and Competence in Integrating Instructional Technologies into Pedagogical 

Practices.” 

Figure 2.02 - De Drie Hoven, Amsterdam. Design by Herman Hertzberger, 1975 

Figure 2.03 – Comparison Chart of Educational Models, Net stars, 2015 

Figure 2.04 - Implementing a Reggio Emilia Inspired Approach in a Mainstream 

Western Australian Context, Claire Hall, 2013 

Figure 2.05 – Reading Performance, Data Oecd, 2015 



 

 

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Figure 3.01 – Five Elements of Passive Solar Design, (date), Office of Energy 

Efficiency & Renewable Energy 

Figure 3.02 – Crossflow and passive stack ventilation, (date). Passivent technical 

support 

Figure 3.03 – Redirecting light diagram, 2015. Autodesk Sustainability Workshop 

Figure 3.04 – View of Garden, Impact of Biophilic Learning Spaces on Student 

Success, Patrick Ross Photography 

Figure 3.05 – Biomorphic Carpet Pattern, Patrick Ross Photography 

 

Figure 4.01 – Avenues New York, Avenue, NY 

Figure 4.02 – Exterior, Basis Independent Schools 

Figure 4.03 – Discovery Elementary School, VMDO Architects 

Figure 4.04 – Exterior Façade, Discovery Elementary School, VMDO Architects 

 

Figure 5.01 – Initial Site Matrix, By Author, 2022 

Figure 5.02 – Exterior Photo, Google Images 

Figure 5.03 – Site Plan, Google Earth Pro 

Figure 5.04 – Exterior Photo, Google Images 



 

 

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Figure 5.05 – Exterior Photos, by author, 2022 

Figure 5.06 – Site Plan, Google Earth Pro 

Figure 5.07 – Exterior Photo, Google Images 

Figure 5.08 – Interior Spaces, by Author, 2022 

 

Figure 6.01 – Site Location Diagrams, by Author, 2022 

Figure 6.02 – Initial Site Plan, by Author, 2022 

Figure 6.03 – 3D Axon of Site, with images from Google Images, by Author, 2022 

Figure 6.04 – Office Vacancy in USA, Data from Statista, by Author, 2022 

Figure 6.05 –Vacancy Diagrams in Washington DC, by Author, 2022 

Figure 6.06 –Learning Models, by Author, 2022 

Figure 6.07 –USA Report Card, by Author, 2022 

Figure 6.08 –Designing Safer Schools, SMMA, 2022 

Figure 6.09 –Design Elements for a Vertical School, UHCDC, 2022 

Figure 6.10 – Elementary School Classrooms, Google Images, 2022 

Figure 6.11 –Natural Ventilation in High Rise Buildings, by Google Images, 2022 

Figure 6.12 –Site Analysis Diagram, by Author, 2022 



 

 

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Figure 6.13 –Existing Building Plan, by Author, 2022 

Figure 6.14 –Exiting Elevations, by Author, 2022 

Figure 6.15 –Building Massing Diagrams, by Author, 2022 

Figure 6.16 –Lower Floor Diagrams, by Author, 2022 

Figure 6.17 –Upper Floor Diagrams, by Author, 2022 

Figure 6.18 –Sectional Diagrams, by Author, 2022 

Figure 6.19 –Exploded Initial Axon, by Author, 2022 

Figure 6.20 –Developmental Sketches, by Author, 2022 

Figure 6.21 –Ground Floor, by Author, 2022 

Figure 6.22 –First Floor, by Author, 2022 

Figure 6.23 –Second Floor, by Author, 2022 

Figure 6.24 –Third Floor, by Author, 2022 

Figure 6.25 –Fourth Floor, by Author, 2022 

Figure 6.26 –Fifth Floor, by Author, 2022 

Figure 6.27 –Building Elevation, by Author, 2022 

Figure 6.28 –Building Sections, by Author, 2022 

Figure 6.29 –Arrival Perspective, by Author, 2022 



 

 

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Figure 6.30 – Lobby Perspective, by Author, 2022 

Figure 6.31 –Porch Perspective, by Author, 2022 

Figure 6.32 – Spine Perspective, by Author, 2022 

Figure 6.33 – Library Perspective, by Author, 2022 

Figure 6.34 – Art Lab Perspective, by Author, 2022 

Figure 6.35 – Section Perspective, by Author, 2022 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



 

 

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Chapter 1: Introduction 

 

History of Public Education in the United States 

Throughout centuries, public educational systems have been established to 

prepare the younger generation with the knowledge that will help them progress as a 

community and individuals in the future, but how did this all begin? Because this 

thesis is based in the United States, the historic background for education will be 

based on North America and referencing other nations that impact the learning 

environment. In the United States early years, the children who received education 

were primarily white children educated in church-supported schools or private 

schools. “Many children were excluded based on income, race or ethnicity, gender, 

geographic location, and other reasons” (ED606970). 



 

 

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Figure 1.01 – First Public School in America, 2013 

 

The Founding Fathers of the United States of America believed that the only 

way to preserve a democracy would be to require an educated population to 

understand political and social issues, be active in civic and political life, protect their 

human rights, and resists tyrants. When it began, education was seen to provide moral 

instruction and aid to a strong-minded character. In the beginning, founders knew that 

educating people for citizenship would be difficult to create and maintain without a 

systematic approach to schooling. Soon after the American Revolution in 1783, 

leaders came together to propose formal and unified publicly funded schools. While 

some communities had already established publicly funded schools by late 1780 the 

concept of free public education did not begin on a large scale until the 1830s. During 



 

 

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this time, Horace Mann, a Massachusetts legislator, and secretary of the state’s board 

of education, along with others, emphasized that public investments in education 

would benefit the entire nation by creating and transforming children into productive 

citizens. Common school advocates then created the “three R’s” system, which would 

be reading, writing, and arithmetic, which would also be taught along with other 

subjects such as history, geography, grammar, and rhetoric. Many urged that 

educating the low- and middle-class children would prepare them to obtain good jobs, 

which would ultimately strengthen the nation’s economic position. Advocates from 

all around saw universal education to eliminate poverty, crime, and other social 

problems. Throughout the 19th century, some communities saw a faster pace in 

public schools, while others were at a slower pace in others. Public schools became 

more common in cities than in rural areas. As for racial and gendered classes, it took 

longer for girls, African Americans, and children with disabilities to gain access to 

these public educational systems. By the 1870s 78% of children aged 5 to 14 were 

enrolled in public schools. High schools did not have as high numbers until the 20th 

century as in 1910, only 14% of Americans aged 25 and older had completed high 

school. It was only up till 2017 that 90% of Americans aged 25 and older had a high 

school degree.2 Creating educational environments however did create an exercise of 

community building and forged a sense of community since many people were 

invested in their schools which were then strengthened by school meetings, 

exhibitions, and other social activities.  

 

 
2 First Public School in America 



 

 

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The promotion of equality became a primary mission in the mid-20th century, 

especially in the case of Brown vs Board of Education declared that state-sponsored 

public educational systems were unconstitutional and while at that time received 

enormous backlash, continued to ensure equality in the learning environment. Events 

such as the elementary and secondary education act of 1965 and World War 2, helped 

ensure educational opportunities for children with disabilities and other minority 

groups. Federal and state programs then began providing food and after began 

offering other types of social services. While the educational system did create a 

place for learning for all students, the approach of the United States has created a 

more decentralized system than other countries due to authority being divided among 

the local, state, and federal levels. States end up making decisions about academic 

content standards, testing, and much more while the federal government has an 

influential yet limited role. As of 2020, there are 13,598 regular public school districts 

and 98,158 public schools across the United States. In the fall of 2020, about 49.4 

million students attended public schools from grades K-12, with about 22.6 million of 

them being white, 13.8 million being Hispanic, 7.4 million being black, 2.7 million 

being Asian, and the rest other. 



 

 

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Figure 1.02 – National Center for Educational Statistics, 2017-2018 

People involved in a Learning Environment 

Educational systems right now have a community of teachers, students, 

parents, and communities that make sure that schools continue moving forward and 

engaging their students in learning various subjects that prepare them for the future. 

Teachers have an important impact on students because they are responsible for 

students during class time and must make sure that students understand what is being 

taught. They then must communicate to parents and the board of education how each 

of these students is doing in their subjects, which lets the school board understand 

how successful their institution is. 



 

 

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Figure 1.02 - Percentage Distribution of Teachers in Public Elementary Schools, 

2017 

 

In the figure above, the comparison of female and male teachers was created 

and contrasted between the years 2000 and 2018. Most teachers in both elementary 

and secondary education are females with them being 76% of the instructors. In the 

national center for educational statistics, the reported average base salary for teachers 

is $57,900 in the US, taken in 2018. While the average income for teachers is good to 

pay in the USA, teaching has been considered a high-stress job for years. 

Unfortunately, due to the pandemic that occurred in 2020, these stress levels have 

skyrocketed. Teachers became desperate in trying to figure out ways on keeping 



 

 

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students engaged through zoom. About 60% of teachers say they experience frequent 

job-related stress and about 41% say they are less effective when stressed.3  

 

Research has gone to show that once teachers become stressed, so do students, 

which hurts their performance and engagement levels. In the past decade, teachers 

have reported they have had to accept more responsibilities and have been given 

fewer resources and choices in running their classes. Teachers from minority groups 

have also felt stressed as they experience isolation and feel pressured to feel obligated 

to lead conversations surrounding racism and inequities. This pressure is also placed 

on the government and the public regarding how the nation’s history of racism should 

be taught. While these stress levels of instructors have been getting more attention in 

recent years, about 42% of teachers have said administrators have made little effort to 

help relieve stress. With, about 25% of teachers have said that job-related stress leads 

them to think about quitting and 16% say they dread going to their jobs. 4 

 

 
3 Percentage Distribution of Teachers in Public Elementary Schools, 2022 
4 Teachers Are Not Ok, Even Though We Need Them to Be, 2021 



 

 

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Figure 1.03 - Enrollment in Public Elementary Schools, 2018 

 

Students are the reason for educational institutions and from a survey 

conducted in 2018, 50.7 million students are enrolled in public education. In 2019, 

35.5 million children were enrolled k-8. In a study about learning through technology, 

about 42% of students would like to use digital learning tools more often. Students 

also understand how much teachers care for them as a study showcases that 76% of 

students agree that teachers care about them. 57% of all students say that they use 

access to the internet and its tools to learn about subjects. 34% of all students would 

also like to use digital learning tools outside of school.5 As students continue to learn, 

there are always new ways to educate themselves, especially through technology. But 

not all of it is technology, as hands-on learning has also proven to work as it allows 

students to correct themselves of any educational mistakes now, while still having 

their professor’s guidance nearby. It also encourages students to think outside the box 

and experiment with the problems and tools that they will essentially have to work 

 
5 Enrollment in Public Elementary Schools, 2018 



 

 

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with regularly throughout their future careers. The most effective way to prepare 

students for hands-on learning is to have students arrive at each lesson ready to 

explore the projects by familiarizing themselves with the procedure beforehand.6 

 

Parents also play a crucial role in the education system as they are required to 

maintain their children in educational institutions. In a recent study about returning 

students to school after the pandemic, around 25% of parents indicated that they were 

not comfortable with having their kids return to school. Parents felt like their kids 

were in danger of spreading the virus and returning homesick, which is something 

that we as people now must deal with because the COVID-19 virus is still out there. 

As for commute time, about half of parents said that their children spent around 0-10 

minutes traveling to school in the Fall of 2019. In a survey done in 2017, 71% of 

parents said they want “a good quality public school in their neighborhood, not the 

greater choice of schools to attend”. 68% of parents would also like for public schools 

to provide a safe environment that expands the children’s development that way 

students are more successful when they attend higher education or begin working.7 

One other item that parents are stressed about is the inadequate funding and excessive 

standardized testing that has been occurring. 

 

 
6 Education Technology Use in Schools, 2019 
7 Commuting Concerns, 2020 



 

 

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Figure 1.04 – Poll on Ideas for Public Education, 2017 

 

 

 

Office Spaces in the City 

 

 On March 16, 2020, the United States shut down its cities and everyone began 

to adapt to their new life as virtual workers from home. Since then, the broad shift to 

working from home has changed the commercial real estate market and has emptied 

various office buildings throughout cities. There has been an increase in office 

vacancy rates since Covid began with numbers reaching up to 17.2%.8 Even though 

Covid has slowed down in recent months, and companies have called workers back to 

 
8 DC has Over 14 million Square Feet of Vacant Office Space, 2019 



 

 

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the office, full occupancy is unlikely. Workers have also seen the benefits of working 

remotely and have proven to function well remotely, which has led to the demand for 

hybrid work. Remote work benefits include the elimination of commute times and 

flexibility for parents and their children. Landlords will now have to think about how 

to reimagine building spaces to continue to thrive in cities. Occurring in the same 

environment, educational systems are finding issues such as obsolete facilities, 

barriers to new land acquisition, and a set of strategies for programs and mandates. 

Nowadays, social, and cultural trends are refocusing education, encouraging 

innovation, and challenging the conceptions and models of educational environments. 

Schools have been historically seen as centers of buildings that train humans and 

provide them with essential resources that provide them with the ability to work in the 

social fabric. However, in today’s times, humans can carry an infinite level of 

information in their pockets that cannot be attained by a teacher. Due to this, schools 

now must switch from supporting knowledge to supporting skill development. 

 

 



 

 

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Figure 1.05 - Safe routes to school partnership, 2018 

Opportunity for Improved Learning 

 

In today’s learning environment there are plenty of opportunities to enhance 

student learning while also making a safe environment for both faculty and students. 

As technology advances, so can the learning environment. There have been thousands 

of studies on how the learning environment can be enhanced to create a better 

learning platform as well as studies on the human brain and how different materials 

and activities can be used to have the application of learning take a more effective 

route. Throughout this thesis booklet, we will first look at educational theories that 

have been used for centuries and extrapolate the pros and cons of each one. From 

there we will dive into educational appliances which are effective techniques that are 

used or can be tested to enhance a student’s educational experience. Moving forward, 

we will look at three successful educational environments that have been designed 

and built and feature both theories and appliances. After that, the location of the site 

will be analyzed and diagramed as well as begin to approach the target audience and 

think about how to address the issues that were listed above. After this, the design 

tactics will be presented, which will go over the opportunities chosen to implement 

applications and theories towards the actual site and design. Finally, the design 

solution will strive to not only solve the issues stated in the introduction, but also 

provide a design for the site, which will enhance the educational environment by 

using design tactics, theories, and applications. 

 



 

 

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Chapter 2: Educational Theories 

 

4 Main Educational Philosophies 

 Four main educational philosophies focus heavily on what educational centers 

should teach and the curriculum aspect throughout the globe. The first one is called 

Perennialism, and its main goal is to ensure that students become knowledgeable in 

the main ideas of Western Civilization.9 These main ideas have the potential to solve 

problems in any era which makes them manageable. The idea is to instruct thoughts 

that will continue forever and to look for consistent ideas by noticing how the natural 

 
9 Educational Philosophies Definitions and Comparison Chart, Diehl, David. 2006. 



 

 

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and humanistic world does not change. The curriculum for this philosophy focuses on 

understanding cultural literacy and pushing students to endure in disciplines.  

 

 The second main educational philosophy is called Essentialism and it was 

formed on a common center of information that should be communicated to students 

in a precise and trained way.10 The main objective of this philosophy is that scholarly 

and moral norms should be the ways learning environments are taught. In the center 

of education, the structured program should be attaining fundamental information and 

abilities, which makes the school more practical and prepares students to become 

valuable students of their community. As said in the name, the essentials should be 

taught like writing, reading, speaking, and social interactions. Schools should not 

attempt to set policies but rather teach students about authority, discipline, and hard 

work. Professors should assist students with being able to control aggressiveness and 

carelessness.  

 

The third main educational philosophy is called Progressivism and its goal is 

to place the attention on the student rather than on the professor or the content 

provided.11 This instructive way of learning urges students to test ideas by having 

them interact through active experimentation. The content of the curriculum is made 

by the interests and questions of the students.  

 

 
10 Educational Philosophies Definitions and Comparison Chart, Diehl, David. 2006. 
11 Educational Philosophies Definitions and Comparison Chart, Diehl, David. 2006. 



 

 

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The fourth and final educational philosophy is called the social 

reconstructionism theory which emphasizes the social questions and journey to create 

a better society.12 The focus of this curriculum is based on educational modules that 

highlight social changes and uses this as the point of education. Due to WW2, the 

author of social reconstructionism, Theodore Brameld recognized the potential for the 

human obligation to create a useful society that utilizes innovation and compassion. 

Education is supposed to prepare the future generation to create social order and 

people should accept the frameworks must be changed to overcome abuse and create 

better human conditions.  

 
12 Educational Philosophies Definitions and Comparison Chart, Diehl, David. 2006. 



 

 

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Figure 2.01 - Adapted from Ornstein’s and Oliva’s Educational Philosophies. From 

the dissertation of Dr. David E. Diehl entitled “A Study of Faculty-Related Variables 

and Competence in Integrating Instructional Technologies into Pedagogical 

Practices.” 

Dutch Structuralism 

The movement of structuralism began in architecture as a shift in attention to 

modifying user functions after the reaction of functionalism in post-war Dutch 

architecture in the 1950s. This movement was described as the use of modules as 

elements on a larger scale which then changed functions. Other attributes of this 



 

 

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movement included showcasing “honest” materials and a visible skeleton. The overall 

spatial configuration was composed of basic elements that would be moved relative to 

each other to create spatial richness.  

 

 

Figure 2.02 - De Drie Hoven, Amsterdam. Design by Herman Hertzberger, 1975 

 

Montessori Educational Model 

The Montessori Model was created by Maria Montessori in the early 1900s 

and it targets children-centered methods of education that involve child-led activities 

and classrooms with various ages children and teachers who encourage independence. 

Doctor Maria believed that children learn better when they are choosing what to learn 



 

 

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and this educational model makes it unique from the typical learning environment.13 

This model includes various activity stations for children to pick up throughout the 

day and teachers move from group to group instead of standing in the front of the 

classroom. This style also features a nontraditional grading system. This system also 

focuses on the whole being of the student, social, emotional, physical, and intellectual 

development rather than just a focus on the retainment of knowledge. 

 

 

Figure 2.03 – Comparison Chart of Educational Models, Net stars, 2015 

 

 
13 Structuralism, 2020 



 

 

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The Montessori model, there are pros and cons which is why it is compared to 

the traditional model of learning.14 The first proof of the Montessori model is the 

emphasis on independent hands-on learning. There is a use of natural light and 

common space in classroom design. Creating these beautiful and accessible 

environments is done because of its impact on the children that direct their learning. 

If a child feels comfortable in a learning environment and has features that help them 

learn, they will become more effective in learning that subject. With these areas in 

place, students can also be allowed to learn at their own induvial pace, and with 

independent materials, students could develop their concentration and coordination. 

Another pro to this learning model is the enhanced social interaction that model 

offers. Children most of the time become fascinated by what other classmates and 

people are doing and often try to emulate it. The Montessori model capitalizes on that 

by grouping children of different ages together in the same learning environments. 

With this, students not only learn from their teachers but also from their peers and 

that is proven to enhance their learning. This practice of mixed-age students also 

allows the life skills of acceptance and inclusion as well as creative ideas to be 

generated. This model also allows students to become more independent because they 

develop entrepreneurial mindsets.15 After all, learning is self-directed. The final pro is 

that this learning style is inclusive for students with special needs. Maria wanted to 

include students with all disabilities which is why the grouping of kids was also 

formed. Because these students are grouped, special needs students have less pressure 

 
14 Northeast Stars Montessori, 2015 
15 Exploring The Pros and Cons of Montessori Education, 2019 



 

 

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to keep up with their peers and because the learning style is individual and everyone 

has their own goals, special needs children can learn at their own pace.  

 

While all these are great reasons for the Montessori model to exist, some cons 

need to be discussed. The first one is cost, which for this model can be very 

expensive. The cost of durable and high-quality materials as well as the extensive 

training for faculty can take up a lot of the funding provided for this learning 

environment. The Montessori model can also be seen as too loose for some parents as 

part of it is the initiation of students to independently learn their environment. Even 

though it is up to the teacher and their assistants to make sure the students. progress 

of learning is on pace; students have room for distraction. The final con is the open-

ended structure that this model has. While its intention is meant for more effective 

learning, students also tend to like a routine and structure. This model is built to allow 

movement and change, which could then become a space for distraction. 

The Waldorf Model 

 The Waldorf educational theory unifies age-appropriate content and various 

methods for each of the stages in a child’s development era. It approaches the human 

being in three entities in nature which consist of the mind, spirit, and body, and 

educates all parts to prepare the student for the meaning and purpose of their own 

lives.16 This educational model was founded in 1919 by Rudolf Steiner who was an 

Austrian Philosopher and Scientist. The main point of this educational theory is to 

 
16 Waldorf School Education, High Mowing 



 

 

21 

 

create each student’s special and unique capacities and teach them to accept those 

capacities and how they will fulfill their lives. 

 

Figure 2.04 – Waldorf vs Public School Comparison, Rocky, 2014 



 

 

22 

 

 

 This educational model showcases those students learn best by having a 

routine and imitating their peers and teachers. These instructors create healthy daily 

rhythms and model-worthy behaviors. This model also enforces the daily lessons of 

abstract thinking and encourages ethical foundations. This model also integrates 

academic disciplines throughout all ages and encourages educational environments to 

not only test and read about subjects but create areas for students to experience them. 

The Reggio Emilia Model 

 The Reggio Emilia Model is a different way of teaching and learning in which 

teachers observe what students know and are curious about, as well as what 

challenges them. With these recorded observations, teachers then reflect and develop 

various ways to help students expand both their academic and social skills.17 

 
17 What Is the Reggio Emilia Approach? Child Discovery Center, 2018. 



 

 

23 

 

 

Figure 2.05 - Implementing a Reggio Emilia Inspired Approach in a Mainstream 

Western Australian Context, Claire Hall, 2013 

 

 Children are viewed as curious competent students that can connect with the 

world around them. Teachers in this educational model are mindful of this and are 

open to students’ possibilities and because of this, assist in building up their work and 

environment for students to respond fittingly. Collaboration and participation are key 

factors in this model as the whole framework is planned to associate with students 

and to help them connect with everyone. In this model, students, faculty, and parents 

connect to move forward with the educational experience and community 



 

 

24 

 

improvement. The spaces in the school are teachers within themselves and teachers 

organize these spaces to guarantee a balance between induvial, small, and large group 

activities. Lastly, parents are essential to their children’s growth and learning 

experiences and can help by becoming part of family teams that are created within the 

educational system. 

Finland Educational Model 

 Finland’s educational model has proven to be an effective education because 

of its nine elements. The central focus of this educational model is to provide equal 

education to everyone that emphasizes learning through play type of experience. They 

also focus on personalized learning by supporting each student’s challenges and 

working with their strengths. Students are encouraged to follow their learning path 

which is measured by overall development and not by standardized tests that focus 

only on memorization skills and overall scores. This model also focuses on minimal 

homework during the first grades to encourage soft skill development outside of the 

classroom. The Finland model also takes their latest technology and applies it to their 

learning environments, but they focus on making technology a mindful technique that 

enhances the learning experience rather than overpowering daily life.18 

 
18 10 Reasons why Finland’s Educational System is the Best in the World, Mike Colagrossi, 2018 



 

 

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Figure 2.06 – Reading Performance, Data Oecd, 2015 

 

Finland’s educational model also encourages everyone to promote lifelong 

learning by having a flexible system that allows everyone to continue with their 

education no matter their age. The final item that this model uses is highly trained 

teachers that have to have a master’s degree in education. Teachers are then 

motivated to create a plan to emphasize their teaching and resourcing. Teachers are 

also tailored to teach different kinds of students throughout their degree to be able to 

assist any student once they become certified educators. 



 

 

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The Gagne Learning Theory 

Robert Mills Gagne was an American educational psychologist known for his 

five major categories of learning which included, verbal information, intellectual 

skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills, and attitudes. He believed that learning was 

an ongoing skill that is built on prior knowledge and that humans developed their 

intellect based on their physical capacity. Based on his research, Gagne felt that 

learning requires different instruction and various levels of support. Because every 

person is different, various strategies must be required to achieve different learning 

goals. Intellectual skills are an outline of how to follow procedures to get things done. 

Within this skill, there are five different categories which are discrimination, concrete 

concept, defined concept, rule, and problem-solving. Each concept should be 

practiced differently as children can retain each more effectively. The cognitive 

strategy has three main concepts which include the rehearsal, the elaboration, and 

organizing of materials by setting goals and tracking the progress and if need be, 

modifying these strategies for better learning. Verbal information is taught by using 

different techniques to recall items through memory. A student can use their visual 

recollection as well as any other mnemonic strategies to help make connections with 

the information that they are trying to recall. Motor skills are physical actions that can 

be assessed through complex performances such as skating, dancing, and writing.19 

Once a student can become accurate by psychically doing an action, their minds 

become coordinated with how to do it and therefore they become more effective in 

that action. The final item is attitude, which can be students declaring their thoughts 

 
19 Taxonomy Of Learning, 2021 



 

 

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and self-reporting to themselves.  Of course, with this learning technique, students 

must have to try it for it to work. Students will be able to self-reflect easier in a 

positive environment created by design and the teachers.  

 

Figure 2.07 – Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction, Kurt, 2021 

Designing a Course Theory 

Classroom design will play a huge impact on the learning of students. 

Teachers should allow enough time to carefully plan their courses and discuss with 

other teachers that have taught a similar course. The ADDIE model, which stands for 

Analyze, design, develops, Implement, and Evaluations, is a sequence that was 

created in 1975. This learning tool was implemented throughout all branches of the 

U.S armed forces but is used in learning environments throughout the globe. The 

Analysis Phase is where teachers set their goals and have a program that matches the 

skill level that each student shows. This is where teachers should teachers test to see 

what students know and what they should know after the course is complete. The next 



 

 

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step is designed, which determines the types of resources and tools that will be used 

to create an effective learning environment for students. The development stage then 

begins the production and testing of students.20 Teachers should already have some 

type of data collected from the previous phases to see what type of program needs to 

be taught for students to be able to grasp the information from the course. The 

implementation then continues to modify that program to make sure that it is the most 

effective way of learning for students in the class. Teachers can continue to analyze 

the learning environment to see if students are retaining the information. The final 

step is the evaluation phase which implements final tests that reach the items that 

were learned and where students struggled. Teachers then create a summary report to 

determine if initial course goals were met as well as see what could be done moving 

forward to make the most effective learning and success rate. 

 

Education through Covid 19 Theory 

In the year 2020, the entire globe experienced the Covid 19 pandemic where 

lives were claimed, and everyday life was changed and continues to change. With 466 

million cases and 6 million deaths because of Covid, many implementations have 

been recently introduced to combat the virus and its variants.21 Education took a toll 

because it had to transition online and now moving towards in-person, but parents and 

teachers still feel hesitant at times. Guest professor Catherine Burke, who focuses on 

the 20th-21st century progressive education talked about the Covid 19 public health 

 
20 ADDIE Model: Instructional Design, 2018 
21 COVID Live, 2020 



 

 

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crisis.22 This pandemic has altered relationships between teachers and students as well 

as schools and communities. While the pandemic has altered relationships and 

learning environments, it has also taught humanity how to design by using pop-ups 

and temporary structures that give access to communication while also maintaining 

health concerns. Burke talks about various politicians that want to change a few items 

in school furniture including shaped tables and the arrangements of seats. She 

believes in the 10 mythologies of school which say that students work better when 

instructed and where there is a set schedule. While I believe in some of these 

mythologies, I feel like there is room for improvement where designers can arrange 

spaces for students to grasp information more quickly. A mix of spatial elements, as 

well as the use of materials and various classroom techniques, can provide students 

the opportunity to embrace their creative side and learn how to become more engaged 

with the material that they are being taught.  

 

Therapeutic spaces in Schools 

As the world continues to change because of social events, viruses, and other 

items, schools should begin offering Therapeutic spaces for both their students and 

teachers. The low talk about therapeutic spaces is not often talked about which is 

something that should be brought up because of the mental health and well-being of 

everyone in the learning environment.23 Four main principles need to be established 

for these types of spaces. These principles are the presence of a trained, trusted adult, 

 
22 Mythologies Of Education in The Time of Covid-19, 2020 
23 Designing Therapeutic Spaces In Schools, 2020 



 

 

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enough time given to these individuals, an understanding community that is aware of 

mental health, and extreme attention to the quality of the space itself. While mental 

health is an important issue, the therapeutic spaces seem too expensive and unrealistic 

in low-income communities because of the time and money set to create each 

induvial room. There should be a public space within the school where everyone can 

go yet feel comfortable expressing their feelings towards each other. There are parts 

in these principles that can be extruded out and placed into a design that can create a 

better learning environment for students and teachers. 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter 3: Sustainable Design Strategies for Academic 

environments 

 

Passive Design Strategies 

Well-designed buildings use passive design strategies all around the globe to 

minimize energy consumption. To use passive design, one will look at the building 

form and thermal performance of the building elements including but not limited to, 

mechanical, architectural, structural, etc. The ultimate vision of passive design is to 



 

 

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fully eliminate any requirements for active mechanical systems while maintaining 

occupant comfort throughout the day. While this seems close to impossible to design 

for every building, the implementation of passive design helps lower building energy 

use. The more buildings and owners implement a passive design, the healthier the 

planet and its inhabitants will be.  

 

 

Figure 3.01 – Five Elements of Passive Solar Design, (date), Office of Energy 

Efficiency & Renewable Energy 

 

Passive heating uses the building design to capture solar radiation and capture 

internal heat gains. Passive solar heating is formed by having a well-insulated 



 

 

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envelope with other elements that minimize energy loss and store solar gains for later 

use.24 

 

Figure 3.02 – Crossflow and passive stack ventilation, (date). Passivent technical 

support 

 

Passive Ventilation uses the natural air circulation patterns surrounding the 

building to capture outdoor air into the desired space.25 The winds caused by air 

temperature differences can create air pressured spots throughout various occupied 

spaces. Passive-designed buildings can enhance energy savings by capturing these 

natural air flows and taking advantage of them. Some examples of passive ventilation 

include operable windows, building shape, orientation, wind towers, shading, etc. 

 

 
24 Passive Solar Design, Willams 
25 Passivent Support, Passivent 



 

 

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Figure 3.03 – Redirecting light diagram, 2015. Autodesk Sustainability Workshop 

 

Daylighting in passive design strategies is being able to maximize the use and 

distribution of natural diffused daylight throughout the interior of a building to reduce 

the use of electric lighting.26 Features that contribute to a successful daylighting 

strategy include space planning, height ceilings with tall windows, interior surface 

colors and finished, light shelves, etc. 

 

Applying these strategies can differ depending on the type of building that it is 

being used for. Typically, commercial and institutions have higher ventilation 

requirements than residential buildings. Some strategies for these types of buildings 

include having air and moisture-tight envelope, as well as having the window-to-wall 

 
26 Daylighting | Sustainability Workshop, 2015 



 

 

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area ratio limited to less than 50%.27 The climate area of the building also impacts 

what strategies to use because a warm climate needs more ventilation support than a 

colder climate area. When designing passive buildings, benefits are not seen right 

away but will have a greater impact on the surrounding environment in the long run. 

 

Biophilic Design 

Biophilia is a theory that describes the internal connection between human 

beings to surrounding nature and living organisms. As research has shown, the human 

reaction tends to be more relaxed and calmy-aware in natural spaces. Throughout an 

extensive amount of research, Craig Gaulden Davis, Terrapin Bright Green, The Salk 

Institute, and Morgan State University have been able to understand and provide 

evidence showcasing the benefits that are seen in human performance when in these 

types of spaces. The biophilic design experiment was conducted on a 6th-grade math 

class at Green Street Academy and proved to reduce student stress, improve average 

test scores, and make the learning environment “calmer” and “easier to focus” for 

students.28  

 

As research began, designers questioned how people could enhance the built 

environment to improve cognitive performance. This led to the focus of neuroscience 

which gives a fundamental basis for visual perception, memory, and guided behavior. 

Neuroscience showcases that the cerebral cortex is the largest anatomical subdivision 

 
27 Buildings Using Passive Design Strategies for Energy Efficiency, 2014 
28 Impact of Biophilic Learning Spaces on Student Success, 2019 



 

 

35 

 

of the human brain and that one-third of this cortex is the visual cortex. This cortex 

uses patterns of activity and is the way living organisms can process visual 

information. Studies also showcased the visual image statistics of the natural world 

which reveals that it is smoother varying curvilinear contours. This visual study 

would then be translated from a forest to a classroom, as the visual ease afforded by 

patterns would let the brain relax and focus on the complexity of academic studies 

rather than negative environmental responses. Roger Ullrich led the earliest studies of 

health-related outcomes and biophilia in 1984 where some recovering patients were 

placed in rooms facing a brick wall while other patients were placed in rooms with a 

view looking towards trees and shrubs. This study proved to be a success as patients 

with visual access to the plants were able to recover at a faster pace and used fewer 

painkillers. The cognitive response also proved to lessen stress which has been 

proven since the 1800s by Olmsted. Later in the 1990s, Kaplan was able to find out 

that portions of the prefrontal cortex can quiet down while experiencing nature. 

 

The 3 main implementations that were enhanced in the biophilic classroom 

were the view of nature, dynamic and diffuse lighting, and biomorphic forms and 

images. There was also a case study in Baltimore, MD that showcased how green 

schoolyards became a retreat for stress for students which urged professionals to 

understand the impact of stress on students’ academic performance. The design tactic 

used in this case study was to place a garden outside of the classroom, which has 

already been proven to reduce heart rate and blood pressure.  



 

 

36 

 

 

Figure 3.04 – View of Garden, Impact of Biophilic Learning Spaces on Student 

Success, Patrick Ross Photography 

 

With these plants, animals would be attracted, and this would allow students 

to take a short break from learning and look outside which would allow them to then 

restore attention. This proved to be effective as students were able to learn and attain 

more information. The next design tactic was to create nature-inspired patterns which 

were placed on classroom surfaces. This prompts student brains to be easily 

processed and reduces stress.  



 

 

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Figure 3.05 – Biomorphic Carpet Pattern, Patrick Ross Photography 

 

The third design tactic was creating dynamic and diffused lighting which was 

detailed in various ways. The blinds were replaced with translucent shades which 

were operated by a solar cell and had imprinted images of tree shadows. This not only 

helped with natural light coming in depending on the solar amount throughout the day 

but also provided natural elements that helped reduce stress levels. 

Active Learning Strategies 

  

Active learning is defined as a set of strategies that promote students to 

actively participate throughout the educational environment. These strategies include 

hands-on activities, brief writing and reading assignments, problem-solving, 



 

 

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information gathering and synthesis, and reflection-based activities.29 These strategies 

are emphasized by building connections between students and creating new 

experiences and concepts that are designed to challenge their understanding and 

develop new skill sets. These active learning strategies include individual and 

collaborative tasks and allow students to reflect on outcomes as well as share ideas 

with each other.  The benefits of active learning include creating connections and 

encouraging students to create social skills as well as making effective thinking 

through analysis. This then prompts the teacher to discuss with the student and allows 

for better performance on assessments and overall lower failure rates. 

 

Figure 3.06 – Furniture Safety Tips for an active learning environment, Milius, 2018 

 

Program Design 

 When designing an Elementary school, one of the first items to look forward 

to is creating a child-scaled environment. This is the first time a child is 

 
29 Active Learning: Teaching Guide» Center for Teaching & Learning | Boston University 



 

 

39 

 

“independent” from their family and depending on the size of the school, can have a 

daunting effect on students. A strategy used by EEK architects is to reduce the 

perception of a school which is often referred to as a monolithic and uninviting 

structure and institution. This can be done by creating environments that familiarize 

with homes or villages and then establishing them by having the teacher and student 

build strong relationships. An example of this is looking at a classroom like a house 

by giving it a “porch” which creates spaces outside the classroom by having tables 

and chairs outside. This creates space for extended learning in public spaces of the 

building and has the circulation act as a part of the learning environment. When 

creating a safe, welcoming, and supportive learning environment, the school design 

ensures the future of communities by demonstrating that these schools are educating 

the future generation.30 

 

Figure 3.07 – Design Considerations for a 21st-century classroom, HMC, 2018 

 
30 The Design of Elementary Schools, 2020 



 

 

40 

 

 The square footage of a classroom is easy to find but the impact that these 

dimensions of spaces on education efficiency is harder to find without understanding 

how the classroom is used. Sometimes when a classroom is too small, it cannot 

accommodate the diversity of activity that larger classrooms can which causes 

children to not be able to create the same long-term projects that children in larger 

classrooms could. These spaces also need to be looked at from group learning 

perspectives, as students would need space to explore their ideas within the group that 

they are in. The furniture in these educational environments is also something 

extremely important as it is often misunderstood because the exploration and 

advancement of educational technology become more actively used throughout 

schools. There has been a study that ergonomic school furniture only fits 10% of 

students and 90% of students sit in chairs and tables that are too high or low for them. 

While ergonomic absence is typically due to financial issues, students have proven to 

learn and create more when in a relaxed state which can alter when they are not in a 

comfortable chair or table. Other furniture like bookshelves and cubbies also play an 

important role as it helps create distinct active centers.  This flexibility allows and 

enables the teacher and the class to reconfigure classroom spaces to suit various 

activities and spaces. These spaces can be used as block areas, dramatic play areas, 

writing centers, and science and art. These spaces give the ability for students to 

change postures and positions to be able to learn and retain information, which leads 

them to learn at a more effective pace. 

 



 

 

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 Sounds and color may seem subliminal but are equally important when 

designing classroom and learning spaces for students. Studies show that the ability to 

hear is one of the most critical performance abilities for a successful learning 

environment. Learning spaces must have a “signal to noise ratio”, which is the ability 

of teachers, students, and other media to be heard while controlling background 

noises and reverberation. The American National Standards (ANSI) published 

standards that define the maximum desirable background noise at leaves of 35 dBA 

and a reverberation time of 0.6 to 0.7 seconds in core teaching environments. The 

sound transmission class (STC) has also specified various measures to ensure 

appropriate separation from adjacent sources of noise although exterior noise is often 

the most difficult to control, especially in an urban site, which often requires a greater 

performance and design in window and wall assemblies. 

 

 

Figure 3.08 – Characteristics of schools with a level of equivalent sound pressure 

level, researchgate 



 

 

42 

 

Studies of colors showcase those certain colors affect physiological changes in 

blood pressure and the performance of specific types of tasks. A study in 2009 by 

Methta found those red influences higher performance on detail-oriented tasks and 

blue influences higher performance on creative tasks. As for design, being able to 

focus on the location of various colors helps reduce glare and eye strain. Other design 

tactics include applying color to three walls and another color to a single wall will 

reduce visual monotony in a learning environment. The ceiling can also be used to 

create an opportunity for suspending artwork or curtains from a grid and with 

technological advances, create experiences from above. 

 

Staff Friendly Environments 

Designing not only for students but for teachers and faculty is immensely 

important as teachers need spaces to interact with each other and students as well as 

enjoy what they are doing. Benefits for teachers are just the first step to a better 

working environment. The first step of design for teacher-orientated spaces can start 

with spaces that allow faculty to express themselves and their interests. For example, 

movable furniture can allow faculty to arrange their offices to showcase their culture 

and personalities. Natural light in these spaces can also create relaxed working 

environments. 

Technology 

As technology continues to advance, there is an inevitable implementation 

that continues to push forward in learning environments. In the year 2020 of the 



 

 

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COVID pandemic, there was a massive transition in the learning environment with 

zoom, which showcased that technology can be used to teach despite some of its 

flaws. Designing schools that adapt to technological advancements need to be learned 

in all learning environments as some spaces become irrelevant to the latest 

innovations. These spaces need to be flexible environments that can change into other 

areas without immense renovation. With, as technology becomes more mobile, 

classes should provide furniture that accommodates the use of laptops and other 

technologies. These technological advances to having outdoor activities while also 

learning what is on “screen”.  Personalization of spaces in the learning environment 

through 2 and 3-dimensional displays also works for learning as technology allows 

for walls to be used as productive areas of learning.  

 

 

Figure 3.09 – Education by Design: Challenging the traditional definition of learning 

space, National Education Association 



 

 

44 

 

Security 

Security in learning environments is crucial for stress-free education. Being 

able to create safe and secure environments requires the consideration of intruders 

and bullies. The first tactics that come to play for adding security are video cameras, 

magnetometers, x-ray machines, etc. Although these tactics work at times, design 

ideas are also able to take advantage of more productive strategies toward a stronger 

learning community.31 For example, a single, clear front entry point where 

administrators can look at the outdoor entry space. The reception area can also be 

designed to become open and welcoming, which makes immediate contact with 

arriving guests.  

 

Figure 3.10 – Safe School Design, SMMA 

 

 
31 The Design of Elementary Schools, 2020 



 

 

45 

 

The other sense of security that occurs is bullying, where spaces are usually 

not seen by adults. Design can intervene by organizing a series of spaces that 

encourage greater interaction with students and adults, which reduces potential 

bullying. Another design opportunity to reduce bullying is the use of transparency 

that eliminate areas where students are out of sight. Security can also be created by 

involving the community and bringing more “eyes on the street”. The way this can be 

achieved is by offering zones of the school as a community center for afterschool 

hours. These multiroom spaces and events offer a strong relationship with the 

community and its school, which in turn keep property active more and with active 

districts, there tends to be less crime due to the limit of unused spaces.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



 

 

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Chapter 4: Educational Environments 

 

Avenues: The World School 

  Avenues, The World School is a project located in New York City and was 

introduced as a global project for students with the same curriculum. The developer 

wanted to create an educational environment that supported its curriculum and 

provided a high-performance learning area for the 21st century.32 

 

 

Figure 4.01 – Avenues New York, Avenue, NY 

 

 
32 Avenues: The World School, Perkins Eastman 



 

 

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 When first looking for a potential site, the client had trouble finding a vacant 

lot because of the high density in the area, but then decided to look into existing 

office spaces. Once the client had a site, they contacted Perkins Eastman to begin 

designing, and with this type of space, some design challenges came with the 

previous warehouse. The vertical circulation was not adequate for a school 

environment and the first floor was a loading dock. The two spaces that sought the 

most design challenge were the theater and the gym. The gym was placed on the top 

floor so several columns could be demolished, and a higher roof could be built. With 

10 stories, there was enough room for the proposed 1600 students. This precedent can 

showcase how adaptive reuse buildings such as a warehouse, in a highly dense urban 

area can work despite their design and site challenges. The ten-story building was 

able to function as a school by careful planning within existing condition limitations.  

 

BASIS Independent School 

BASIS Independent School is a project located in McLean, Virginia, and is 

part of a growing national network of independent schools. For this design, the client 

purchased a former vacant corporate headquarters campus in Tysons Corner. This 

educational building would facilitate its adaptation of a reused building and create an 

environment for STEM-focused, liberal arts programs.33 

 
33 National Network of Prek-12 Private Schools | BASIS Independent Schools 



 

 

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Figure 4.02 – Exterior, Basis Independent Schools 

 

Different programs in this building were placed around the atrium, which became the 

heart and central space around the school. During this design, Perkins Eastman faced 

some constraints which included egress capacity and building codes for the occupant 

load of a school. The previous HVAC system was also changed to meet school 

demands and stairs were added to provide convenient transitions between classrooms. 

In addition to the prominent entry space, a vestibule was added to allow for oversight 

of visitors to the school. The client was also able to work with the local parks 

department and allow for school daytime use of fields across the street which became 

a partnership. 



 

 

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Discovery Elementary School 

Located in Arlington, Virginia, Discovery Elementary school opened in 

September 2015. The school was designed by VMDO Architects and was one of the 

first Net Zero Elementary schools in the United States. Its size is 98,000 SF and it 

houses around 600 students. While this school is not an adaptive reuse building, It is a 

great case study because of its focus on performance and engaging students in what 

VMDO says is “building as a teaching tool”. This project was the first school to 

receive the U.S Green Building Council’s LEED Zero Energy certification and 

demonstrate a net positive energy balance.34 

  

Figure 4.03 – Discovery Elementary School, VMDO Architects 

 

 
34 Discovery Elementary School, VMDO Architects 



 

 

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The site is located near the nation’s capital, Arlington County which is one of 

the fastest-growing counties in Virginia. This school shares the site with an existing 

middle school and goes into an existing hill. The name of the school was chosen by 

the students and reflects the forward-looking, learning base that takes place in this 

environment. The name also reflects John Glenn who lived nearby and was the first 

American to orbit the earth in 1962. The design of the school takes advantage of the 

topography of the site and creates academic zones and separates exterior play spaces 

for different students in grade levels. The public spaces were designed to have a large 

roof canopy that is the length of the school and acts as a front porch to the building. 

The main entry features a canopy with an oculus which allows the entry to become a 

solar calendar that indicates the time of day and year. Various light designs were 

implemented to help students with ongoing experiments. The use of colors also 

comes into play on different sides of the school to represent different natural 

expressions, such as the moss that grows on the north side of the trees. 

 



 

 

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Figure 4.04 – Exterior Façade, Discovery Elementary School, VMDO Architects 

 

VMDO also organized the school’s programs by reflecting on each grade’s 

expanding curriculum and identity. As students advance throughout school, their 

environments expand. An example of this is the first floor having a theme around 

animals found in the earth ecosystems and the second floor themed around the 

elements of the heavens. This story is reinforced by graphics along the entry walls on 

each grade level. This school can inspire students and faculty to use the building to 

their creativity to learn and explore with engagements of support at different scales. 

This school offers different furniture and two-story slides that encourage creative 

expression and choice. There are also foldable partitions and one on one technology 

that enables research and collaboration to happen in various spaces. Interactive dry 

erase and magnetic walls encourage students to express themselves. With these 

design tactics, students are allowed to experience their school as a living laboratory 

and are encouraged to understand the earth and their community.35 

 

Throughout all these three precedents, each has shown an immense level of 

detail that coincides with their site and building strategies to enhance learning in 

different environments. Each precedent had design challenges that came with either 

the building or the site and its community, but the design tactics that were used 

proved to showcase how architecture can solve and create amazing learning 

environments. The proposal for the existing site will take design tactics and site 

 
35 Discovery Elementary School, VMDO Architects 



 

 

52 

 

information and challenges from all three of these case studies and apply them to the 

site in Washington DC where an existing public office building with being converted 

into an adaptive reuse school that will solve its design challenges of a heavily dense 

urban site environment as well as provides areas that encourage students to enhance 

their learning by different levels of details at different scales. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



 

 

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Chapter 5:  Potential Site Selection 

 

Site Matrix 

 Selecting a site became critical for how the design of an addition or full 

redevelopment of a school was going to begin. The selection of a site would also give 

access to begin looking at environmental and community concerns and who the 

design environment was going to impact. A site matrix was created that would 

compare 3 existing elementary schools and evaluate them by giving them a grade. 

These grades were given and created by a set of factors that would heavily impact the 

design proposals moving forward. 

 

 

Figure 5.01 – Initial Site Matrix, By Author, 2022 



 

 

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While the candidates above worked on addition and/or a full remodification, 

the idea of adaptive reuse soon became as important as the idea of enhanced learning 

as major concepts of this thesis started coming together. As cities and communities 

shift over time, properties lose life expectancy value, and few efforts are made to 

maintain office buildings. Therefore, while the selection matrices stayed to same to 

allow for a selection of a site to be made, two other candidates were added to the list 

that were existing office spaces. However, both sites had to be government-owned 

since the school is supposed to be public. Most of the precedents were private 

adaptive-use buildings because of who owned the site, which was an opportunity to 

look for government-owned businesses in low to medium-income areas which would 

allow for the adaptive reuse building to become a public educational institution.  

 

Whittier Elementary School 

 J.G. Whittier Elementary School is located on 5th St in Washington DC and 

houses around 365 students per school year. It is a 3-story existing school building 

that is adjacent to a high school and is a 16 min walk from Takoma metro station. The 

building itself has not been cleaned or remodeled for a while.  



 

 

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Figure 5.02 – Exterior Photo, Google Images 

 

The school has open courtyards and a garden space which allows for the 

school and community to work together and grow local foods. 

 

Figure 5.03 – Site Plan, Google Earth Pro 



 

 

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District of Columbia Housing Authority 

 The District of Columbia Housing Authority sits on North Capitol St in 

Washington DC and is an independent government agency that provides affordable 

housing for its community. It is a 3-story building that was founded in 1934 and is 

about a 12 min walk from the NoMa-Gallaudet U New York Ave metro station. In 

some areas of the building, it seems like the stone has been repaired or repainted. 

 
 

Figure 5.04 – Exterior Photo, Google Images 

 



 

 

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 The building itself is deteriorating on the sides and needs to be fixed on the 

side of the ramp. The site also offers green spaces and front, back, and side parking as 

well as a rooftop area. The building itself is not open to the public and has around 

13000 employees. It has a good amount of security on the exterior as well as the 

interior.  

 
 

Figure 5.05 – Exterior Photos, by author, 2022 

 

Figure 5.06 – Site Plan, Google Earth Pro 



 

 

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DC Housing Finance Agency 

 The DC Housing Finance Agency is located on Florida Ave in Washington 

DC and is a commercial and mixed-use typology area. This building is a 4-story 

building that has private office spaces above and gathering spaces on the first floor. 

The building is closed to the public and has various types of security measures to 

protect its tenants. It has its private garage as well as various means of egress. 

 

Figure 5.07 – Exterior Photo, Google Images 

 

The building offers different open spaces as well as a unique building shape 

which offers the opportunity to play around with shape and space typologies. 



 

 

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Figure 5.08 – Interior Spaces, by Author, 2022 

 



 

 

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Chapter 6:  Design Solution 

 

Introduction of Design Tactics 

As the cities and communities change over time, the use of office space 

buildings shifts towards newer ideas which leave older buildings to be torn down or 

abandoned. While the term adaptive reuse buildings are not new, the strategy to reuse 

buildings for enhanced learning environments is. The idea is to not only use an 

existing building and convert its building typology but to establish a set of principles 

that allow vertical urban enhanced education to become more socially accessible in 

the years to come. The use of design tactics is a set of ideas that allow this type of 

education to be possible because not only does it challenge traditional educational 

design, but also creates an opportunity for the younger generation to themselves into 

their urban communities while also enhancing how these students learn in their 

educational environments.  

 

Site Context 

 While all site previous were great options, 999 E St NW, Washington DC was 

able to give information based on the building that was crucial in the development of 

the project. The current diagram showcases the proposed site which is in Ward 2 of 

Washington DC in the intersection of 10th and E ST NW.  



 

 

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Figure 6.01 – Site Location Diagrams, by Author, 2022 

 
 

Figure 6.02 – Initial Site Plan, by Author, 2022 

 The current building sits within a commercial district that has some amenities that let 

this neighborhood light up with activities for people of all ages. 

 



 

 

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Figure 6.03 – 3D Axon of Site, with images from Google Images, by Author, 2022 

Opportunities 

The current two problems addressed in this thesis first of all is the continuing Office 

Vacancy not only in Washington DC but throughout the Country, which rose higher than 

expected when the pandemic hit in 2020. During the same time, schools have changed with 

the help of technology and have shown that they must adapt. In the year 2022, Both math and 

reading scores have lowered throughout the nation. With both issues at hand, there is a 

common opportunity for improving education and reducing vacancy rates. We live in a 

unique time, have an opportunity to inhabit our cities in different ways, and schools are part 

of that. 



 

 

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Figure 6.04 – Office Vacancy in USA, Data from Statista, by Author, 2022 

 

Figure 6.05 –Vacancy Diagrams in Washington DC, by Author, 2022 



 

 

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Figure 6.06 –Learning Models, by Author, 2022 

 

Figure 6.07 –USA Report Card, by Author, 2022 

 

School Issues 

Overall school issues demonstrate that educational institutions need to design to improve 

safety from both external threats as well as internal bullying that may occur due to poor 

design strategies. SMMA looked at designing safer school strategies. There is also the issue 

of how to design vertically for educational spaces. There is also a design issue that needs to 

be addressed which is the different design techniques for different grades. Since this is an 

elementary school, kindergarten students need to have a different approach than older 

students. Due to the building form itself, there also needs to be an approach for how natural 

ventilation and sunlight enter spaces. 



 

 

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Figure 6.08 –Designing Safer Schools, SMMA, 2022 

 
 

Figure 6.09 –Design Elements for a Vertical School, UHCDC, 2022 

 

 



 

 

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Figure 6.10 – Elementary School Classrooms, Google Images, 2022 

 

Figure 6.11 –Natural Ventilation in High Rise Buildings, by Google Images, 2022 

 

Site Analysis 

With all these design strategies being thought about, the first scale to look at this 

project was from an urban scale. This site offers opportunities for public transportation as 



 

 

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well as various districts within walking distance. This site also has a residential zone to the 

north of its mixed-use district which opens the opportunity to think about what the city could 

shape into. The existing neighborhood is currently evolving into a livable neighborhood that 

people will increasingly move in to and the existing surrounding amenities like the 

landmarks, museums and markets offer it that opportunity. With neighborhoods shaping to 

this, schools would need to be implemented to create a sense of community and provide a 

change in how cities work based not only on business but social and family life.  

 

Figure 6.12 –Site Analysis Diagram, by Author, 2022 

 

Zooming into the building itself and its conditions, most of the building is vacant in 

its higher levels except at the western part of the ground floor which hosts a 2-story 

restaurant. This space is highlighted in gray and goes to show that this building is not fully 

vacant and has a bit of constraints. The plan also shows its existing column grid. 



 

 

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Figure 6.13 –Existing Building Plan, by Author, 2022 

 

Figure 6.14 –Exiting Elevations, by Author, 2022 



 

 

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Next would be to begin the massing of the building and then understand the existing 

entrances available. After that, solar orientation was looked at to see best positionings for 

classroom layouts.  tenant spaces were highlighted and planned out. The existing tenant space 

on the ground and first floor was designed to be kept and proposed tenant spaces above the 

school space were designed since the sq footage of the school wouldn't take up all the 

building. Next up was breaking up the school levels into communities for the different age 

groups and programs. 3 communities were created every two floors. Following the Design 

vocabulary for vertical design, a spine was extruded from the middle of the massing to create 

a centralized vertical circulation experience. This spine also offered the ability for ventilation 

and natural sunlight to come in. It also created a separation of space where two different 

learning areas could be placed on either side. Other extrusions were made to plan out how 

more sunlight could enter and establish areas that would be used from the program. 

 

 



 

 

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Figure 6.15 –Building Massing Diagrams, by Author, 2022 

Initial Diagraming 

Parti diagrams were then created to understand the space via plan. The 

upper floor parti would then offer the ability to break up the structured classrooms 

facing E St. Vertical circulation then used the spline in the middle as well as fire 

stairs at each end.  

 

 

Figure 6.16 –Lower Floor Diagrams, by Author, 2022 

 

 



 

 

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Figure 6.17 –Upper Floor Diagrams, by Author, 2022 

 

Moving on, diagraming these in sections would aid in being able to 

understand how the spaces would feel and what moments could be created. It also 

helped understand where these independent learning spaces would be placed and 

the spatial difference between them and the structured learning environments. The 

extrusions from each end of the spine would also allow for garden spaces on those 

ends. The communities would then take a different color and shape to help establish 

itself and its grade levels. 



 

 

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Figure 6.18 –Sectional Diagrams, by Author, 2022 

 

After these initial ideas in both plan section and massing, next was to break 

each floor up into conceptual areas that would follow the DC Ed Spec program for 

400 students. The administration would be towards the front for safety purposes and 

the cafeteria would be in the back for service purposes. Moving along, kindergarten 



 

 

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students would have their own dedicated space in the first floor and 1-5 would 

continue moving up to floors 2-5 which would allow double height spaces to continue 

in the floors up above and be surrounded by building services and other programs. 

The next step that was taken was to begin sketching out how these moments would 

feel like in perspective and section. 

 
 

Figure 6.19 –Exploded Initial Axon, by Author, 2022 



 

 

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Figure 6.20 –Developmental Sketches, by Author, 2022 

Final Project 

Moving on to the floor plans, each one was color coded to its program. The 

ground floor demonstrates how the administration space lies next to the entrance of 

the school as well as how kindergartners and older students would have their own 

lobby and experience. The axon showcases how the community colors then took 

place within its floors and walls. The hexagonal shapes would be used for this 

community. Vertical circulation for both older and younger students differ to allow for 

different experiences. 



 

 

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Figure 6.21 –Ground Floor, by Author, 2022 

 

The first floor would then host most of its classrooms facing E st and have a 

mezzanine looking down at their lobby. The cafeteria will expand into a two-story 

community area. The axon also showcases the “porches” created outside of 



 

 

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classrooms to offer parents the experience of dropping their children off right in front 

of their classrooms. 

 

 

Figure 6.22 –First Floor, by Author, 2022 

 



 

 

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The second floor then showcases the beginning of the spine as well as 

independent learning areas inserted in between classrooms. The color and shape of 

this community is a green square and that can also be seen within the walls and 

floors. This community also offers a 2-story library which sits toward the back of the 

building. 

 

 

Figure 6.23 –Second Floor, by Author, 2022 



 

 

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The third floor continues the color and shape of the community and offers a 

slight change in vertical circulation with the spine to showcase a shift of community. 

The initial staircase for students still stays intact but the various forms of circulation 

give the student the freedom to pick how they circulate throughout space. 

 

 

Figure 6.24 –Third Floor, by Author, 2022 



 

 

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The fourth plan then creates the third community whose color and shape are 

a circular blue. This community offers a double heighted music room, art lab, outdoor 

playground, and outdoor classroom while also giving students a mirrored learning 

stair from the second floor. 

 

 

Figure 6.25 –Fourth Floor, by Author, 2022 



 

 

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The final floor of the school offers some extra academic programs as well as 

the gym. The axon shows how most of the spaces from the floor below are those 

double heighted spaces and how the spine allows for open ventilation. 

 

 

Figure 6.26 –Fifth Floor, by Author, 2022 

 

The elevation shows how a canopy was extruded to create a waiting zone 

outside the school as well as also placing a furring wall on top of the school entry to 



 

 

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establish a stronger arrival point. Shading fins help create a pattern with the 3 

communities. 

 

Figure 6.27 –Building Elevation, by Author, 2022 

 

The first section shows the double heighted spaces as well as the spine head 

on with its skylight roofing system as well as the lobby space for 1-5. It also shows 

the frosted reflective wall material from the office spaces above to help bounce light 

downward. Moving on the section section cuts through the spine and shows the 

various vertical experiences as well as the extrusions that create garden spaces on 

each end. 



 

 

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Figure 6.28 –Building Sections, by Author, 2022 

 

Next up is the perspectives which start off with the arrival of the school. The 

sidewalk on part of E St was designed to allow for pick up as well. Entering the 

building we land next in the kindergarten lobby where you can see the double 

heighted space and the vertical experience. Going upstairs to the porch of a 

kindergarten classroom, students can be dropped off by their parents and enter the 

classroom. Moving to the second community or second floor, there is a view of the 

spine that uses a learning stair to encourage independent learning. On the same 



 

 

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floor, the double heighted library offers students various sitting and reading areas as 

well as conference rooms. Moving to the third community, the art lab also offers a 

double heighted space as well as various learning stations to encourage students to 

work independently and together. 

 

Figure 6.29 –Arrival Perspective, by Author, 2022 

 

Figure 6.30 – Lobby Perspective, by Author, 2022 



 

 

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Figure 6.31 –Porch Perspective, by Author, 2022 

 

Figure 6.32 – Spine Perspective, by Author, 2022 



 

 

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Figure 6.33 – Library Perspective, by Author, 2022 

 

Figure 6.34 – Art Lab Perspective, by Author, 2022 

Conclusion 

This thesis was created to take an exiting typology that can be implemented into 

various city locations to be able to ask how cities can be shaped moving forward. 



 

 

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While central commercial districts are dying, cities need to populate their buildings to 

create an adaptable future. The future generation is a great asset to think about when 

planning out what cities can be. While existing conditions can add a bit of constraints, 

it offers a designer the ability to adapt and work with what is there and what there can 

be.  

 

Figure 6.35 – Section Perspective, by Author, 2022 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



 

 

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