AN ANALYSIS OF THE REACTIONS OF TEACHERS TO A PROGRAM OF CHILD STUDY by Alton Cleo Murphy Thesis submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education 19 52 UMI Number: DP70501 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UMI Dissertation Publishing UMI DP70501 Published by ProQuest LLC (2015). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code uest ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 A C K N O W L E D G M E N T The writer is grateful to Professor Gerthon Mor­ gan, who directed this study, and to Professors John Kurts| Madeleine Mershon, and Clarence Newell, who served as members of hi© committee. Their aid and encouragement are deeply appreciated. Much credit is due to the writer*© wife, who fur­ nished encouragement and understanding during many trying time®, and to his son, who forewent many privileges and who learned the reason for and the meaning of a closed door. Without their aid,the study could never have been done . A. C. M. The University of Texas Austin, Texas April 1, 1955 ±82722 T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY . . ............... 1 Introductory Statement of the Problem « . . . 1 Approaches to the problem . . . . . . . . . . 2 Growth of in -serv ice concepts . . . . . . 2 Industrial patterns for in-service educa­ tion . 3 School administration and in-service pro­ gram ............. k Feelings of teachers toward in-service education . . . . . . . . 7 Purpose of the Study . . . 9 Factors in the Development of the Study . . . 11 Length of time in program and workshop participation . . . . . 12 Professional needs of teachers . 13 The effect of change as a possible factor lb Voluntary and enforced participation . . . 15 Reflection of attitude© in records kept . 15 Consistency in evaluation . . . . . . . . 16 Hypotheses to be T e s t e d ........................ 17 Statement of h y p o t h e s e s .......... 17 The testing of hypotheses . . . . . . . . 19 Summary ........... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE.............................22 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Need for Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2k Objective and subjective evaluations . . . 25 Major goals of Child Study . . . . . . . . 26 Use of recordings . . 2? Use of objective test© . . . . . . . 27 Us® of anecdotal records . . . . . . . . . 29 Use of Interviews .............................30 Attitude© expressed in interviews . . . . 30 Interview© and reactions............. 31 Improvement of Teaching--The Curriculum . . . 32 Knowledge of pupil© and good teaching . . 32 Techniques aiding Child Study . . . . . . 36 iv VChapter Page Assumption of responsibility by teachers - . 38 The teacher as authoritarian . . . . . . . . 39 In-service Education? Continuation of Learning Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . hi Learning and emotional disturbances from change ........................ 1*1 Interviews bring out frustration . . . . . . h2 Threat to self-concept through in-service work ............. 1*3 Techniques of dealing with threat . . . . . . 1*5 Child Study as affecting mental health . . . Leadership in In-Service Education . . . . . . . 4? The consultant as leader ................kj Introduction of study of group dynamics . . . 1*9 Group skills of maturity . . . . . . . . . . 30 Communication of ideas . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Readiness for perception .................... 54 Self-Concept and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Consistency of self . . . . . 33 Resistance to change . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 The "phenomenal self" and the "envelope'4 . , 37 Difficulty of judging attitudes , 39 Teachers * awareness of inadequate training . 60 Teachers1 Role as Indicating Heed for In-Service P r o g r a m ® .................... , . . 61 The teacher as leader ............. . . . . . 61 Increased understanding and skill in inter­ preting behavior . . . . . . . . 62 Objectives as Determinants of Progress in Child Study 6h An example of utilization of objectives . . . 64 Difficulties in e v a l u a t i n g , 63 Trends toward Increased understanding of human development ........... 67 Trends in preservice education ........... 68 Teacher-education trends ........... . . . . 69 Self-understanding and maturity . . . . . . . 69 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 II. THE CHILD STUDY PROGRAM .................... 73 Introduction 73 Vi Chapter Page Purposes and Principles of Child Study . . . . 73 Need for better ways of working . . . . . . 73 Education developmental rather than direct training ............. . . 75 Child Study focusses upon people . . . . . ?8 Value of the individual ......... 80 Some basic articles of faith . . . . . . . 8l Some Basic Assumptions for Child Study . . . . 83 Gaining an increased understanding of people ........... . . . . . . . . . . . 83 1. Behavior is caused . . . . . . . . 83 2 . The causes of behavior are rarely s i m p l e ........... 83 3. The behavior of any individual must be accept© d . . . . . . . . . . . 86 1. Each individual is unique . . . . . 87 5. Every human being is valuable . . . 88 6 . The scientific attitude and method Is the most effective way to work toward understanding people . . . 89 Employment of facts rather than guesswork , 91 Implementation of the Program ........... 92 Gathering information about a child . . . . 92 Sharing information . . . . . . . The First Year of Child Study . . . . . . . . . 97 Beeords . . . . . .......................... 97 Group discussions . . . . . . 98 Gaining understanding................... . 99 Types of anecdotes . . . . . . . 100 Analysis of behavior . ................ .. . 101 The Second Year of Child Study . . . . . . . . 102 Area processes . 102 Physical area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Affectional area ............. 10k Peer-group area ............... . 103 Socialisation area . . . . . . 106 Self-developmental a r e a ............. 107 Self -a&justmental and self-defensive area . I08 Developmental tasks . .109 The Third Year of Child Study . 110 Introduction . . . . . . 110 Stress upon self areas . . . . . . . . . . Ill Behavior as interaction........... . . . . Ill Sociometry introduced . . . . . . . . . . . 112 vii Chapter Page Extension of the P r o g r a m .......... 112 Introduction . , . . . . . . ............ 112 Mo organized procedure . . ............... * 115 Learning situations . « . . . . ............. Ilk Problem solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Workshops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Purposes of workshops . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Workshop ways of working . ................ 120 Summary . 122 IV. SOURCES OF ZKFOBKATIOH AMD PRELIMINARY FIHDIHOS 12k Introduction to the Study . . . . . . . . . . . 12l Sources of data ............. 12U Schools participating in the interviews . . 126 Staffing of program-'-consultant service . . 1.29 Participation in program ................ 130 Typical condition© of program in centers . 131 Conduct of the Interviews . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Selection of teachers to be interviewed . , 133 Conditioning of the i n t e r v i e w s .......... 13k Samples of interviews . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Teachers interviewed . . . . . . . . . . . Ik2 Staff response to i n t e r v i e w s . Ikk Use of Data ............. . . 1^5 Criteria for arriving at feelings....... Ik-5 Tabulation of 1950 Interviews ............ Ik8 Sampling unfavorable responses . . . . . . 151 The second-year Interviews . . . . . . . . 156 Tabulation of interviews --consideration of various factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Balancing the tables --changes in interviews for 1950 and 1951 . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Results of interviews of second year of Child Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Sample interviews - 1951 . . . . . . . . . 166 Reactions to mechanic© of program . . . . . 17k Changes in teachers and in program . . . . 178 Resistance to change ...............179 Administrators’ reactions to program , . . 180 The Questionnaire . . . . . . . 186 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Data fro® Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . 189 viii Chapter Page The Records . 191 Teachers * responses and evidences in the rec o r d s ............. 191 Use of readers as judge© of records . . . . 193 Fluaaber and distribution of entries . . . . 19^ Scop© of records . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Background material . . . . . . . 200 Reasons for ©electing children for study . 201 Selection of names for children studied . . 203 Completeness of records . . . . . . . . . . . . 20l Phrasing of patterns . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Cone© pt s of human development as shown in records . . . . . . . . . 208 Tabulation of results . . . . . . 4 . . . . £19 Summary . . . . . . . ........... . . . . . . . 219 V . TREATMENT OF BATA ............. 222 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . 222 Considerations in treatment of the data , . 222 Framework of the hypotheses . . . . . . . . 222 Treatment of Bata: Hypotheses 223 Length of participation and responses . . . 223 Workshop participation and responses . . . 2 32 Responses and meeting of needs . . . . . . 235 Resistance to change . . . . . . 238 Voluntary and enforced participation and response©............. 2*40 Responses and mechanics of program . . . . 216 Responses and understanding and acceptance of basic concepts of human development . 23 ^ Consistency of responses . . . . . . . . . . 259 Summary ........... . . . . . . .. .............. 26k VI. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . . 26? Introduction ................ . . . . . . . . 26? Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Consistency of Results . . . . . . . . . . . 2 73 Implication© and Recommendation© . . . . . . . 2?t Meeting of needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27k Crade-level of teachers and responses to Child Study ............... 275 Ix Chapter Page Desirability of increased support and en­ couragement from administrator a .......... 2?8 Heeded research ,........, .................279 Concluding statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . ......... . . . 283 A P P E N D I C E S ................... ................. 290 L I S T O F T A - 3 X . E S Table Page 1. POSITIVE AMD BE3ATIVE ES.SPOUSES AT ALL LEVELS OF PARTICIPATION, 1950 IHTER- VIEW’S .............. . . . . . . . . . . 1 kg 2. FIRST-YEAR PARTXCIPANTS, 1950 INTERVIEWS . 159 3. SECOND-YBAR FABTICXPANT3, 1930 INTERVIEWS . l80 h . SECOND-YEAR PARTICIPANTSt AOS, SEX, ABB MARITAL STATUS, 1951 INTERVIEWS . . . . . l6l 3. SECOND-YEAR FABTICIPAITS : EXPERIENCE, GRADE -LEVEL. TAUGHT, 1951 INTERVIEWS . . l&h 6. SECOND-YEAR PARTICIPANTS: WORKSHOP EXPERIENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l65 T . RESPONSES TO ITEMS OF QUESTIONNAIRE . . . . 1510 8. BARGE AID NUMBER OF ENTRIES ARB DXSTRX8U~ TI01 . . . . . . . . . . . ........... 196 9. SOURCE OF ANECDOTAL MATERIALS . . . . . . . 199 10. BACKGROUND MATERIAL OF RECORDS, PERCENTAGE OF TEACHERS* RECORDS WITH ADEQUATE B A C K G R O U N D ............................... 202 XX. COMPLETENESS OF ANECDOTES . . . . . . . . . 206 12. EVIDENCES IN RECORDS Of TEACHERS* UNDER­ STANDING AND ACCEPTANCE OF BASIC CONCEPTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 13* SIGNIFICANCE OF RSSPOUSES AT THREE-YEAR LEVEL OF CHILD STUDY . . . . . . . . . 226 lh. COMPARISON OF RESPONSES OF FIRST-YEAR PARTICIPANTS AND ADMINISTRATORS . . . . 22? 15. COMPARISON Of RESPONSES OF SECOND-YEAR FABTICIPANTS AND ADMINISTRATORS . . . . 228 x xi fable Page 16. SIGNIFICANCE OF RESPONSES THROUGH TWO-TEAK PERIOD OF CHILD S T U D Y .......... 233. 17. SIGNIFICANCE OF WORKSHOP EXPERIENCES . . . . 233 IS. REASONS GIVEN FOR UNFAVORABLE RESPONSES . . 239 19. VOLUNTARY AND ENFORCED PARTICIPATION IN CHILD S T U D Y ........... 2**2 20. RESPONSES OF PARENTS, NONPARENTS, AID SINGLE TEACHERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2k$ 21. NUMBER OF RECORDS WITH SUFFICIENT ANECDOTAL E N T R I E S ...................... 2**8 22. COMPLETENESS OF ANECDOTES, SIGNIFICANCE AT TWO-YEAR LEVEL ..................... 251 23* EVIDENCES IN RECORDS OF TEACHERS * UNDER­ STANDING AND ACCEPTANCE OF BASIC CONCEPTS SIGNIFICANCE NOTED ......... 256 2L. COMPARISON OF FAVORABLE AND UNFAVORABLE RESPONSES--INTERVIEWS AND QUESTIONNAIRE . 260 L I S T 0 7 I L L U S T R A T I O N S Tag* Map Shoving Location 01 Schools Participating la 1950 and 1991 Interviews . * 127 all C H A P T E R I IHTRODUCTI0B TO THE STUDY Introductory Statement of the Problem This study is an attempt to analyse the responses of teachers in nineteen Texas schools to an organized program of in-service education consisting of Child Study. Free-response interviews and a questionnaire have been utilized to secure a favorable-unfavorable reaction to the over-all program and to its several operational elements. The reactions of teacher® have been compared with result® of participation in the program a® revealed through (1) re­ sponses from interviews and questionnaire and (2) an in­ tensive examination and analysis of anecdotal records of behavior kept by teachers in the program. Effort has been made to analyze the connection between feelings toward the program and the type and extent of participation in the program. The basic orientation of the study Is toward pos­ sible connections existing between feelings and participa­ tion in Child Study. Ho deviation from the basic orientation 1 2has beer; intended, and any such apparent deviation In the body of the investigation will be unintentional. Approaches to the Problem Growth of in service concepts Professional people, in the main, are constantly seeking ways of improving their work. Clinics, confer- ences, short courses, workshops, and other means of at­ taining the goal of learning to do better those things which one must do anyway in his daily work, all have been employed by doctors, lawyers, teacher®, and other profes­ sional persons. This goal is not peculiar to the profes­ sions. In fact, the public schools have lagged far behind industry in two aspects. First, there has seemed to be a reluctance on the part of school people to admit the pres­ sure of necessity for finding better ways of working; second, there has been a reluctance to bring the program of in-service work directly into the everyday classroom activities of the teacher. Business and industry have led the way in the development of the concept of in-service learning and have offered many suggestion© as to ways of implementing such problems. 3Industrial patterns for in-service education Industrial organizations, from the early days of apprenticeship training for the trade®, have been inter­ ested in in-service training for employees. The greatest motivation for such programs has doubtless sprung from a desire to increase quality and productivity, thus Increas­ ing profits, There are, in addition, certain social bene­ fits resulting from increased proficiency. The direct at­ tainment of greater economic security, higher standards of living, and increased purchasing power has proved a power ful motivation for ’'learning while earning.’1 (k2t 5?S) The advantage© of such training have been largely ignored by the profession of education prior to the last quarter-century. One reason, usually given, is that teach­ ers are professional people, and do not require nor want technical training, per se. It is true that teachers have gone to school in summers, and have participated in exten­ sion courses at times; but relatively little has been done toward the broadening of teachers* basic philosophy or toward increasing understanding of the pupil© whom they teach. Much of the work done by teacher® has been concerned with the acquisition of techniques of presentation of rigidly prescribed subject matter content with little or no regard for individual differences in the recipients of such subject material. In addition, the work of teachers in improving certification has been much of the time of the type which assumes a universality of readi­ ness without regard for the basic facts involved in the learning process. School administration and in-service programs The literature in the field of public school ad­ ministration is lacking In the discussion of organized in-service education except for institutes, workshops, and extension courses. For example, Moehlman (27) in 19^0, and Mort (29) in 19^6 * two recognized authorities in the administrative field, made only the briefest refer ences to in-service wor.k| and those references are re­ stricted to mention of summer courses for teachers who are working toward advanced degrees or toward removal of deficiencies in courses o . certification. In like manner Edmondson, Soentr, and Bacon (10) in 19^9 made no mention of continuous, purposeful study by teachers as a part of their professional development while working. These 5administrative authorities apparently see all profession­ al development as the outgrowth of research on the part of trained personnel in better methods of utilising fa­ cilities and in producing better aid© to classroom instruc­ tion. By implication, the classroom teacher ha® little place in the improvement of instruction through Increased understanding; her role seems to be that of a person wait­ ing until the experts can tell her what to do and how to do it. Melchior (25» 35-3&) referred in 1950 to teachers* institutes, to the work of supervisors in improving in­ struction, and to workshops prior to the opening of school. He went much further, however, in reporting on a project in developing community schools in Hew York, when he said; Some■of the basic problem® still remain, but the leaders are beginning to believe that schools can and should improve the level of living . . . when one evaluates the work here and there, one sees teachers, principals, and faculty groups with a vision which leads to improved schools for boys and girls. Elsewhere one sees other teachers who still are teaching in their custom­ ary ways, ignoring the findings of modern re­ search in the fields of child growth and develop­ ment wit! their implications for changing the curriculum. {23* 88-89) Melchior further develops the idea of in-service education with reference to involvement of more and more personnel, and particularly as applies to the develop­ ment of a program of supervision; The best supervisory program is one in which all activities contribute, directly or indi­ rectly, to Increasing each teacher’s knowl­ edge of her own pupils® growth and develop­ ment . . . the underlying reason for encour­ aging the study of the Individual pupil in terms of his all-round development is empha­ sised because of the recognised fact that these techniques directly affect the life of children --how they grow . . . . (25; 160-161) These statements, and others by Wiles (U3 ) and Lee and Lee (25) point up the variations in writings of persons interested in the improvement of school administration and supervision. It is interesting to note that writer© in the field of supervision, curriculum, end instruction are apparently much more aware of a need for improvement of teaching through increased understanding than are writers In administration. Advocates of new theories of learning and new philosophies of education are gradually making themselves felt upon the educational world, notwithstand­ ing the reluctance of many teachers and administrators to promote or even recognize change and it© necessity. 7An increasing awareness that learning, conducted of necessity upon a mass basis for all children, is nevertheless an extremely individualistic process is re­ sulting in a realization of deficiencies in teacher preparation hitherto unrecognized or ignored. The aware­ ness of the ineffectiveness of teacher preparation and the corresponding lack of improvement resulting from structured programs imposed by the administrative heads of schools upon faculties has resulted in an individuali­ zation of in-service education which is becoming increas­ ingly apparent as the successor to earlier attempts. Child Study represents such a program aimed at helping the Individual teacher through increasing her understand­ ing of the children with whom she works. A detailed de­ scription of this program as a vehicle for in-service edu­ cation will be presented in Chapter III. Feelings of teachers toward ip-service education Whatever the vehicle for in-service education, there are certain basic factors involved. Certain changes are anticipated in teachers, else there would be no rhyme or reason for their participation. Some teachers seek Bchange for themselves, either to increase competence or to relieve the monotony of a too-structured way of operat­ ing. Other teachers seem to be extremely reluctant to change or to recognise change when it takes place. This reluctance to change may well be connected with a viola­ tion of self-concept. If a teacher needs to regard her­ self as an adequate person, then the Implication that she needs to change may present a threat to her feeling of adequacy; and she could conceivably be expected to take action directed toward the removal of such a threat. A second factor in an analysis of an in-service program concerns the feelings of those participating, feelings directed toward the program itself. The imple­ mentation of the program may come from the administration of the school, from pressure sources within the community and outside the school or any of its personnel, or from the teachers themselves. In any ©vent, there will be feelings attached to the program; and these feelings will affect its ultimate success. The feeling® of teachers toward a program designed to increase their effectiveness should, it would seem at first glance, be uniformly favorable. Such ha® not proved to be the ease. In fact, it was the awareness of the 9intensity and the direction of feeling toward Child Study which prompted this investigation. The scope and depth of feelings, and the objects to which they become at­ tached, present an intriguing if particularly difficult problem to the individual attempting an evaluation and analysis of such a program of in-service work as is repre­ sented by Child Study. Purpose of the Study As stated in the introductory section, this study is an attempt to analyze the reactions of teachers in cer­ tain Texas schools to a program of in-service education designed to improve understanding of children. The pro­ gram considered is the organized Child Study program de­ veloped by the University of Chicago and the Institute for Child Study of the University of Maryland, and adminis­ tered by the Division of Extension of The University of Texas. This program aims at increasing the understanding of teachers concerning the development of children and also points toward implications for curriculum design and prac­ tice. The utilization of anecdotal recordings of behavior­ al incidents of an individual child brings both child and teacher into sharp focus. It becomes Increasingly evident 10 as such a study progresses that teacher as veil as child is he lag made the object of study, The presence of such evidence and its influence upon a teacher’s expressed reaction to the program will enter into the study pro - posed. Along with the analysis of the reactions expressed by teachers, an attempt will be made to relate expressed feelings with objective evidences of increased understand­ ing and altered classroom practices. It is believed that feelings affect the learning process, and evidences as to' the extent and direction of the effect will be examined. The data to be studied have been secured from interviews in which teachers responded to questions designed to dis­ close their feelings about Child Study. These Interviews will be supplemented by the results of a questionnaire and an examination of the anecdotal records kept by re­ sponding teachers over a period of two years. The utilization of feelings and the effort made to connect feelings and evidences of learning and under­ standing on the part of teachers constitute® the main claim of the study to being unique. Many measuring and prognostic devices make liberal use of feeling and its interpretation. Commonly used are such devices as thematic II apperception teats, preference teste, the Rorschach tech­ nique, and Stanford-Binet tests, to name only a few. The study here proposed will make relatively limited usage of expressed feelings as related to attitudes, values, and behavior; and the requirements of skill in interpretation will not "be nearly so exacting as Is required by the pro­ jective devices named above. That there are, however, evi­ dences as to the influence of feelings upon behavior, at­ titudes, and values will be presented in the following chapter. The next immediate concern is for the examina­ tion of certain assumption© arising from the original in­ terviews and the formulation of tentative, working hypothe­ ses upon which to base the structure of the study. Factors in the Development of the Study The Child Study program in Texas, from 19^8 through 1951, remained essentially the same as that out­ lined by the Institute for Child Study and described in detail in Chapter III of this study. There were minor variations in such details as the timing of consultant visits and In the selection of group leaders; but the basic operation of the program, and certainly the same 12 basic scientific concepts, was the same in every signifi­ cant detail. Results of the program, as far as could be ascertained from the standpoint of both administrators and teachers, were almost identical with those described in the report of the American Council on Education in Helping Teachers, 'Understand Children (30s ~^Q0). There were, however, certain factors which might have affected the responses . Length of time in program and workshop participation The descriptions prior to the interviews upon which this study is based came, in the main, from, teachers who were known to react favorably to the program and who were aware of certain benefit© accruing therefrom. Gen­ erally, these teachers had had one or more year© of par­ ticipation in the program. Furthermore, they more often than not were former participants in local or state workshops in Child Study. Occasionally, notwithstanding a general ac­ ceptance of the program, there were expressions of dissatis­ faction with both the elements and the outcomes of Child Study. Simple honesty demands the admission that these expression© of malcontent were recognized with perturbation 15 by the consultants concerned with administering the pro­ gram, and assumptions began to be made regarding the in­ fluence of participation in workshops and in the field program through time upon the over-all responses to Child Study. Professional needs of teachers One of the basic reasons for the increasing suc­ cess of in-service education programs is believed to lie in their ability to meet the needs of teachers at the source. From the days of the normal school as the most potent agency for the education of teachers, the profes­ sion has progressed through Increasing pre-service require­ ments, teacher institutes, the employment of summer courses, the extension of education courses through off-campus fa­ cilities, and finally into the employment of in-service work, utilizing the teacher *• needs and problems at hand. All of these efforts, directed toward aiding teachers in more efficient and meaningful discharge of their duties, have in their structure the elements of learning situa­ tions for teachers themselves. It is felt that a teacher who feels her greatest professional need to be the Ik acquisition of skills necessary to teach subject matter more effectively, to the end that pupil© will master facts more readily and be able to respond more accurate- ly with factual answers, may not recognise the possibili­ ty of using Child Study as an agency toward the satisfac­ tion of such a need. It is the recognition of teachers* felt professional needs and the influence of this recog­ nition which is proposed as another factor warranting in­ vestigation in this study. The effect of change as a possible factor Change, resulting in altered behavior from forma­ tion of new or different concepts, often produces re­ sistance among adults. There are doubtless many reasons for such resistance, and evidences will be introduced in Chapter II, but the existence of the possibility of re­ sistance to change Influencing responses to Child Study has formed an assumption which seems worthy of investi­ gation . Voluntary and enforced participation Another possible factor in Child Study In the Texas schools studied is found in the fact that not all schools approach the program in the same manner. Borne schools require all teachers to participatej some school© do not require anyone to be a part of in-service work) still others make no requirement tout indicate in eve ry vay that teacher© are expected to participate, It has long toeen assumed that the attitude of local school author! ties would toe a factor in teachers* responses to Child Study, and it is proposed to investigate such attitudes in this study. Reflection of attitudes In records kept Mershon (68) has indicated records as one source of evaluation of the mechanics of Child Study, and Greene (63) used records to study the internal i z a t : r r. c r its concepts. It is proposed here, acting on the assump­ tion previously validated through these two studies, to Inquire into the influence of attitudes of teachers upon 16 the records which they keep, from the standpoint of both mechanics and concepts of the program. Consistency in evaluation Finally, if there is to be consistency in evalu­ ation, there should be consistency in the elements of the evaluation. That is to say, it is assumed that a per­ son who responded favorably to Child Study throughout two interviews would respond in like manner to the correspond­ ing items of a questionnaire; and it is further assumed that examination of anecdotal records of that individual would reveal results consistent with the first two instru­ ments of evaluation. Other assumptions could doubtless be made with reference to an analysis of an evaluation of Child Study. The results of previous studies have been indicated, and it is proposed to advance recommendations for further in­ vestigation of the program and its implications in light of this study. The major purpose of this particular study, however, is to examine the program and its results as revealed through expression of feelings toward its purposes, mode of operations, and results. This limitation 17 thus places certain areas out of the field of this in­ vestigation and restricts evidences to those applicable to hypotheses made seemingly tenable in the light of the preceding assumptions. Hypotheses to Be Tested The following hypotheses seem to follow from the assumptions advanced. Before stating the hypotheses to be tested, two statements should be made; (1) the hypothe­ ses ©re not of equal rank in importance, and (2) they are not stated in order of their relative importance. Their ordering has come as a result of the development of cer­ tain assumptions pertinent to and evolving from the study Itself. The term "favorable responses,” as used in the statement of hypotheses, refers to responses through two interviews and a questionnaire, in which teachers ex­ pressed themselves concerning Child Study and to which references have been made in the following hypotheses. The hypotheses are; 1. Favorable responses to participation in Child Study will increase with continued participation in the program. 18 2, Favorable response® to participation in Child Study will increase with participation by teachers in wo r>; shop experiences. 5. The response® to participation in Child Study will be favorable to the extent that the pro­ gram meets the felt needs of participants. h . Responses to participation in Child Study, as a type of learning experience, will be influenced by the amount of resistance which the participant feels toward change, 5 * Favorable response® to participation in Child Study will be reflected to a greater degree where participation in the program is voluntary. 6. Favorable responses to participation in Child Study will be reflected in better understanding of the mechanics of the program as shown in the records kept. 7. Favorable responses to participation in Child Study will be reflected in a better understand­ ing and acceptance of human development concepts as shown in the records kept. An examination will be made, at the conclusion of the study, of the consistency of responses as revealed through the three testing measures employed. Through this examination, the validity of the instruments used will be scrutinized. The results of this examination, in the interest of consistency in presentation, will follow the consideration of the hypotheses. 19 The testing of hypotheses The Increase in the size of the Child Study pro­ gram in Texas and a need to evaluate its effectiveness in the face of varying reactions led to the Interviewing of some 231 participant® selected at random fro® all level© of the program. These interviews were conducted in 1950. Responses were solicited to the following three questions: 1. How do you feel about the Child Study program? 2. How do you feel about the mechanics of the program, such as time and place of meeting, length of meeting, consultant service, library service, etc.? 3. Bo you feel that any changes have taken place in yourself, your ways of teaching, or your school system that are directly attributable to Child Study? Of the eighty-four first year participants, fifty- nine who were working in second-year Child Study were again interviewed in 1951# and the same questions were asked. Thus, an attempt was made to secure longitudinal as well as cross-sectional evidence, with the greater importance attached to the longitudinal. In addition to the two interviews, the same fifty-nine people who had 20 responded to two interviews were asked to respond later to a questionnaire which covered the items mentioned by them in the earlier interviews. Anecdotal records kept by the fifty "nine persons who had responded to two interviews and the question­ naire were examined in an effort to determine their value in measuring the results of Child Study and to measure change and direction of change in the operating procedure of teachers in the classroom. The full procedure employed will be described in detail in Chapter IV of this study, and analysis of the data will be presented in Chapter V. All data obtained from interviews, questionnaires, and anecdotal records will be studied in light of the hypotheses presented above. Summary Assuming that in-service programs are rightfully to be regarded as learning situations for teachers, this study attempts to connect the feelings of participants toward Child Study with the observable and measurable results of the program, It employs three devices: 21 interviews, a questionnaire, and examination and analy­ sis of anecdotal records kept by teacher® as a part of the program itself. Each of the devices and the result® therefrom will be further examined in light of previous­ ly stated hypotheses to determine the relation of feel­ ings toward learning and the effect of feelings upon learning. Chapter II will present a brief survey of litera­ ture felt to apply to this study. This survey of litera­ ture will concern itself with the purpose and growth of in-service education, with the factors which may pre­ dispose a participant in his attitude, favorable or un­ favorable, toward an in-service program;:, and with results of investigations into the effect of feelings upon learn­ ing, The literature examined ha® been selected with the point in mind of applying former findings to the present­ ly advanced hypotheses. The ordering of the presentation will, therefore, follow somewhat closely the ordering of hypotheses upon which this study is based. C H A P T E R I I EEVIEW OF LITERATURE Introduction This study, as outlined in Chapter I, proposes to investigate the responses of teachers to participation in a program of Child Study and the relation of responses to various factors pertinent to and resulting from this participation. The responses were solicited in such a manner as to place stress upon the feelings of partici­ pants toward the program and its various component parts. As a consequence, it becomes necessary to take cognisance of feelings, attitudes, and values, and research in these topics is indicated in this review of literature. Material will be presented in the course of this chapter which will indicate that there are things in the self-concept that cannot be disposed of satisfactorily through the use of techniques and data presently avail­ able in this investigation. This will be particularly applicable to the presentation of research in sections devoted to in-service education and the continuation of learning process and to self-concept and evaluation, fol­ lowing. It is indicated that employment of the TAT, 22 25 Rorschach, or similar individual techniques might he needed to explain preference for or antipathy toward such a program as Child Study. It is further indicated, in the consistency of negative responses to participa­ tion In Child Study, that threat© to self-concept might account for such responses j and it is for that reason that so much space is devoted to the development of the idea of threat and to similar allied concepts. Concurrent with the Introduction of study of any new topic, there is a need for review of research already done along various phases of the topic. This is covered, if In a somewhat limited fashion, in this section of the present investigation; Along with an examination of pre­ vious research, there are evidences cited of considera­ tion of in-service work, it© goals and its modes of opera­ tion, as well as the possible impact which might result upon the participant from implications of need for changes in ways of teaching. In brief, Chapter II presents a survey of related findings along the following lines: 1. The need for evaluation and ways in which evaluations have been previously conducted. 2. The use of the interview technique. 2k 5. The influence upon the curriculum of improve­ ment in teacher understanding and assumption of responsibility. h m The consideration of in-service education as a continuation of the learning process for teachers with the potential change and frus­ tration sometimes attendant upon learning. 5. The operation of groups with some emphasis upon requisite qualities of leadership and the maturation of group skills. 6. The importance of the self-concept and the influences which might be resultant from a searching evaluation. 7. The role of the teacher in classroom work and in her improvement through in-service work . 8. The difficulties residing in evaluation, and some discussion of present trends in teacher education with their objectives. Heed for Evaluation In any program of in-service education calculated to improve a phase of an operation, be it business, 25 education, industry, or science, there must be constant evaluation to insure regular and reckoned progress. People examine the results of their efforts, set up on the basis of the most valid- hypotheses presenting them - selves> and they determine the effectiveness of their program, whatever it may be, in light of progress made toward goals previously agreed upon. Often it is found necessary to modify goals or to change direction of ef­ fort as a result of evaluation. Perhaps the tentative hypotheses turn out to be merely bad guesses; perhaps the premises made were too subjective! perhaps the goals were utterly unrealistic, Valid evaluations furnish the only criteria for such determinations. Objective and subjective evaluations The evaluations listed in Helping Teachers Under­ stand Children ar© subjective! the experiences of the teachers, thus related, for© one type of evaluation. There have been many evaluations of Child Study mad© in the past few years. Most of the studies to which this chapter will refer have been made in the most objective manner possible. There will be some evidences of some 26 variations in th© mechanics of the program here inves­ tigated from the original program described in Helping Teachers Understand Children, Each succeeding evalua­ tion will likely bring to the program evidences of pro­ cedural changes that might need to be considered, changes similar to those now being incorporated by the institute for Child Study in which each phase of the three-year study is being reduced to writing, a procedure which would not have been acceptable a few years ago. Major goals of Child Study Changes which have been or which may be con­ sidered or effected will be those only which seem to have the potential of promoting the attainment of th© major goal of the program, as expressed by Mere hon. Th® major goal of this program from its earli­ est beginning to the present time has been the same --promoting better understanding of children. An evaluation of this program must certainly include research to determine whether the approach of this program does pro­ mote better understanding of children. How­ ever, for teachers to understand the behavior of children can be a futile goal if it is an end in and of itself. An ultimate test of the value and of the effectiveness of this program will need to be in terms of the change® 27 it produces in teachers. Comprehensive evalu­ ation must include research which will deter­ mine whether the teachers change in the manner in which they relate themselves to children. It must also include research to determine whether these teachers change in their class­ room and instructional procedures In th® light of their understanding of behavior, motivation, and the needs of children. The final test of this program will be to determine whether changes produced In the behavior of the teach­ ers will in turn produce changes in the be­ havior of the children with whom they deal. (68; 72) Use of recordings Research done by Perkins (57) on recorded dis­ cussions of small study groups, in the course of which evaluation of the relative merit© of authoritarian and democratic leadership was explored, has added one phase of investigation of the program. This research will be discussed more fully In a later section, under the head­ ing of leadership. Use of objective tests George Kohl (6U ), using pencil and paper tests, conducted a study of the scientific knowledge of teach­ ers In different levels of the program as contrasted with teachers who have never participated in the program. 28 Kohl* s research Involved the use of the Test of Fact and Principle in Human Growth and Development as developed by Harrock® end Kyser, the Cronback Case Interpretation Teat, and the Wickaan Behavior Bating Seale* Hohl found year-to-year improvement in many phase© of Child Study, but found that a decrease in the use of broad generalise tions in attempts 'to explain behavior did not result un­ til after four years of experience. He worked from five broad hypotheses. The program of direct child study as developed under the Commission on Teacher Education and further refined by the Committee on Human Development of the University of Chicago: a. increases teachers* knowledge of the fact© and principles of human development. b . improves teachers* ability to recognize many problems of behavior as symptomatic of physical, educational, social or emotional maladjustment. c . improves teachers* ability to formulate and Interpret possible causes underlying the be­ havior of children. d. produces changes in teachers* attitude toward the relative seriousness of various behaviors. e . results in a positive correlation between the extent of participation in this program of child study and the progress made in re­ spect to a, b, and c, above* (6k: 5) 29 Hohl further concluded that a teacher’s capacity to benefit from child Study bore no relation to academic training, experience, field of teaching, or marital status. He also concluded that participation in work* shop experiences did not result in any additional im­ provement in teachers* ability to advance specific reasons for behavior, (6h: 13) Use of anecdotal records Greene, working with Child Study records from Maryland, Louisiana, and Texas. has devised a technique for evaluating changes in teachers* ways of working with children in the classroom. Analysis of classroom situa­ tions has given Green evidence that would Indicate defi­ nite change in classroom procedures. (63) There would seem to be somm indication of s need for measurement of results coming from Child Study which would include both objective and subjective evidence. The use of pencil and paper tests has definite merit, The use of subjective statements has other merit. The employment of the former, however, disregards the feeling of the teacher being asked to check a list of multiple 30 choices or to select certain Items of behavior as best exemplifying certain psychological reactions. By the same token, a purely subjective reaction fails to take into account more than the react:on of a teacher at the feeling or the ©motional level. Yet, there seem to be reasons for thinking that the feeling of an individual will affect his behavior in th© instances where his intel­ lect might indicate an entirely different response. With full awareness of the intangibility of attitudes, It is still proposed to investigate the response of teachers to a Child Study program and, at the same time, compare their subjective evaluation with evidence given unwitting­ ly, through the record kept, as to professional progress made . Use of Interviews Attitudes expressed in Interviews From evidence to be considered in Chapter IV of this investigation, there would appear to be -a discrepancy in many cases between opinions expressed through th© in­ terviews conducted and evidences, of professional growth of teachers from a study of their anecdotal records. Gordon W . Allport has defined attitude as a "mental and neural state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the in­ dividual's response to ail objects and situations with which it is related." (1: 799) To the extent that inter­ views may be used to measure attitudes, Allport further assumed that only common attitudes could be measured, as in contrast to individual or private attitudes; that each person possesses many contradictory attitudes, and his mental set at the moment of submitting to a scale may tell only a part of the story; and that rationaliza­ tion and deception inevitably occur, especially when the attitudes pertain to the moral life or social status of the subject. Interview and reactions A threat to moral life or social status may be one of the most potent factors in any situation. It was so recognized when the investigation was proposed, and it was considered as both a strength and a weakness in the employment of such a device a© the Interview. TOa 32 strength comes from th© feeling that the Interviewee would, In a free situation, give expression to his emo­ tionalised reaction to the program. He would, it was thought, respond more in light of immediate feeling than if a pencil and paper test were being given. It was further felt that any threat to the individual * s self- concept which might reside in the Child Study program would elicit a more unstructured response than one sought through a more mechanical device. The interview has an­ other advantage for this particular type of investiga­ tion as is seen by Sherman; ’’The interview is, therefore, essentially a way of discovering the reactions of an in­ dividual to his past experience rather than a means of obtaining precise information .’* (37s 205) It is precise­ ly these reactions that this study proposes to examine In connection with actual work done by the teacher. Improvement of Teaching~-The Curriculum Knowledge of pupils and good teaching Myron A. Cunningham (6l: 5-10) points out in­ stances where students and authors in many fields of edu­ cation emphasize that people in the field must know the 33 facts of human development and the causes of behavior of the individuals with whom they work. Prom the fields of social studies, arithmetic, science, language arts, and reading, Cunningham has quoted works by Edgar B . Wesley and Mary A . Adams, Leo J • Brueckner and Foster T. Gross - nickle, Gerald S. Craig, Ruth G . Strickland, Arthur I. Gates, Paul Witty, and David H. Russell as being typical of a trend among educational authorities to recognise and even stress the desirability and perhaps the necessi­ ty of understanding by teachers of pupils * need®, inter­ ests, levels of mental ability, aptitude®, background of experience, and similar related items affecting the learn­ ing process . Further than good classroom instruction, it has been long maintained that curriculum and guidance are two fields which require knowledge of human development. Caswell, Stratemeyer, Lee and Lee, and other authorities in the field of curriculum have long stressed cognizance of the individual pupil as a prerequisite to the attain­ ment of a satisfactory and well-rounded curriculum. The us® of soc J ©metric devices, projective techniques, teacher study groups, home visits by teachers, and many other devices calculated to broaden th® understanding of teachers 31* as to factors present in the development of human beings have resulted in more concern with the individual child * Since learning is an individual matter, as well as a group process, it does not seem unreasonable to expect the quality of instruction to rise with increased under­ standing of the child. Cunningham, in investigating several ways in which teachers studied children, has made many conclusions from his exhaustive study. He has found, among a total of thirty-eight conclusions drawn, that: 1. There are reasons why all teachers do not ac- cept opportunities to Join such programs, such as Insufficient background in child development and the psychology of individual differences, a supposed lack of time to do the work, and an inability to work with others. 2, Teachers seem to benefit more from Child Study experiences spread out over a long period of time . 5. Teachers contribute to research projects as the projects seem to be useful to them, and as they understand the projects. h . Hot all teacher© have the skills to organize and summarise th© information about children which they gather. 9. Knowledge of children helps teachers to make adjustments in school schedule® to provide for individual capacities and need®. 35 6. Teachers who study children believe that they have a somewhat deeper feeling for the chil­ dren whom they study intensively than they do for- those whom they have not studied. In few cases do teachers believe that they be - come strongly emotionally involved. (6l: 168-173) These conclusions, far from offering discourage­ ment, seem to point out some inadequacies in our program of teacher education as well as elements lacking in the area of teacher-administrator, teacher-parent, and teacher-pupil relationships. The ability to work with others Is a need that must be developed; it appears to profit little for a teacher to have extensive knowledge of her subject matter material if she is unable to work successfully with pupils, parents, and other teachers and administrator© * A weakness in in-service work, pointed out by implication, is in the apparent lack of understand­ ing on the part of teachers of the goals of such work and of the ways of its operation. Without meaning to the in­ dividual and without apparent usefulness, a program be­ comes an added duty and a burden. Proceeding with any program under such conditions has often become so distaste­ ful as to ensure failure of such a program. Techniques aiding Child Study 36 Lee and Lee, following a discussion of basic emo­ tional needs growing out of the work of Louis Baths, list th following as techniques which help in Child Study; (1) the use of tests, such as personality tests and rat­ ing scales and Rath's described Self-Portrait-If, (2) the use of anecdotal records, (3) the us® of projective tech­ niques, and (4) the use of sociometric devices. The Lees conclude that such a program as they have described, quot­ ing Jane Pranseth, S. C. Patterson, and Maggie Haws, places upon the school the responsibility nto use this type of Child Study whenever and in so far as the person­ nel can satisfactorily obtain and use it.” (23s 93-10^) They further seek enlightenment concerning selection of subject matter. The diagram on th® following page is presented to represent some things about which we know to a degree, and the explanation of the diagrammatic presentation is given a® follows: This diagram is used to emphasis© the point that subject matter is ©elected for the purpose of making desired changes in the child but can­ not follow from the purposes alone; it must also be related to the learning process and the development or maturation of the child. All four factors are now closely interrelated, Purposes: Changes which we wish to make in the child. * ▼ 2 Instructional Materials: Sub­ ject-matter, experiences, ma­ terial® which can be utilized to make desired changes. 3 Learning Process: Procedures to be used in all phases of development: physical, mental, emotional, social. k Developsent of the Child: Es­ pecially in relation to his power, ability, and interests. KM -4 58 changes in one producing changes in another. Each exercises some influence on the other three. (23: 1^0) This is but another link in th© chain of evidence which would seem to indicate an increasing realization on the part of all workers in education of the importance of the teacher’s gaining more understanding of the develop­ ment of boys and girls a© physical, social, and psycho­ logical entities. Assumption of responsibility by teachers There are evidences to be examined later, in their proper time, that there are those teachers who reject Child Study--it might be said that it would seem they re­ ject any attempt to alter a pattern to which they have become accustomed and with which they have learned to be "at homeM and comfortable--because of pre-formed judgments. There is some evidence that there are teachers who do not accept change and who appear to resist the assumption of responsibility for their own actions. Cole and Bruce have stated this quite bluntly: 39 The dictators and autocratic rulers of history have made the same kind of generalization (that leaders are ’"born”) about f,the people” as a whole. There Is a herd-like submission; they crave a leader who will govern them . . . but history In western countries has raised serious questions about the validity of these views. Decade by decade ’the people” have slowly become more enlightened and government gradually more democratic and enlightened. At least we can ©ay that the great western experi­ ment® in democracy are based on the assumption that the leaders of the dictator-elite have been wrong. {?; 2515 This abrupt categorization of the people as "'a great beast,” to use the words of Alexander Hamilton, is not typical of Cole and Bruce, as this writer can testify from personal knowledge of one of the author®. There seem to be, however, enough teachers who persist in asking to be told "what to do, when to do it, and how to do it” to lead one to look with sympathy on Kelley’s discussion of the teacher and subject matter and the teacher as authoritarian. The teacher a® authoritarian With regard for the role of the teacher in the curriculum and in control of the classroom, Kelley has ©aid: ko When the control goes from the authoritarian teacher to the demand© of the group, no Indi­ vidual achieve© the right to do exactly as he pleases. For he then becomes responsible-- responsible to and for the greater good of those with whom he Is associated. His freedom is limited to those activities which will ad­ vance the undertakings of the group. He has had a share in planning these undertakings, and has perforce assumed © responsibility for their advancement . . . . If I wanted freedom, in the @@ns@ of license to do as I pleased, I would take my chance© with the autocrat for he can watch me only a certain amount of time, and I have no responsi­ bility for his program, nor have I any rapport with him worth preserving.. Another clichd certain to be heard is the old story, told with much mirth, of the boy who came to school and asked, ’Teacher, do I have to do what I want today? * This probably never occurred, though many think it did, and it could have. Instead of being relayed as a great joke, the teacher should have said, MYea, Johnny, you will have to assume responsibility today, and every day, for your work, your play, and your relationships with the others. You can­ not get me to assume your responsibility by telling you what to do. This is your day, and you cannot look to others to be responsible for the use you make of it.1' (20: 9^"95) Part of the work of the Child Study program con­ cerns itself directly with this assumption on the part of teachers of the responsibility for their own directioning, and for their own thinking* The working together in groups on problems of their own concern has caused h i consternation, to say the least, in many instances. With out prior experience, the bridging of this one gap ha® proved to be an experience of almost traumatic level to many teachersj emotions have been aroused often because a consultant strove to bring out the power of the group and of the individual. In-Service Education, Continuation of Learning Process Learning and emotional disturbance from change Part of the apparent avoidance of the assumption of responsibility on the part of teachers may result from previously formed concepts of the self as ‘teacher,” the individual who already ha® the technical skill and the requisite answers to problem®. Attitudes long held may add, through frustration and resistance to change, to possible emotional results from situations which imply a need for change in previously satisfactory patterning of response to situation© incident to teaching. Sherman has touched upon the entrance of the emotions into situa­ tions resulting In a shifting or disrupting of the equilib­ rium . h2 An emotion is a response involving three as­ pects; visceral activity* skeletal (overt) behavior* and conscious activity* involving feeling and appreciation of the condition. An emotion occurs primarily in a problem­ solving situation when physical and intel­ lectual adjustment fails. It is in essence a bodily activity in response to a condition vhich disrupts equilibrium. (3?: 1) The results of such emotional disturbances in­ herent in the disruption of the equilibrium of the status q u o of an individual are productive of frustration* ac­ cording to a further statement from Shermans Frustration may be defined as emotional disor­ ganisation which results from interference with a systematized effort to solve a problem. Frustration does not occur when an activity* with which there has been interference* is of no importance, (37: 88) Interviews bring out frustration The systematized efforts of teachers to move toward a more fruitful way of solving their everyday problems* if interfered with by Child Study or any other in-service program, might well lead to frustration and emotional involvement. In such an Instance* it is like­ ly that the interview might prove an extremely valuable instrument* Sherman implies that such is the case in the statement, ’The interview is, therefore, essentially a way of discovering the reactions of an Individual to his past experiences rather than a means of obtaining precise information.■” {31* 203) The above statement seems to give strength to the purposes for which inter­ views were used in this study. Threat to self-concept through in-service work That Child Study, as a continuation of the learn­ ing process, may affect the individual through threat, is likely. The role of perception in learning and its generalization to in-service education cannot be neglected. Snygg and Combs have discussed the individual*s dealing with threatened perceptions, a discussion which may be pertinent at this point: The individual faced with the necessity for dealing with threatened perceptions has three general methods by which he may attempt to re­ solve the threat he feels. These seem to be: 1. The phenomenal self may be reorganized to include the new differentiation. 2. Perceptions at any level of differentiation kk may be denied acceptance into the organi­ sation in one form or another. 3. Perceptions may be so selected or modi­ fied as to be consistent with the exist­ ing organisation. (39* 1^*0 Further reference to threat in learning experi­ ences facing individuals is made by Carl Rogers: Any experience which is inconsistent with the organization or structure of self may be per­ ceived as a threat, and the more of these per­ ceptions there are, the more rigidly the self- structure is organized to maintain itself. (3^s 513) Two other statements by Rogers are here included as being perhaps pertinent to this discussion of emotions and learning: 1, When the individual perceives and accepts Into one consistent and Integrated system all his sensory and visceral experiences, then he is necessarily more understanding of others, and is more accepting of others as separate individuals. (3^* 320) 2. As the individual perceives and. accepts into his self-structure more of his organ­ ic experiences, he finds that he Is re­ placing his present value system-based so largely upon introSections which have been distortedly symbolized--with a continuing organismie valuing process. (3*** 322) Evidences of such a replacement of system by process will be sought In succeeding chapters as an at- tempt Is made to analyse records of teachers for evidence of acceptance of children and for evidence of increased understandings. Techniques of dealing with threat Some techniques of dealing with threat have been Identified by Snygg and Combs a® negativism, simple re­ gression, fantasy, projection, compensation, and ration­ alisation, The interviews will be examined in later sec­ tions of this study for evidence© of teachers* employment of such techniques, Child Study a© affecting mental health If Child Study is concerned with learning upon the part of teachers, and if the findings of Prescott and others substantiate the powerful role of emotions in the educative process, then the resolution of undesirable attitudes could be expected, through the resultant frus­ tration and aggression, to have an effect upon the mental 46 health of persons so Involved. Perhaps to some, Child Study has not proved a successful way of learning. If so, then some of the four fundamentals of learning, as viewed hy Bollard and Miller, could well have Been un­ successfully employed in the program being studied. Bollard and Miller identify these fundamentals: These factors are: drive, response, cue, and reinforcement, They are frequently referred to with other roughly equivalent words--drive as motivation, cue as stimulus, response as act or thought, and reinforcement as reward. (9t 26) If, as inferred, some one or more of these factors have been uns|t ill fully employed or have failed, through re­ jection on the part of the learner, the frustration and aggression indicated earlier might well result, Sherman, in another work, has considered this as affecting educa­ tion from the standpoint of mental hygiene: From the mental hygiene standpoint, education implies direction and redirection of attitudes. (Redirection of undesirable attitudes cannot be achieved by persuasion or coercion, nor can it b® achieved easily by reasoning and the presentation of facts j when the basis for an attitude is emotional in nature, reasonings will not easily eliminate it.) Undesirable at­ titudes can be redirected only after the basic conflict or emotional problem is solved. (3$: 99) hi This statement is not meant to infer that "unde - sirable” is an adjective necessarily reserved to teachers rejecting a program of in-service work. The word is, for the purpose of this study, more aptly "unfavorable,” un­ favorable as applied to the feelings toward results of a program and to participation In a program. Feelings are directed toward some objectj in a Child Study program they are frequently directed toward those who serve as consultants to a program, Individuals supposedly possess­ ing a body of scientific information as well as the requisite skills to work successfully with groups of people seeking to further their understanding Leadership in In-Service Education The consultant as leader The concept of consultant as leader, with the dual purpose of serving as resource person to a group and of aiding in releasing the ability resident within the group, is not a new one* It is perhaps expressed as well by Wiles as by any other educational writers "Leadership is any contribution to the establishment and attainment of group purposes.” (^5 * 23) kQ Wiles further describes four kinds of supervis­ ing, types which have a strong resemblance to Child Study group leaders and consultants* He has named (1) the autocrat, to whom supervision consists of directing; (2 ) the ’mailed first within the velvet glove," to whom supervision consists of diplomatic manipulation; ! the laisses-faire person, to whom supervision has merit in the democratic ideal only when it is so unstructured as to be completely directionless and inconsistent; and (h ) the democratic leader who works, not "on,” not "for,” but "within" the group, and thereby releases the creative power of the group and of its individual members. {^3* 1 - 2*0 Group leaders, in Child Study programs, are people who assume, for whatever reason and by whatever process, leadership roles. It is to the Interest of the program, therefore, that they not be overlooked in any discussion of the fundamentals of the program and of the things which make for its success or failure with the classroom teach­ ers, many of who® are earnestly, seriously seeking better ways of working with children through increased understand ( ing of their development, physically and otherwise. ^9 Introduction of study of group dynamics Perkins (57) using recordings of group meetings added much to our knowledge of the function of group lead­ ers. His comparison of the concepts of democratic vs. authoritarian leadership and the effects of each upon the learning of the group members has pointed up the Importance of this leadership function to in-service programs. Much work has also been done in recent years at the Bethel, Maine, workshop of the national Training Laboratory. This organisation has furthered understanding of group dynamics, and s better understanding on the part of teachers as to the working of people in groups would perhaps greatly en­ hance the results of Child Study groups. If knowledge of an operation removes the fear of the unknown, then knowl­ edge of the frustrations attendant upon group dynamics might aid in combatting the unfavorable attitude of many teachers whose backgrounds predispose them to favor work­ ing singly rather than In a group, and thus to avoid the unease which can follow disagreement and frank, open dis­ cussion. The skillful leader i© one who can set the in­ dividual personalities of the group at ease; who can aid 50 the group in breaking away fro® the majority-minority concept of arriving at decisions* substituting consensus therefor; and who can aid the group in the somewhat deli­ cate task of objective self-evaluation. Perhaps lack of skillful leadership ha® resulted in unfavorable reactions of individuals to Child Study. Group skills of maturity Cunningham has mentioned, as one of his conclu­ sions, that teachers often do not have the necessary skills to conduct a program of in-service education (6l: 169). It is possible that much of this lack could be traced to a want outlined by Cole and Bruce In the concept of the Mature Person a® s kind of ideal goal to be realised by all growing persons. From the immature person whose daydreams have no connection with workaday behavior, to the individual whose integrity, whose whole­ ness of the self, lends a moral force and a remarkable creativity is a long road indeed. The nearer, however, he brings "what he thinks he ought to have" to approxi­ mate "that which he has,” the nearer the Mature Person is approached (7: 32b), The responsibility of maturity, 51 part of which might well concern Itself with a willing­ ness to take on new ways of working, new competencies, and new understandings, Is not an easy mantle to assume. This responsibility seems to cause many teachers to find It very difficult to take on a program of Child Study, especially when one of the results seems to be a disrup­ tion of many of the well-learned lessons and routines which make for a comfortable life in the classroom, un­ troubled by concern over a child as a physical organism, a member of ® family, o member of a peer-group, a member of a culture and various subcultures, and a self that is constantly developing, adjusting, and defending its own concept. It is easy to avoid pain and guilt which come from our own Inadequate actions and thus release the ten­ sion which drives us toward maturing. Cole and Bruce list several ways through which people seek to avoid ex­ penditure of effort and release and subordinate guilt- producing tensions. Among these are: (1) conforming and rationalizing, (2 ) the anesthesia of work, (5 ) blame shifting, belittling, and cynicism, (k ) the solace of sup­ porting company, (f?) the anesthesia of excitement and pleasure, (6 ) the fantasy of perfect love, and (?) salvation 52 through self-denial and flight. Some of these vays of escaping maturity are not, perhaps, socially acceptable for teachers or are otherwise inapplicable; but one is seen on every hand, the anesthesia of work, in which responsi­ bility and guilt are submerged under ever-increasing ac­ tivity, They continued? however, listing certain positive steps toward maturity In four stages: (1) the stage of self-analysis, (2) making a plan of action, (5) life’s ex­ perimental testing of'the plan, and {4} reflective assess­ ment and reprojection of a better plan, (7; 672-693) Perhaps part of the work of a Child Study program is to aid some teachers toward the goal of Mature Person through a' realisation of responsibility and it© assumptions. Evi­ dences surround this investigation to the effect that such aid may be needed. The gap between hoped-for out­ comes and teachers* readiness needs to be closed. Communi­ cation of ideas, always aimed at two-way interchange, of­ ten breaks down between professional consultant personnel and teacher participants. Communication of ideas As an example of the difficulty of communication, Earl C . Kelley (21: 1&-15) has related an experiment 53 which he has repeated several times in the Wayne Univer­ sity workshop in giving an opening talk to participants in which he has attempted to give ’feeling of security and simultaneously explain briefly some of the workshop objectives and procedures.” The talk usually does not last over twenty minutes. The following is illustrative of Kelley *s experience: This speech does little good. It serves the purpose of getting the semester underway, and may give some members a feeling of confidence in the staff. We think the speech has to be given as a bridge to a different method of teach­ ing, and if we made no attempt to explain what we were going to do, many would believe that if we had done so, then they would have known. As a matter of fact, attentive as they are, they do not really hear what we say because they do not have the experience with which to hear it. Sometimes we have tried the following experiment. We have made the opening speech, doing our best to explain the process through which the group is about to pass. Then the group goes through the semester’s experience, with ell its frustrations and false starts. At the closing session we get out the notes that were used in the opening session, and give the same speech, wo rd for word, as nearly as it is possible to duplicate without reading script. Invariably several members of the group will ask us why we did not tell them this in the first place, and save them all the frustration they have gone through. It is a neat demonstra­ tion of the perceptive value of experience--of the fact that a background of experience is essential to perception. It also demonstrates the weakness of perception per se as an educative device. The experience recounted by Kelley has been dupli­ cated for this investigator. We expect Child Study to result in a certain amount of confusion and frustration. It would seem, hovever, that difficulties in communica­ tion might be a problem that would warrant attention. Headiness for perception Part of this study is based upon the feelings of people toward a program. Enough of the expressed feelings are antagonistic to have caused concern on the part of those professionally engaged in the program, and many ex­ planations can be offered for antagonistic feelings. The lack of readiness for perception, the threat to an indi - v idual* s self-concept, the feelings of frustration at­ tendant upon a new learning process, guilt feelings Inspired by realisation of prior Ineffective or aownright harmful human relations: all these and many more reasons might be offered for the refusal of many teacher® to view Child Study in a friendly manner. The fact persists, neverthe­ less, that the feelings are present $ and factual evidence to the contrary notwithstanding, the teacher may not see herself as fitting into a school program based upon proven 55 facts of human development. There Is an area here which needs more explanation; it is believed that there are satisfactory solutions. Teachers who do a certain type and tuality of work, it would appear, are entitled to the feeling of accomplishment that should accompany that work * Self-concept and Evaluation Consistency of self Prescott lecky has brought into focus some thinking concerning the consistency of the self and the concept of self which promotes thinking all along the lines of evalu­ ation. He finds it extremely doubtful that consistency or even patterning of action can be observed except where the freedom of the subject is limited. A rat in a maze will pattern his actions within the confinement of the maze; inferentially, behavior of human beings can be ex­ pected to be of the will-o1 -the wisp variety, only one stability being assured: The fact is that, descriptively and mechanical­ ly, there is no stability in behavior, and habits do not exist. There i© stability in re­ spect to goal© or results, but none in respect 56 to movement . . . . It is our view that be­ havior is usually ,fin character, w not because the separate acts are related to one another, but because all the acts of an individual have the goal of maintaining the same structure of values. (22: 7-10} assistance to change Concerning personality, and with reference in this investigation to it® impact upon an evaluation, heeky makes a reference to the organisation of values. In a technique of free interviewing, such as was employed for part of this investigation, such a force might well deter­ mine an individual’s response. Lecky develops his theory as follows: All of an individual’s values are organized in­ to a single system the preservation of whose in­ tegrity is essential. The nucleus of the system, around which the rest of the system revolves, is the individual’s valuation of himself. The indi­ vidual sees the world from his own viewpoint, with himself as the center . Any value entering the system which Is inconsistent with the indi­ vidual’s evaluation of himself cannot be assimi­ lated; it meets with resistance and is likely, unless a general reorganization occurs, to be redacted. This resistance is a natural phenome- non; It i® essential for the maintenance of in­ dividuality. (22: 82) This viewing of behavior and personality from, as it were, a bifocal standard might be kept in mind as 57 evidences are brought out in succeeding chapters concern­ ing the responses of teachers to the Child Study program. The ^phenomenal self » and the "envelope1* Snygg and Combs use somewhat similar terminology in referring to the "phenomenal self,” (39 s 15) and Plant advances the concept of the "envelope" as a protective de­ vice for the self. The phenomenal self is defined as "all those part® of the phenomenal field which the individual experiences as part or characteristic of himself,” with the phenomenal field being "the entire universe, includ­ ing himself, as it is experienced by the Individual at the instant of action." (39• 5S) Two other concepts, as ad­ vanced by these authors, seem to have a bearing on any investigation of Child Study and its professed effect upon an individual teacher. These are (1) "the basic human need"{as) : the preservation and enhancement of the "phe­ nomenal self," and "when threats do occur from his so- ciety, he (the person with an adequate "phenomenal self") is capable of accepting the® and modifying himself ac­ cordingly." This will be true, however, only as long as the organism (1 ) is free to make any and all differentiations 58 and (2 ) has a "phenomenal self" adequate to accept them. (39 * 139 ) In the absence of an adequate "phenomenal self," however, there is a necessity to strike out in defense at anything or any series of events which might be interpreted as a threat to the self. James C . Plant, director of the Essex County Juvenile Clinic, Newark, N . J ., from 1923 to 19^7* in his discussion of some twenty-one problems facing children, ha© conceived the symbol of an envelope to come between the child and factors within bis environment: Between the need [of the child] and the sweep of social pressures lies a membrane--a sort of psycho-somatic envelope of transcending im­ portance. One should never think of this as a tangible, material structure. It is rather a property of that part of the personality which is in touch with the environment. . . . More­ over, It seems to grow in efficiency and compli­ cation as the Individual grows from childhood- and this at least parallels the growing use of cortical structures . . . . Normally the per­ sonality has the ability to shut out large sec­ tors of its environment and to translate those parts that it takes in into usable or under­ standable material . . . . [often] each listener is possessed of a selective, osmotic membrane that allows him to hear only what he can afford to hear. (32: 2 -3 ) There would seem to be, in terms of the thinking of Plant, the possibility of a conditioning influence 59 which might well predetermine the reaction of certain teachers to any for® of In-service education which could "be seen as affecting the status of the teacher or any ■feeling which she might have as to her efficiency. Difficulty of Judging attitudes Teachers* attitudes toward Child Study, like any attitudes, are difficult to judge, whatever the medium employed for testing. Interviews, check list®, behavior rating scales, or indirect objective measurements --as in analysis of anecdotal records--or observation of class­ room procedures, all operate under a definite limitation. Garrison quotes Thurstons *s definition of an attitude as "the sum total of man * s inclinations and feelings preju­ dice or bias, preconceived notions, ideas, fears, threats, and convictions about any specific topic. *’ (lb: b-5) These concomitants of attitudes and feelings are often quite deeply burled , The unearthing of a set toward or against any conceivable object presents many difficulties. As Hoover said: One of the major difficulties in measuring at­ titudes lies in the fact that an apparent atti­ tude might not be identical with a real attitude. 60 An individual might choose for any number of reasons to conceal his real attitude. (50s 215-216) Teachers avareness of inadequate training That teachers are aware of gaps in their training and are seeking ways to Increase competencies was indi­ cated in the Oregon Survey as reported by Hugh B » Wood. Oregon teachers, from opinions and estimates expressed in the survey, (1 ) recogniste the need for continuous in- service education based on felt lack of competency in teaching fields, (2 ) want help, (3 ) are trying to increase their competencies, (k) have not found many activities presently in use as helpful as might have been desired, and (3 ) have indicated a need for more effective leader­ ship in in-service education. (59• 2h3-2kJ) Part of the lack of competency can perhaps be traced to our institutions devoted to teacher education. Without an understanding of human development, the teach­ er enters work with subject-matter knowledge and little else. Knowledge of children can best be obtained through study of children. Too little opportunity is given in the education of future teachers for the acquisition of 61 such knowledge, and the pressure of everyday classroom activity and the reversion to ’’teaching as we were taught" often results in the stifling of any Incentive to know more about children. Fortunately, teachers col­ lege® and colleges of education are beginning to alleviate this situation to a degree j and there is some indication that beginning teachers are now entering the field with a favorable mind-set toward increasing knowledge and un­ derstanding . Teacher *s Role as Indicating Reed for In-Service Programs The teacher as leader 1. T. MeSwain views the teacher in three main roles a© he strives to offer leadership to pupils. First, the teacher must be an educational psychologist to inter­ pret the needs and progress of the child. Second, he must be a social engineer, anticipating changes in society and preparing experiences for pupils which will fit them bet­ ter to cope with such a changing society. Third, the teacher must serve a® an Interpreter to parents. MeSwain points out that Parents see only the school that they create in their psychological behavior. Unless they understand child development, the meaning of creative learning, the psychology of the so- called tools of learning, and the reasons sup­ porting never instructional methods, they may find it easier to express criticism than to give cooperative support to the leadership of teachers . Parents should he encouraged to visit the classroom to observe teacher and pupils at work. Group meetings should he pro­ vided that enable parents to create a better understanding of the purpose© and enabling ac­ tivities of the school. In the degree that teachers and parents create similar goals for children, unity in educational leadership will emerge. (55: Parents who do not understand child development and the other concomitants of a newer educational philoso­ phy are expected to be more prone to criticism. How much more might teachers react to educational philosophies which may give rise to Implications that their own methods, techniques, and philosophies are outmoded". A natural re­ action to the unknown 1© that of distrust, fear, and an­ tagonism. Increased understanding and skill in Interpreting behavior As related by Hohl, and quoted earlier, teachers begin to show skills in understanding and interpreting be­ havior through time. Perkins, working with six groups of 63 teachers participating for a three-year period in a volun­ tary program of child study, found that certain skills and insights were revealed by these teachers in synthesizing scientific concepts and in analyzing behavior* Similarly, he found that learning took place in all six groups, ’’for each group expressed proportionately more concepts during the second half of the learning period than it had during the first half*” There were also, according to Perkins, changes in the teacher’s attitudes toward children. These changes were manifest in (1 ) the degree of objective de­ tachment or emotional attachment in feeling toward the child, and (2 ) the degree of warmth and acceptance as con­ trasted with the degree of coldness, formality, and incon­ sistency in the attitude toward a child. Perkins also found a third result from Child Study: teachers grew more proficient in the giving of facts and scientific principles in support of statements made. It was Perkins* conclusion that ’’teacher groups studying children do grow in their use of facts and scientific principles to support state­ ments about children.” (57s 5^9 -555) 6k Objectives as Determinants of Progress in Child Study An example of utilization of objectives Definite objectives operate to determine the suc­ cess of Child Study programs, Just as in every other en­ deavor. Corpus Christ!, Texas, schools began Child Study with a workshop for the administrative staff, guidance staff, and one teacher from each school in 19^• The ob­ jectives for the workshop were outlined by Dr. Daniel A. Prescott as follows: 1. To give the leaders in the school system an overview of the basic scientific principles that explain how children develop and why they behave as they do. i 2. To demonstrate to school leaders that s great deal of information about an individ­ ual child is necessary in order to understand that child. 5. To demonstrate how this needed information about children can be secured, how it can be organized, and how it can be interpreted by classroom teachers, counselors, and school principals, and what use it is to them in helping children. h . To plan a practical program of work for the coming year if the participants wished. 65 5. To plan for the development of a "leadership group” that would guide the work of the child study program during the year if such a pro­ gram were adopted. (50: 555 **558) Following the workshop, and anticipating a long­ term program of Child Study, objectives for the work to follow were set up: (1 ) to increase the classroom ef­ fectiveness of teachers; (2 ) to increase the guidance role of teachers; (5 ) to develop gradually a more help­ ful body of records about children; (k) to consider the implications of the child study program for curriculum revision. Difficulties in evaluating Continuous attempts have been made to evaluate this program in the years that have followed, Hufsted- Xer (51) stated that no satisfactory methods had been found at the time of her report in 1951• Whitehead and Pockrus (5l)> in 19^7 and 19^9# used questionnaires to elicit subjective evaluations to the effect that the program has been extremely success­ ful in increasing understanding of children, increasing guidance by all teaching personnel, and lessening discipline 66 problems in the schools. Each of the two studies of the program in Corpus Christ! were made largely upon people who had completed three year© of Child Study. Pockras? in 19^9 > found that 86 per cent of those answering a ques­ tionnaire had participated in three years of the program or were active in it in 2 9 « 9 j of those responding, 84 per cent indicated that the program had been of value to them and worth the time involved. These evaluations, like most other® of the Child Study program, were largely subjective, and there is need of objective and subjective material used in correlative analysis to support teachers* responses. It is for the purpose of meeting that need that this investigation has been undertaken. To combine the responses of teachers, tinged as they might be with feelings and swayed perhaps by uneasiness engendered from a new program, with evi­ dences of change on the part of these same teacher® in the areas of understanding and of classroom procedures based upon that increased understanding: this has seemed to present a logical way to bring feeling and thinking closer together and examine one in light of the other. To balance what teacher© say is happening against concrete evidence as to what has actually happened may be a difficult task, but it 6? would appear to be one way of evaluating that would of­ fer an opportunity to assess the ability and willingness of teacher© to recognise change, and it is possible that certain implications for inception and conduct of Child Study programs may be noted. One factor in the success of any in-service education program has been suggested to be the fears of teachers. Some of those fears have doubtless expressed themselves, among other ways, in the evaluation of in-service education by teachers. Trends toward increased understanding of human development Evidences of an awakening to reality on the part of teacher education bodies can be found from many sources. One such was an article by binds©y, in which she pointed out that public school people made these comments regard­ ing what was wanted In the preservice education of teach­ ers : 1 . We want teachers who understand how children learn and are able to apply that understanding In organizing and selecting instructional ma­ terial and procedures. 2. We want teachers who really believe that the school curriculum must be based on the needs 68 of children. These needs are not found with- In isolated subjects but in living experi­ ences of boys and girls. We -want teachers vho know how to study chil­ dren as individuals and in groups and who will secure and use all information avail­ able on children in their guidance of them. (5ki kok) Trends in preservice education To meet these wants, L i n d s a y has pointed out that there are distinct evidences that teacher education bodies are becoming aware of the contradictory nature of what they preach and what they practice. She has listed re­ visions in practice teaching, in conduct of college classes, and in integration of courses. Concerning the latter, there are three apparent major trends, according to hind - sey, in the attempt to integrate the professional curricu­ lum in preservice education of teachers: 1. Arranging separate courses in useful sequence: general psychology, child growth and development, ado­ lescent psychology, educational psychology. 2, Integration of courses In human growth and de­ velopment: general psychology, human growth and develop­ ment, educational psychology. 69 3. A single integrated course: The human being --how he develops and learns. (3^5^07) Teacher-education trends As teacher education institutions begin processes of integration, certainly of more realistic preparation of people to guide learning experiences of children and youth, it would seem reasonable to expect more effective in-service education programs. It would also seem reason­ able to expect teachers to anticipate in-service education as a means of increasing skill and understanding. Along with increased understanding of other human being®, how they develop and learn, would come that gradual self- understanding so greatly needed. Self-understanding and maturity As Ruth Cunningham states it: A mark of the mature person is that he know© and understands himself. He has learned to live happily with himself, recognising his shortcomings, but liking himself In spite of them; realizing his strengths and respecting them . . . . There is much at stake, but little TO research to guide us , If ve are to learn hov to help children, teachers need to study and discover what experiences develop for children the self-understanding we want for them. It is possible that a fruitful approach to self- understanding is in helping children understand others. (^8 : 103) Summary In any discussion of reasons for behavior, the multiplicity and tentativeness of hypotheses must be kept firmly in mind. The present concern throughout education­ al writings and philosophising with the importance of the acquisition of human development concepts has perhaps re­ sulted in a partial prejudice concerning Child Study. We have attempted to explore the literature as a means of setting up a tentative hypothesis to the effect that ver­ bal, unstructured responses to attempts at ascertaining the value of the program may be influenced by such pre­ formed Judgments, favorable or unfavorable. Further in­ vestigation, beyond the scope of this study, may well be indicated. Consideration of objective evidence in the form of the teachers * anecdotal records ©ay serve to throw some light on this tentative hypothesis. The literature in the field of self has prompted a desire to see more investigation, in the human development 71 concept , of the possibility of threats to self through engagement in an in-service education program. Lack of maturity on the part of participating teachers could re­ sult, it would seem, in unfavorable feelings toward a pro­ gram indicating, even if only through implication, need for drastic revision of methods and realignment of philo­ sophical bases. That progress occurs and benefits accrue to par­ ticipating teachers could scarcely be gainsaid in light of investigations quoted. It can be said that (1) cer­ tain people state that they derive benefits from Child Study, and (2) others state the opposite, with varying degrees of emphasis. In our attempt to investigate the literature in the field, literature which has resulted from examinations of Child Study, its result®, and its participants, we have drawn heavily upon material dealing with the ©elf and its attitudes and values as possible determinants in the outcome of any attempt at evaluation and analysis. Clues to responses given, indicative of feelings, circumstances under which teachers find them­ selves having engaged in an in-service program and the resultant feelings from both the program and the forces impelling their participation; resistance to change and its causes; the extent to which needs have been met, and the effect of failure and/or success upon expressed feel ings of satisfaction or dissatisfaction with Child Study and the measured results in teachers * ways of working as disclosed through record® kept --all these have been kept in mind as the literature was surveyed. Much more was discarded than is included here as seeming to have bear­ ing upon the further testing of working hypotheses ad­ vanced in Chapter I. Child Study, the program with its purposes and principles, its basic assumption® and it® way of working and its possible extens ion--these will be presented in Chapter III. C H A P T E R I I I THE CHILD STUDY PROGRAM Introduction The preceding chapters have presented this study as an attempt at analyzing an evaluation of Child Study as a way of promoting professional Improvement of teach­ ers. As in-service education, it has been viewed as a continuation of learning experiences for teachers. The impact of such a program upon participant® has been im­ plied, and the resultant frustrations and resistances to change have been recognized as existing in possibility if not in actuality. To this point, there has been only brief mention made of the actual program itself and its way of operating. It seems necessary that an examination of Child Study be made to identify fully the program which is the basis of the investigation, a program which is de­ signed to promote more understanding and more effective teaching. Purposes and Principles of Child Study Reed for better ways of working Any concerted effort In any field of endeavor has chances of success increased when it is based upon sound, 73 7k scientific principles. Much present-day criticism di­ rected against public education in general seems to be the roughly deserved. Children have been "educated ” in the fundamental shills; teachers have spent years in learning nev and intriguing techniques . Too often, hcv- ever, basic fact® have been ignored; and teachers have lost sight of their task of aiding the total development of the child. Outmoded standards and values have guided educational processes in many instances; in other cases, educators have sought for anything new and different with little regard for the soundness of the new philoso­ phy. In too many cases It is apparent that not enough thought has gone into the moulding of educational methodology. Teachers have often diligently persisted in teaching as they were taught and in regarding the child In school ms a disembodied intellect, disregarding physical, affee - ticnal, cultural, emotional, and psychological processes interwoven into the self structure that Is being developed before their eyes. Too often, the child hm» been regarded- as an antagonist to be overcome; the thought that the child ha© an Interest In his own development has been too long unexplored or ignored. It has been said that teaching is a sheltered occupation, out of touch with reality. 15 The question has often been asked, Is there a way to bring teaching nearer reality" Is there something which can make learning more purposeful and put teaching and the role of the teacher into proper perspective? The approach to be investigated here is that of the Child Study program of the Institute for Child Study of the University of Maryland as carried out by the Division of Extension of The University of Texas. An examination of its purposes, guiding principles, and methods of opera - tlon seems to be essential to an evaluation of its pro­ gram; and such an examination is the purpose of this sec­ tion of the study. Education as developmental rather than direct training Two grounding statements have been selected to initiate this discussion of the guiding principles of the Institute: (1) The amount of time, money, and ef­ fort now expended for education in the average American community would suffice for wholesome development for all children If education were regarded as developmental instead of direct training, and if current scientific knowledge were applied in the educative process; and 76 (2) Tradition, inertia, and prejudice are the only serious harriers to tremendous improvement of education. (30: 63? - **58) These statement© result from a listing of ten de­ terrents to learning and adjustment as seen by the staff of the Commission on Teacher Education: 1. Children are often expected or required to learn things that are inappropriate to their abilities, developmental level, adjustment problems, or motivation. 2. Children are often expected or even required to behave in ways that are inappropriate to the individual’s level of development, adjust­ ment problems, family background, physical condition, or life situation© out of school. 3 . Relationships that imply the full acceptance of and respect for each child as s person are not always developed and maintained by the teacher. Particular children are often dis­ liked or neglected. U. Relationships among children that imply ac­ ceptance of each other and belonging in the group are not always stimulated and fostered by the teacher. Individual children may for years remain isolated or rejected by their peers. 5. Praise and blame, reward and punishment, en­ couragement and repression are usually meted out to children almost exclusively in terms of the significance of a child*© behavior for school policies, the teacher’s purposes for the class, or the teacher*© personal code of conduct or pet aversions. Children*© actions are not always appraised in light of the f ac ~ tors --including personal purposes--that caused 11 them, nor are remedial measures often planned in view of these factors. 6. The behavior of children is often controlled by means that humiliate them before their classmates, demean them in their own eyes, repress potentially valuable curiosity, or induce a sense of being misunderstood or un­ fairly treated. ?. Developmental tasks and adjustment problem® with which children are struggling frequently go unrecognised, and help that could be given is not supplied. 8 . The development of necessary skills and factual learning is often made difficult, or even pre­ vented, by failure to take into consideration such factors as a child’s physical make-up, maturity level, growth rate, family situation, cultural background, statu© with classmates, laek of self-confidence, lack of security or trust in adults, limited experience, and con­ sequent lack of prerequisite knowledge, skill, or interest. 9. Children with chronic infection or correctable physical handicaps are often not referred to clinics or physicians, and those referred are not always followed up until remedial treat­ ment is accomplished; children with limited mental abilities often are not examined and giv en opportunity to learn at their own levels; children with severe emotional maladjustments or personality problems are not always re­ ferred to clinics for diagnosis or assisted in their adjustment by competent workers; de­ linquent children are often stigmatised and excluded without adequate diagnostic study or effort at adjustment; neglected children are often unrecognized as such, are not brought to the attention of appropriate social agencies, and are not given needed food., clothing, affec­ tion, status, and roles through the school. 78 10. Children who ere successful in conforming to the learning and behavioral demands of the school usually are not studied carefully. Many of them leave school with important un­ discovered or underdeveloped abilities, with various mistaken or warped attitudes, with selfish asocial goals and aspirations, with uncorrected habits of dominating or exploit­ ing others, or with undetected personality cleavages. Many of these children will be­ come unsuccessful or maladjusted later, others will actively retard the amelioration of current social problems, while still others represent a needles® waste of important social resources. (30: -^57) This lengthy discussion of ways in which schools fail to secure optimum development in some children and actually hinder others is not conclusive in itself. It doe®, however, form a basis for a recognition of the need for some organized program of in-service education for teachers based upon increased understanding of the chil­ dren with whom teachers work. Child Study focuses upon people Carson McGuire, Professor of Educational Psy­ chology at The University of Texas, has referred to the Child Study program as focussing upon people in order to give meaning to the theory and practices of educational work. He sees the writing of anecdotes, the working 79 together in groups, and the testing out of ideas derived from professional readings as means to an end, the end being sensitisation to people and to all the environ­ mental and psychological processes entering into their development. He sees, in addition to the acquisition of sensitivity and understanding of persons, including one­ self, the improvement of instruction through changing curricula, shifting intentions, testing procedures, and allowing for variability in evaluation. (6?: 12) Teachers and other professional people can learn from and with one another as well as from authorities if (1) they record data objectively, (2 ) discuss it systematically, and (3 ) read some material upon their study and relate both to their work. (67s 20) To the end that teachers gain an understanding of pupils and of themselves, the Child Study program has operated by utilizing the children themselves as objects of sympathetic study, rather than books about children. As Dr. Otto Nielsen of Texas Christian University has often said, ’They are fishing with live bait.” To attain pro­ ficiency in the areas of understanding about which so much has been said, with so much remaining unsaid, there must be some sort of underlying structure of beliefs, knowledge, and faiths, 80 Value of the individual A first-year group in a workshop in Child Study held at The University of Texas in 1951# acknowledging as follows: We are grateful to Dr. Daniel A. Prescott of the University of Maryland and his staff, and to Dr. James Knight of The University of Texas for much of the thinking included in this paper. We realise that at points we have de­ viated from their thinking . . . has presented the following foreword as a guide to their thinking during the workshops This We Believe Every human being is valuable. Ho physical condition, no way of life, no mode of behavior should take from a person his sense of person­ al worth} lacking this sense of personal worth he cannot see himself as a valuable individual who shares in the rights and privileges of mankind• This We Know 1. All behavior is caused. It give® indica­ tion of human needs. 2 . Behavior has multiple, complex, and inter­ related causes. (Among these causes we in­ clude experiences, attitudes, values, choices, motivations, etc.) 81 3* Every child Is different in some respects from hi® fellows, but every child is also like his fellow® in many ways, ^ . The experiences a child has had and the way he feels about those experiences are important factors in understanding his be­ havior . 5. Each child faces a series of learning that he must make If he takes more easily the next steps in growing up. 6. Each person will have some adjustment prob less . 7 * Learning include® thinking, feeling, and doing. 8 . All cultural behavior is learned. Or to express the same idea another way, all human behavior (the behavior that distinguishes people from animals) is learned* (If it is learned, we believe that it can be changed, and herein lies much of the usefulness of the school in helping young people gain the cultural heritage and improve upon it.) 9* Behavior is caused, but it also has standards within a culture or a subculture. Some basic "articles of faith* These statements from a group of people unfamiliar with the basic concepts of Child Study at the inception of their workshop experience show a close resemblance to a series of statements concerning "Child Development and Education" made by Dr. James Hymcs, Jr., Professor of 82 Education at George Peabody College for Teachers, and incorporated into a workshop for Corpus Christ!, Texas, schools, August, 1950. Dr. Hymes* statements may be paraphrased as follows? Pour Basic Articles of Faith 1. People are made--are always in process of being made --what they are by certain forces; A . Experiences (environment). Powerful ef­ fects of fear, scarcity, illhealth, fail­ ure are to make children less able; the converse is also true . Anthropology demonstrates how the pattern of a culture makes the behavior pattern of whole groups. B . Heredity. This factor is also important in making people, but only as It sets limits of possible patterns of behavior; within the same (roughly) hereditary limits, different individuals are made to become different. C . Importance of Education and Child Develop­ ment . Teaching is making the people who will build our world; and we do not yet know how effectively the Job can be done. II. Children are on our side in this process. A , The strong urge to grow and learn is uni­ versally human. B. Children want to practice, to learn to do the things which mean growing up. Ill. There are reasons for what people do. IV. There is real capacity in teachers to find causes and to do something effective about 83 them, We may not reach any final or com­ pletely adjustive answer for each child, hut we learn to start children out and move them along toward the things they need, even though sometimes we may have to carry on beyond our present capacities. Teachers are the first line of defense) they can learn to use the school curriculum to help do those things with children which will make for their best development. Some Basic Assumptions for Child Study gaining an Increased understanding of people The program of the Institute for Child Study is based upon gaining an increased understanding of people. The use of the scientific method in the study and analy­ sis of behavior, plus the acquisition of scientific in­ formation about the development of human beings, Is carried into an increased awareness of the implications of human development for education. There are certain basic as­ sumptions, or "'articles of faith,” upon which the Institute has erected the foundations of its program, 1* Behavior is caused. This Is a simple way of saying that there are many reasons for the responses of people elicited by situations in which they find them­ selves, The beginner In Child Study is apt to assume Sk that the cause® present the only problem. Increasingly, he become® aware of the difficulty in overcoming a re­ luctance to see what is actually happening, much less to record it objectively. After exposure to the Child Study program for a brief period of time, the beginner learn© to expect two kind® of behavior, the overt and observable reaction, and the covert, hidden response which can only be interpreted through study over a period of time. Study through a period of time leads to the ob­ servation of recurring patterns of behaviorj the alert recorder of behavior will then begin to question the reasons for this patterning and will begin to make hypothe­ ses as to the causes. Often these hypotheses will be com­ pletely unscientific, based upon the observer's own preju­ dices, aims, and ideas, with his own value-attitudes in­ truding upon the interpretation accorded to the behavior observed. Eventually, the person engaged in Child Study may b© expected to recognize the fact that the causes of behavior are not easy to ascertain, and an earlier readi­ ness to ascribe ©very socially unacceptable act to "lazi­ ness r‘ or '‘meanness" or "desire for attention" will give way to a realisation that, difficult as It is to observe 85 and record objectively, it is incomparably more diffi­ cult to ascertain the causes. This leads to a second basic assumption, 2, The causes of behavior are rarely simple? usually they are complex, multiple, and interrelated. The physical structure of the Individual, vith its com­ plex of patterns of energy use, its variance In energy available, and its many other influences upon the indi­ vidual is only one of the many causative factors In the behavior which Is observed. The affectional and emotion­ al climate in which the individual has developed from In­ fancy, the culture into which he grew, the ways in which he ha©-learned to meet the demands of hi® age-mates from infancy, the devices by which he has been permitted to defend or support himself or attack that which threatens his security as an individual, the way in which he sees himself as a person, the way he looks at his work and the role to which he assigns himself and to which he is assigned by his contemporaries --all these and many more factors are concerned when one begin© to discuss the causes of behavior. Complex as these causes may be and Interrelated as they are, there is evidence to be presented 86 that the program does result in an increased sensitivity to the reasons vhy people act as they do. As one begins to- grow in understanding of the "vhy,” there are evidences that help can be and has been rendered people In determining things to do and ways of doing that will aid In the attainment of goals Accept­ able behavior is such an important thing in the value systems of most people, perhaps especially so for teachers, that a third “article of faith," based upon acceptance, has often been assumed, 3. The behavior of any individual must be ac­ cepted (this is not to say "condoned" or "approved") in light of the complexity of its causes, To phrase it an­ other way, an individual does not necessarily have to be rejected because of his behavior. This seems to be of particular importance as it applies to teacher-pupil re­ lationships, If the educative process is concerned with the alteration of behavior patterns, then it becomes in­ creasingly important that the individual be accepted as the product-in-making and the result of a complex of causes. In spit© of behavior unacceptable to teachers as well as to other adults, every effort must be made toward 67 putting scientifically validated knowledge to use in the altering of behavior. Lest the phrase, altering of be­ havior, be misunderstood, it should be noted here that the Institute does not encourage its interpretation to mean sanctioning the creation of miniature© of any adult; rather, it is taken to imply the allowing of people to develop, as the necessity Is seen, in ways of working which will not increase pressures but which will come from increased understanding of expectancies from society and increased motivation from within to learn more acceptable vays of doing things* Above all, the Institute would in­ sist that stereotypy should be avoided* h. Each individual is unique. tfo two people, by virtu© of their individuality, ever have exactly the same experiences; and, even if that were possible, there are enough individual differences to cause each to Interpret identical experiences differently. Ho two children ever grow up in the same family--and no two individuals can ever be --exactly alike. This principle of individual differences forms the basis for much apparent confusion in our educational system. Teachers recognize the prin­ ciple of individual differences in theory, but not in actual practicej too of ter: there 1® the attempt to '"teach" an entire class exactly the same material in exactly the same manner and at exactly the same time. Parents, like vise, need more sensitivity to the un ueoess of the in­ dividual. Implications for education growing out of this one concept are many and extremely important. To help the unique individual, it is necessary to recognize the importance of understanding and treating the child as an individual, with his own wants and abilities. As teachers begin to deal with and accept the concept of indiv iduality, their realization of the value of the concept begins to become apparent in the records. 5 . Every human being is valuable. Without this concept, it would seem that the democratic way of life falls apart at the very heart of its being. The value of the individual cannot be determined from evaluative ap­ praisals of his behavior. The behavior of a child is neither good nor bad until it is appraised in terms of an adult standard. Similarly, the behavior of adults is Judged as to degree of social acceptability in light of the mores of the cultural milieu. The value of the indi­ vidual resides in his human possibilities, not in his value-Judged accomplishments. As the multi-millionaire 89 might regard a college professor as worthless (certainly so if the only criterion 1® the amount of amassed wealth possessed) , so might the college professor regard one un­ trained in his particular discipline, The emotional re­ jection of a child because of hi® background of family or experiences can but result from an uninformed judgment and can but result in the necessity for emotional adjust­ ments on the part of the individual so rejected. Education ha® begun to draw its impliestions, and work being done by Allison Davis and others in the attempt to develop "culture-fairn intelligence testing, a® well as work being done by social anthropologists in many other areas Is being noted with increasing Intensity by educators at every level. To develop the requisite understanding®, person® engaged in teaching are turning more and more to the acientific attitude and method. 6 . The scientific attitude and method (truth is relative to the checkable information and insights now available) is the most effective way to work toward un­ derstanding people. People cart learn to build this at­ titude and way of seeking truth into themselves; they can learn to make judgments and interpretations tentative, 90 subject continual recheek and revision on the basis of all that can be found out, remembering that humans can only sense and understand "truth through human pro­ cesses which are easily twisted by certain human "tricks of the mind.** The Institute Is constantly aware of the necessity for increased use of the scientific method; it maintains, also, that increased use will come only from greater acceptance and internalisation of the scientific attitude on the part of all who work with human beings in any capacity whatsoever* The willingness to postpone judgment, to work at an intellectual rather than a feel­ ing level, is an attitude which is foremost in the ob­ jectives of the Institute. It encompasses all of the foregoing basic assumption®! indeed, it might be said that the value ■* judgments implied by acceptance of the principles that (a) behavior is caused; (b) the cause© are multiple, complex, and interrelated; (c) the individ­ ual * s behavior must be accepted as the result of causal factors; (d) each individual is unique; and (e) every human being i© valuable --all these seem to come to frui­ tion in the acceptance of the scientific attitude and method * 91 Employment of facts rather than guestvork The scientific method of Child Study has aided in the elimination of much of the guessvork about be­ havior, its causes, and its possible modifications, vith implications for education. Beginning with the problem of determining why people, especially children, react a® they do, Child Study has led to a definite procedure of observation, recording, and analysis and interpretation of behavior. Teachers have ©aid, "Give us facts concern­ ing human development." The facts for which they clamor are found in scientific information gathered and detailed by competent research workers and in their own observation of children in classrooms, on playgrounds, in homes, and in communities. Actually, the recorded scientific materi­ al or igi nally came from observation also. True, the ob­ servers were "trained,” for whatever that term might be worthj but the children choser for observation were more often than not from highly selected groups and were not representative of actual situations that might confront a teacher in her everyday work with boys and girls . Teachers have needed to develop the ability to study 92 children at the source, and the Child Study program has furnished one of the best means of utilisation of teach­ ers* resources yet discovered* Implementation of the Program Gathering information about a child In the effort- to ascertain the "why** of behavior, the teacher proceeds to the gathering of information. Utilising school records, experiences of fellow teachers, visits to the home of a child, visits designed to acquaint the observer with the child’s life space, analysis of examples of the child’s creative work, and direct observa­ tion, the teacher begins a study of a child chosen because of Interest in the particular child. (Ordinarily, teachers are not encouraged to select for study any child who could be regarded as being a deviate.) She collects and notes objectively specific anecdotes concerning the child In as wide a variety of situations as possible j information gleaned from many sources and in many situations, in the home, on the playground, on field trips, at church, at social gatherings, and the like, enrich the classroom 95 observations and furnish an opportunity to see the child in action in many facets of his environmental surround­ ings. Heretofore, the teacher sav the child in the class­ room, under a set of conditions fitting the school, and without recording the observable behaviors resultant therefrom. Any Judgment or interpretation was affected by the tendency to forget or to alter certain items, un­ consciously perhaps, in order to "prove a point." Actually, the teacher finds that there ©re six sources of Information readily available and lending them­ selves to the study of the child. It is possible to get information from school records; from other teachers; from home visits; from visits to the area in which the child has hi© being--his "life ©pace"; from sample© of creative work such a© stories, paintings, and so on; and from di­ rect observation of the child’s behavior, his response to situations in which he finds himself. The scope of the record is increased with valuable results when the ob­ server tries to see the child in many other situations other than those of the workaday classroom. Objectivity in re­ cording the behavioral anecdotes is stressed, and the teacher is encouraged to describe behavior rather than to 9% interpret it in the anecdote. Every effort is mad® to see each anecdote as a complete story. The teacher is encouraged to include time and place, the events immediate­ ly preceding whatever is being related, the incident it­ self with special reference to other children and the teacher as they fit into the pattern, and any subsequent incidents which follow the anecdote being related. The recorded information, selected and put into anecdotes as scientifically a® possible, is actually a random sampling of data collected, with analysis and in­ terpretation a© the end in view, looking toward recommenda­ tions for the education of the child being studied to the further end that help in the child’s developmental processes might be nearer reality and farther from wishful thinking. Sharing information Teachers* meetings in small groups, usually with leaders of their own choice and with assistance from re­ source and professional people, exchanging information and making multiple, tentative hypotheses, drawing upon the experiences and learnings of others, rechecking ex­ planations against evidence presented both through the 95 literature and the experiences shared with group members; all these are present In the Child Study program, and all tend toward validating scientifically the procedures em­ ployed . An experience shared by a majority of teachers par­ ticipating in Child Study is in the observation of the phenomenon of behavior tending to occur in patterns. The realization that this patterning of responses is a part of the uniqueness of the individual child is a step forward in the teacher's understanding. Recurring patterns are discussed in the groups with the purpose of seeking their causes. To that end, multiple, tentative hypotheses are encouraged; and teachers are urged to test hypotheses in light of information at hand and to be gained with refer ence to the child's environmental and experience background. From the testing of hypotheses and other concomi­ tants of scientific Child Study, two basic kinds of recur­ ring patterns have emerged. The first, developmental tasks, represent those common learnings which develop from the process of maturation occurring within a culture or sub­ culture, and which are required of all who mature within that culture. These cultural expectancies are studied by 96 the teachers, and behavior Is examined as a factor in the total process of maturation; from increased knowledge of this process, it is hoped that acceptance will "become a part of classroom, operation based on individuality rather than on the degree to which the child meets the criteria of acceptability determined by teacher or other adult expectancy. The second basic kind of process re­ sulting in recurring patterns, coming fro® personal ad­ justment problems of the child, represents the way an in­ dividual reacts in adjusting to tensions which he faces. The interrelatedness of child growth and development is pointed up here, in that the child’s developmental tasks resulting from the interaction of his physical and aatura- tional needs with the expectancies of his cultural environ­ ment may often be the cause of adjustment problems. When a developmental task is not completed on schedule, the resultant pressures exerted upon the child by his cultur­ al milieu may well present a problem in emotional adjust­ ment . The adjustments! processes employed by the individ­ ual are, to carry the analysis further, an extremely re­ liable indicator of his developmental maturity level. Teachers are further encouraged to investigate behavior in the effort to determine, ©s well as possible, 97 the basic orientation which the child forms regarding his self-concept. The degree to which the child regards him­ self as possessing security, adequacy, and belongingness will determine, to a large degree, the way in which he sees himself and the way he sees himself as operating within and as a part of his total environment. These and many other factors of the Child Study program represent the outgrowth of experimental work in the program through time . The program has been, since its inception, operat­ ing upon a structure of three years* work. The structur­ ing process is believed essential to the objective of in­ creased understanding through study and analysis of indi­ vidual children as they operate in relation to the class­ room, peer group, family, and community and culture. It would seem pertinent, therefore, to examine briefly the work of each of the three years of the program to ascer­ tain the working of such an enterprise. The First Tear of Child Study Records Teachers participating in Child Study are asked to select a child for study and to collect information 96 concerning hi® behavior, his reaction® to situations, re­ cording such Information in the form of anecdotal records which are kept a© objective as possible, These records are regarded as extremely confidential; and information and situations revealed are not discussed outside the group in which the teacher works. For that reason, the name of the child is presented in the record in disguise, and care is taken to safeguard other items in the record which might reveal the identity* of the child being studied to persons not entitled to such Information. group discussions While participating teachers keep individual records of an Individual child, the value of such records is enhanced by the discussions of the groups in which they meet. (30:131-155) The reading of a record and the gen­ eral discussion® following aim at sharpening skills in or­ ganising and interpreting data to the end that a more valid analysis of the subject*s needs, motives, and goals can be made. The pooling of information about a child gives a broader base for making such an analysis; the dif­ ferent members of the group have varying backgrounds and 99 Mounts and kinds of specific information regarding the particular child as well as scientific information regard- ing all children; working in groups seems to lead teach­ ers to re-examine individual attitudes toward children, especially when the experience of one teacher with a child is greatly different from another * s; and, finally, teachers seem to gain a new regard for their colleagues as they work together in groups, exchanging information shout children in general and the subjects of individual records in particular. Gaining understanding The relationships developed in a group of teach­ er®, and the observation by teachers of the group rela­ tionships within their classes are being increasingly studied for implications for teachers, school adminis­ trators, mental hygienists, and research workers, (5 ; 286) Seeing the child change and develop, exchanging records In their groups, teachers understand other children as well as the one they are studying. A good working group can sustain itself by en­ couraging frank expression of the feelings of 182722 100 the group members as time goes on, The group can help one another with shortcuts and sug­ gestions about techniques and meanings, A kind of co-responsibility for professional un­ derstanding of teachers* difficulties, as well as those of the child,, develops. The anecdotal record may be used as a focus for group thinking to lead to further exploration of principles of child development. It may serve as a means of a group's assessment of child behavior and teacher-child relationships! it may be used to point up curricular needs, (3 * 200-201) Types of anecdotes Teachers learn to distinguish between the four types of anecdotes generally found: (1 } evaluative state­ ments, (2) interpretive statements, (3 ) generalized de- scriptive statements, and (k) specific or concrete descrip tive statements! they learn to choose incidents to de­ scribe behaviorj they learn to look for and be sensitive to hypothetical reasons for varying reactions to behavior­ al situations; and, finally, they learn to make an evalu­ ation of their own work in its relation to everyday class­ room procedure and to seek implications for curriculum and for techniques of teaching. 1 0 1 Analysis of behavior Throughout the first year1s work, participants have usually observed that the behavior of a child often tends to pattern Itself. Teacher® learn to identify such patterns and to describe them objectively and in terms of the behavioral response itself rather than in terms of teacher opinion with regard to the behavior. Upon isolating whatever patterns are discernible, par­ ticipant© make multiple, tentative hypotheses regarding causes for the observed behavior. Further, they test out hypotheses in light of the background of the case history, given early in the record and amplified as the record pro­ ceeds . Also drawn into the making of hypotheses are other anecdotal occurrences which would tend to lend support to or to refute the hypotheses made by the teacher group. Pursuing the testing of hypotheses, teachers attempt to sum up the record, usually in terms of three ©elf- administered questions: (1) What (according to the record) does this child seem to be trying to dot (2 ).What are the child’s assets and liabilities? and (3) What could I, as teacher, perhaps do in helping the child attain his apparent goals? 102 In all this summing-up process, teachers use only the recorded material contained in the day-to-day anecdotes. Thus, they learn to interpret from the writ­ ten record| and, at the same time, the value of a complete, objective record with a wide range of field of observation i© made mil the more apparent to participants. This, to­ gether with reading in the field of human development to broaden the group*© knowledge of scientific principles embodied in Child Study, encompasses a first year of the program. The Second Year of Child Study Area processes The second year of organized Child Study intro­ duce© a more comprehensive method of observation and re­ cording. The child is viewed from the perspective of a framework of processes operating to influence hi© total development. Members of group® continue to meet a© they did in the first year’s work; they record and interpret anecdotes; they look for, identify, and interpret recur­ ring patterns of behavior, making hypotheses regarding 103 the causes of such behavior; and they attempt to use the information gained to help children with problem®, to adapt the school Increasingly to the child and hi® needs, and to benefit in other way® from their increased knowl­ edge, understanding, and skill In working with pupils and with other teachers* In addition, they are encouraged to seek information about the child (1) as a physiological organism; (2) as a member of a family; (3) a® a member of a group of peers--both in school and in his neighborhood relations; (b) as a member of a larger society with its customs, classes, and varied expectancies; and, in addi ~ tion, they begin to view (5) the development of a self and (6) the adjustmental and defensive devices utilised in the maintenance and enhancement of the self as the child sees it* From the outlines in Chapter XII in Helping Teachers Understand Children* pp. k2B~h29 and **31-1*32, have been de­ rived the six area® listed. Physical are® Data are classified in terms of their sources as a device to aid teachers in later evaluation of the child being studied. For example, there are organic factors 10** which influence growth, development, end behavior. Age; health (i.e., disease history, corrected and uncorrected defects, nutrition, and health habits), characteristic rate of energy output; quality of physical endurance and recovery from fat1 jue; growth history, present maturity level, and rate of growth; skill in managing the body; physical appearance; defect®, injuries, operations i all these and other physiological factor® can be utilised by the teacher in the study of the child if the extent to which those observable factor® have bearing upon behavior can be kept in mind. Affeetlonal area The influence upon the child of his membership in a particular family grouping and the influences of father, mother, siblings, extended family, and family r e ­ lationships, have bearing on the affeetlonal processes influencing the development of the child. The mother- child, father-child, and mother-father relationship®, for example, furnish a rich source of material regarding these processes. Both mother-child and father-child relation­ ships could be productive of an orientation of security 105 for the child| but father-mother relationships could be so disturbing to the child as to result in a state of al­ most perpetual uncertainty. Similarly, the child's place In the family constellation may be such as to leave him unsure of his acceptance. Sibling rivalry can and does exist in almost any family; and the results have their bearing upon the child's concept of himself, and, in the course of time, upon his adequacy in school­ room situations. Other sources of affection and security which have been explored through anecdotal records In­ clude relationships with teacher, with adults outside the family group, with chums, and with pets and love-objects. All these, in ways too numerous and diverse to be fully explored here, furnish a source of information to be used by Child Study groups in their analysis of behavioral in­ cidents . Peer-group area The peer group processes, incorporating participa­ tion by the child in peer activities in and outside school, evidences of status In the groups in which the child is observed as participating, and evidences of the degree of 106 knowledge and observance of group codas and values; these give study groups insight into factors affecting the development of the child as a member of his own child society. This child society, on the other hand, is af­ fected by the socializations! processes surrounding and influencing the way of life of the family and the peer group. Socialization area Cultural background includes evidences of eth­ nicity, caste, social class and economic status, cultural expectancy, neighborhood affairs and the family’s parti­ cipation, religious affiliation, customs, characteristic behaviors (manners, language cleanliness --the family way of life), and evidences of family and individual mobility. Teachers learn much about.these sooiallzational processes and begin to apply the© to an increased understanding of cultural and group processes. Further they begin to make application of scientific information concerning culture® to schoolroom procedure®. 10? Self-developmental armm Constantly aware, at least on the verbal level, as teachers seem to be of Individual differences, the fifth area of processes at work upon the child's develop­ ment offers a medium for increased understanding of the individuality of self and for implications of psychologi­ cal information for educational processes. Child Study groups are encouraged to examine the individual for evi­ dences of abilities, interests, skills and knowledge, special abilities and disabilities, experience background, values and attitudes, ambition© and goals, and expressed and inferred attitudes toward self and the world. Use of information obtained and analysed from these evidences Is directed toward implications for classroom procedures designed to utilize such information. the developmental level of the self is utilized along with evidence© of physical maturation, affeetlonal processes, peer group relations, and cultural or socialization processes to ob­ tain a better picture of the individual and to Interpret his adjustments! processes and defense mechanisms so as to bring more closely together his concept of himself and the environment in which he must of necessity operate . 1g8 Self-adjustmental and self-defensive area The sixth area of processes, concerned with self- adjustive or self-defessiv© mechanisms, sets out with the objective of ascertaining (1) evidences which iden­ tify an emotion-producing situation, (2) evidences of patterns of devices employed to support, comfort, and re­ assure the self, and (3) evidences pertaining to the ef­ fect of emotional behavior. Teachers are encouraged to view behavior as the outward manifestation of inner pat­ terning of responses to situational stimuli, thus leading to more definite acceptance of behavior as being the re­ sult of multiple, complex, and interrelated causes resid­ ing in the physical, affeetlonal, peer, and soclalization- al areas, and adapted and personified in the process of self-development, During the second year of Child Study, there is usually very little direct effort put into conceptualisa­ tion of the self areas; this task is ordinarily reserved as the major project for the third year of study. head­ er© and consultant®, however, remain aware of this ex- tremely Important part of the program; and references and allusions are incidental to the entire work of the second year. 109 Developmental tasks At the same time that the group ia exploring the area processes, there is usually presented the concept of "developmental tasks,” those guldeposts in the gain­ ing of an over-all picture of grovth and development wfaich are described by Havighurst (16) and Tryon and Lilienthal (3: 77-135)? as well as others, as "those major common task® that face all individuals within a given so­ ciety or sub-group of society." A more complete under­ standing of the "time table” for these tasks and the in­ fluence upon the child of their completion or failure is striven for, to the end that teachers combine what is known about developmental tasks with evidences of the operation within the life of the child of the physical, affeetlonal (family), peer group, socializations!, self-developmental, and self-adJustmental processes. From this combination, they are better enabled to interpret their records in the light of the stages of development of the child in each of the areas; they are better able to determine the de- velopmental tasks which each child may be engaged upon; and they are perhaps better able to determine and evalu­ ate the adjustmental processes employed by the child 110 as be defends, supports, or reassures and comforts him­ self • The Third Tear of Child Study Introduction The inclusion of descriptive material concerning the third year of Child Study is justified on two grounds. First, it was felt that a brief summary of the work of this year was necessary if a full concept of the program in its entirety was to be communicated; second, data in this study, to be presented in Chapter IT, will be con­ cerned with reactions to Child Study on the part of per­ sons engaged in their third year of work in the program. It is emphasized that this description of the third year of Child Study is by no means conclusive. Its importance is not to be measured by the length of space devoted here to its presentation. It is regarded as the culmination of effort in the program; and, as such, a need for some understanding as to operation has prompted the inclusion of this very brief description of the work of the third year of Child Study. Ill Stress upon self areas Ordinarily, the second year of Child Study does not lay too auch stress upon the areas which deal with the manner in which self develops and is maintained, re­ serving a deep study of those areas, along with study of sociometric device© and projective techniques, for the third year of the program. This most important, most vital step in understanding cannot he over-emphasised. Here it is that teachers reach a culmination of effort with increased knowledge of the way in which the self develops and maintains its being. Observation and re­ cording are still the vehicle® through which the study is conducted) data are still classified into areas desig­ nating their sources) the application of developmental tasks is further emphasized) and all i® focussed on the processes by which a child becomes conscious of self, by which the self Is differentiated and organized, by which it defends itself, and by which it extends Its develop­ ment and significance. (50; ^28-^29) Behavior as interaction Behavior is further stressed as the result of the interaction of physical, affeetlonal, sociological, 112 and self processes. Further, the teacher is encouraged to interpret behavior in the light of the self-concept of the child as revealed through the anecdotal record* Stress is placed upon trying to determine what the child must see when he looks at himself end at his world, and what effect this interpretation will have upon his de­ velopmental processes, Soetemetry Introduced Sociometric devices, as well as psychological testing, are utilised throughout the work; sociograms, thematic apperception testing, and interest inventories, as well as wide reading in psychology, are encouraged for the teacher. Finally, stress is placed, as in former years, upon applications for classroom procedures and upon the broader field of curriculum design. Extension of the Program Introduction Somewhat the same reasons for presenting the operations of the third year of Child Study have prompted 1X3 the inclusion of a short discussion of two ways in which Texas teachers have attempted to extend understandings developed in the three-year organised program of Child Study. As in the presentation of the third year of Child Study, the discussion of the extension of the total pro­ gram is not intended to he regarded as definitive; it is intended only as indicating possibilities resident in car­ rying out concepts developed through previous work in Child Study. Ho organized procedure There is, at present, no organised extension of the program beyond the three years so briefly outlined here. In some areas, emphasis has been placed upon appli­ cation of human development principles and knowledge to the broad field of curriculum; many other programs have been the outgrowth of Child Study. One thing is general­ ly observed; once teachers work together in Child Study, they are reluctant to give up in-service effort. The investigator, in this study, will present s brief descrip­ tion of two types of programs evolving from Child Study, one concerned with a study of learning situations, and IX k one concerned with investigation of problems arising from the everyday work of teachers in their classrooms. Learning situations Knight and Herrick have listed ten gains which rightly should accrue to a teacher after three years* participation in the program. The outcomes which they have seen have been used as a basis for studying the edu­ cational program of the school, and are; 1. Some ability to make an objective record of the behavior of an individual child. 2. Some practice in actually looking at chil­ dren and what they do as a basis for study­ ing and knowing about them. (The use of the child, as It were, a® subject matter.) 3. Some practice on looking at children in terms of the kinds of behavior which have importance in describing and explaining the individual and his activities. k. Some practice in looking behind the behavior of children for the cause® of that behavior. 5. Some practice in making tentative and al­ ternative hypotheses about children and why they behave as they do . 6, Some practice in looking for themes in the behavior of children (consistent behavior pat­ terns) which point out and clarify the under­ lying motivations and personality mechanisms of a given individual. 115 7. Some practice in trying to see the child as a member of multiple social groups. 8. Some experience in searching out, select­ ing, and using the scientific information known about human development to explain the behavior of children. 9. Some practice and skill in group work. 10. Some practice in seeing one 1s self in rela­ tion to the forces which are influencing the behavior of children. (65: 19} Knight and Herrick have proposed a program for a fourth year of Child Study, a program which has been ac­ tually carried into practice, and which was based on the study of learning activities in classrooms. The outcomes of the three years of Child Study were utilised, and the implications of the three years of Child Study for group learning situations were recognised. There are a few in­ terviews which were originally included in this study from people who participated in this continuation, or elonga­ tion, of Child Study. A most interesting investigation of Child Study implications might be indicated, however, in light of the gradual recognition on the part of teachers of the need for improvement of group work with children. One Junior high school teacher, working with a teacher group for a whole year writing, reading, and trying to 116 analyze learning activities, vrote at the end of reports on ten learning activities: In looking hack over my learning activities I find very few of my students take part. In fact, the average was less than one-fourth ac­ tually entering into discussions, asking ques­ tions, or making suggestions. The children are almost always the same ones. In free dis­ cussions^ these children dominate. They have more to offer than the others to a discussion such as we have had. But I can see that I must take an effort to have a large percent contribut­ ing to the discussion. (65: 25) Apparently sensing another aspect of the problem, she added a final paragraph: ‘’All of my learning activi­ ties have been teacher Initiated. This seems to be most practical for the junior high school age." The need for further investigation must be dis­ regarded in light of the problem limitation already im­ posed but It certainly exists in the opinion of this in­ vestigator. More will be said when conclusions are drawn at the end of this study$ the chief concern here has been with the ten benefits which Knight and Herrick seemed to feel could be ascribed to the Child Study program. 117 Problem solving The second "elongation'1 of Child Study has been based on a problem-solving approach. Teachers who have participated in three years of Child Study, many who have also examined the possible implications in study of learn­ ing situations, have been encouraged to apply human de­ velopment concepts to the solution of everyday problems. Groups with which this investigator has had intimate con­ tact have concerned themselves with the practicality of such topics as a study of drop-outs, teacher-pupil plan­ ning of classroom activities, utilization of large blocks of time (core curriculum), increasing effectiveness of things which the school does anyway, such as reporting to parents, counseling, extra-curricular activities, etc., and use of what is known about human development in ar­ ticulation of the total school program. Results of this second approach are as yet too inconclusive to warrant any statement. Statements have been gleaned from participants, however, which might well be noted, One teacher said, of her work with an excep­ tional child in a regular classroom, 118 There ere three prerequisites without which I could not have ever attempted such a project: (1) 1 had to have an understanding and permis­ sive principal (he had been an active partici­ pant in Child Study), (2) I had to have a faith in my ability to work with such a child and a faith that a class of ’normal * children would accept and work with a deviate, and (3) I had to have a Child Study background, The further utilization of Child Study principles in study of curriculum does not constitute, except inci­ dentally, a part of this study. Our consideration Is primarily for the action level of the first two years of the program and the feelings engendered in participants by these two years, together with observable correlations be­ tween these feelings and the outcomes of the program. The evidences of benefits recognized, whatever the time of such recognition, from a program such as Child Study de­ serves parenthetical mention, however, if nothing more. It seems pertinent, moreover, to devote some small dis­ cussion to another aspect of the Child Study program, that of workshops, useful in both the introduction to a pro­ gram and to the deepening of the scientific background of those participating at the time. Workshop© 119 Purposes of workshops Frequent mention has been made of the use of workshop© in Child Study programs* These dev lees have been used at both state and local levels; perhaps it would be more accurate to say at college and local levels. The ’’college” workshop usually numbers among its partici­ pant© people from many school systems and frora many areas of teaching. The ’local” workshop usually is aimed spe­ cifically ©t the program of the particular school system. These workshops are useful in providing orienta­ tion In human development concepts for people hitherto un­ acquainted with Child Study, in assisting in providing resource persons to work with groups during the succeed­ ing year, and in providing a more comprehensive pattern of work for all participants in a program. In addition, workshop participants become accustomed to operating as groups and, it is hoped,cose to regard one another with respect born of having worked through situation© together and of having sampled each other’s thinking. It has been said that a Child Study program begun with a workshop has 120 many times more chance of successful operation than one begun without this orientation feature. This claim, un­ proved in fact, does not seem unreasonable when the gain­ ing of familiarity with the program and the acquiring of leaders and resource people as well as feelings of mutual respect are considered. Workshop ways of working The typical workshop will offer participant® (1) a series of lectures upon various elements of human development and the Child Study program, (2) an opportuni­ ty to work In one or more seminars related to Child Study, and (3) work in one or more laboratory groups and/or in­ terest groups. Lectures may be related to the actual organisa­ tion® and work of Child Study, or they may be directed toward such topics as the areas of the second year pro­ gram, developmental task®, or other pertinent topics. Seminars have been offered along somewhat the same line®, with emphasis usually placed upon the area processes and the need for Increased understanding of their significance. In carrying out the program of lectures and seminars, 121 effort is usually made to draw upon authorities avail­ able to emphasize the interdisciplinary nature of the human development concept. For example, the University of Maryland has drawn upon outstanding individuals in the fields of sociology, psychology, and physical anthro­ pology to mention only a few disciplines, to supplement its own staff in the conduct of its annual Child Study workshop. The laboratory sessions are usually devoted to a study and scientific analysis of Child Study records, thus preparing for the use of similar records in the group meetings of the coming year. The experiences of such workshops have been, if one is to Judge from comments received in the past, very beneficial in preparing participants, through Increased understandings of scientific concepts and group dynamics, for more successful work in the study program in the com­ ing year. Only one example of reactions to workshops will be quoted here. In the summer of 1950, student© in the College of Education of The University of Texas engaged in graduate work were asked to respond to a questionnaire concerning favorable and unfavorable conditions of the 122 first six -week term Just ending. 'the results of this unstructured "reactionnaire” were tabulated by the Dean, and the Child Study workshop was mentioned favorably in eighteen of a total of sixty-one comments noted. Statis­ tically, this has no meaning whatever, but it is inter­ esting that fifteen of the eighteen who responded were attending the workshop for the first time; and they men­ tioned the informality, the advantages of common inter­ est© in groups, the advantage© of free discussion, and the benefits to be derived from a broader understanding of human beings as some of the reasons why they favored such a way of working over the traditional lecture method em­ ployed by many campus classes. Whatever their value, workshops have come to be a part of in-service education, and Child Study has had a leading role In their establishment as a way of working. As a part of the total program, they needed mention in this study, although the limitations of the investigation preclude the possibility of a more exhaustive discussion. Summary Chapter III has been devoted to a very brief sketch of the program of Child Study. Particular attention 123 has been paid to the first two years of the program of work, since it is upon those years that this study is built* Attention has been directed, however, to the regu­ lar third year of work; and mention has been made of two ways in which attempts have been made at extension of the program* In addition, a very brief sketch of workshops, their way of operating, purposes, and possible value to the over-all program has been presented. Basing its claim to existence upon a need for constant, dynamic investigation of any program, this study will proceed in Chapter IV to present sources of informa­ tion hitherto only touched in passing, to describe in de­ tail the methods employed, and to offer preliminary find­ ings in the area of favorable-unfavorable feelings toward Child Study. Chapter IV will deal with the analysis of the evaluation itself, an evaluation designed to supple­ ment and to complement previous investigations. C H A P T E R I V SOURCES OF INFORMATION AND PRELIMINARY FINDINGS Introduction to the Study Sources of data The data to be used in this study were secured fro® three sources* The first source is constituted by interviews secured fro® participants in Child Study as will be described In detail in this chapter; the second source Is a part of a questionnaire responded to by fifty- nine first-year people of the original group interviewed; the third sou ce of data consists of the anecdotal records kept by these persons over a two-year period of time. These sources will be described In detail in this chapter, and preliminary findings will be tabulated. Treatment of data will be considered in Chapter V, The program of Interviewing of Child Study par­ ticipants in 1950 was not begun with any thought that the material so obtained would be used as a topic for a dis­ sertation* Instead, it was thought that information se­ cured could be used to increase the effectiveness of the program of Child Study then being conducted by the field 12h 125 staff of the Extension Teaching and Field Services Bureau of the Division of Extension of The University of Texas. It was felt that an evaluation was necessary, and it was further recognized that such an evaluation would he faced with certain limitations. The following characteristics of the original interviews can he notedi (1) the purpose was to determine reactions to the pro­ gram at a feeling level--it was decided that interviewees would be asked, "How do you feel?" not "What do you think?" (2) the person® to he interviewed were selected at random, as nearly as could he done, to avoid the favorably charged responses which might have been expected if only those people were Interviewed who would volunteer information; (3) the interviewing, except for administrators, was done by classroom teachers from schools other than the ones in which the interviewee taught--the expense of the inter­ viewing was borne by the Division of Extension of The University of Texas; ( } the interviewee® were given as­ surance of anonymity to their responses, favorable or un­ favorable; and (5) no group leaders were interviewed since their participation was of such a nature that they might have been prejudiced in favor of the program in 12 6 which they had had a leading part. It was decided to in- terviev one person per group, insofar as time permitted. As a result, teachers participating in Child Study In nineteen school systems were asked for their reactions to the program. Schools participating In the interviews Of the nineteen schools participating, four were In the program for the first time and had only first-year groups. Five schools were engaged in first and second years of Child Study; eight systems were completing © third year of the program; and two schools had groups work­ ing in each of the three years of Child Study, sod in ad­ dition had groups doing a fourth year of in-service work after the fashion described earlier from Knight and Her­ rick (59). One school system, Dallas, with over four hundred teachers particlpating in Child Study, furnished no interviews because of lack of time. The school systems represented in this study fur­ nish © good geographical cross section of the entire state, Two schools are located in northeast Texas; four are in the 1I: ( ’Amiri 11. •Tb»rr IT i^u re 1. M a p S kovrin^ Location of Sekools P a rtic ip a to r^ i n 1950 and. 1951 In te r v ie w s . central portion of the state; three can he classed as vest-central; three are distinctly vest Texas; tvo are in south Texas and one in the southwest portion of the state; four schools are in the Lover Rio Grande Valley, The largest town represented has approximately 60,000 population; the smallest has approximately 2,000. There are many sources of income: farming, stock raising, oil; perhaps only three towns represented could he said to have an appreciable amount of industry. One town i® as near a representative of ’’Old South1’ as one might find west of the Mississippi; there are southwestern ranch cultures and oil center hustle represented, with a pre­ dominance of solid middle class culture and expectancies. One small city is a mixture of Anglo-Latin population and culture which has proved intriguing to tourists for decades and the four towns from the Lower Rio Grande Valley are populated with people from almost every state and from many foreign countries, with a predominance of Latin- American citizens. All in all, the geographical and cul­ tural map of the state is quite well spread out in the roll call of the centers where the program was in opera­ tion in 1950. 129 Staffing of program-- consultant service The program has been staffed* from its inception, by the Division of Extension of The University of Texas. Salaries of the field staff are budgeted, and it is not necessary for the staff to earn its upkeep. For defray­ ing travel expenses, both for the staff and for visiting consultants, each school has participated in the finan­ cial upkeep of the program; the expense usually has been pro-rated on the basis of number of consultant-days per month in the original contract. Visiting consultants have been brought to centers from time to time. The University of Maryland has furnished the greater part of such outside assistance; and there have been individuals from the Uni­ versity of Wisconsin, Hew York University, the University of Chicago, and other universities where people versed in Child Study could be obtained. In addition, staff members from The University of Texas in the fields of mental hy­ giene, anthropology, sociology, and like related fields, have been used as consultants; and resource people from various participating schools have been used on occasion. 130 Participation la program Participation in the program on the part of teachers has never, despite the recommendations of the field staff, been on s wholly voluntary basis. Some schools have openly required that all teachers partlci- pate in in-service education; some have said, in effect, MYou do not have to participate in anything, but we are looking for ’progressive* teachers all the time,*’ and teachers draw their own conclusions; in some schools, al­ though there is no word spoken, the social and profes­ sional pressures are felt to be great, on the word of per­ sons participating; and there are some centers where the superintendent clearly states that any participation in any program is purely voluntary. Perhaps the best example of the latter is Dallas, a center which, unfortunately per­ haps, furnished no interviews. In this particular city, teacher© meet on their own time, are not permitted to count Child Study in the satisfaction of a local School Board requirement of a certain amount of credit to be earned each three-year period, and are not permitted to enroll for college credit. Under these circumstances, 121 Pallas teachers participated in 1950 in Child Study, with approximately 550 teachers beginning in September and about ^50 teachers comj>leting the year's vork . In order'to meet increased demands for profes­ sional training, Texas teachers have done much extension work in the past few years. Undoubtedly, this accounts for the presence of some teachers in Child Study. The proximity of colleges to each of the centers represented in the nineteen schools, however, rules out the assump­ tion that the need for credit hours in Education to satis­ fy certification requirements would be the only reason for participation. Teachers generally ©ay that less time and effort are required in the traditional extension course than in Child Study; they say that the work in Child Study requires their effort and thought, and in the traditional course the instructor does most of the work. Typical conditions of program in center© To sum up, it would be perhaps accurate to say that the following conditions prevailed in the "average" centers in 1950: (1) the teachers met in groups semimonthly, 132 (2) the meeting time was on© and one-half hours "in the clear,” with most groups usually giving an extra half- hour to preliminary refreshments and conversation; (3) about one-fourth of the participants, excluding the Balias center, were seeking college credit; (1) the teachers in all group® selected their own leaders; and (3) there is evidence that most teachers felt some sort of pressure upon the® to participate, whether or not the pressure was actually enforced by the administration. The time for meetings was usually given partially from the school day and partially from the teacher• e time, and groups usually met after school. Library facilities vere made available from the Bureau of Extension Teaching and contained forty to fifty copies of standard works in the field of human development, and usually the local adminis­ tration of the schools made provision for additional li­ brary from school budget funds. The above brief sketch of the Texas program should serve to introduce the problem. A sincere desire to evalu­ ate the work being done was the motivating force, and it was hoped that implications for strengthening the program would result. Conduct of the Interviews 155 Selection of teachers to he interviewed It is perhaps well here to describe a typical situation in which Interviewing took place. This inves­ tigator, working with a fellow staff member, conducted a series of simultaneous interviews in Kilgore and Mar­ shall in May, 1950. Each was furnished with three class­ room teacher®, who had participated in Child Study for two or more years, to interview other classroom teachers. Each staff member Interviewed administrators of the school where he was working, and each teacher “interviewer was asked to interview selected teachers of the neighboring school. Teachers to be interviewed were chosen at random from lists of Child Study groups, one member of each group to be interviewed. At a meeting during the evening of the day preceding the interview®, the selection took place. A member of the interviewing team was given a list of each group and was asked to place a pointer on a name in the group, anywhere along the vertical list of name© of the group members. Another team member was asked to select a 15 ^ number between fifteen and thirty, and the holder of the list then proceeded to "count off" names until the chosen number was reached. With groups ranging in size from six to twelve or thirteen, this seemed to be as nearly a ran­ dom method of selection as could have been employed, al­ though use of a set number, say twenty-three, has been suggested as being more desirable; but there is doubt here, since Child Study groups ranged in size from five to twen­ ty in the schools where the interviewing took place. An­ other method of selection, the use of a table of random numbers, has also been suggested. The chief purpose in any such procedure is the selection of persons in a random manner, Statistically, the method employed seems as sound as need be for the accomplishment of such a purpose. Conditioning of the interviews Once the subjects for interview had been selected, the staff member acquainted the team members with the pro­ cedure to be used. Prior to this time, the Interviewing team had no knowledge of exactly what their duty was to be; and the briefing usually consisted of the staff mem­ ber first conducting an interview with one member of the 135 tea®, with no prior notice, in an attempt to simulate the conditions which would, for the most part, be those of the following day's work. After full explanation of the purpose and technique of the evaluation program thus being conducted, the interviews began. Teachers to be questioned were first assured that the interviewers were classroom teachers like themselves, that they were interested in reactions to Child Study, and that any comments made concerning the program would be communicated only to staff members who acted as con­ sultants to the program. The people were then asked, "How do you feel about the Child Study program?" Answers forth­ coming varied from full, detailed responses to quite scan­ ty replies, and ranged from extremely favorable to extreme­ ly unfavorable responses to the program. A second question, "How do you feel about the mechanics of the program, the time of meetings, length of meetings, consultant service, library service, etc,?M was calculated to elaborate upon the first, which was designed primarily to catch an over­ all, unstructured reaction. The third question also aimed at probing further into responses by asking, "Do you feel that there have been any changes in you or in the program 136 of your school that could be attributed to Child Study?” In beginning the interview, each teacher was asked if there would be any objection to the taking of notes as she talked. Almost without exception there was no objection. In the three or four cases where the teacher seemed unwilling or unsure, there was no attempt to write down responses; and the Interviewer waited un­ til the conclusion of the responses to the questions, then attempted to recapitulate the highlights of the In­ terview after the teacher had returned to her classroom. There is, of course, always the possibility that answers might have been prejudiced by the teachers* wariness con­ cerning the possibility of communication of unfavorable answers to a principal or superintendent who was favorably Impressed by Child Study. There are, however, evidences to follow which indicate fairly conclusively that such was not the case. For example, sample interviews Two and Three both came from a school where the superintendent and principal were participants in as well as ardent sup­ porters of Child Study. 137 Samples of interviews Teachers interviewed had completed from one to three years of Child Study; and several groups, repre­ sentatives of six of which were Interviewed, had gone on to do & fourth year of in-service education consisting of recording and analysing learning situation© a© ex­ plained by Knight and Herrick (59)> in which there was a transfer made from the focussing of attention on an in­ dividual pupil to studying the class a© a group. It was observed that responses at all levels of participation in Child Study ranged from extremely favorable to extremely unfavorable. It would perhaps be well to reproduce here some sample interviews, illustrating the diversity of re­ sponses, and pointing up why such a diversity led to this study. The three first-year interview© chosen came from three different schools, later to be described in detail, along with personal data about each interviewee, They are reproduced with no change, exactly as they were transcribed fro® the ’raw data” report from the inter­ viewers . 158 Sample Interview Ho. 1 "I like the Child Study program, *’ she said. I like people, and I'm always wondering about their background.” She said several times in the interview that she wondered why she chose the particular boy whom she studied. He came to school dirty, had no lunch until the school furnished him one, and came from a home of low economic sta­ tus. The father drank excessively and the mother was "timid." She felt that the data which she had recorded could help someone else to understand the child better, and wished she could continue to study hi® next year. There were several children in her group whom she would like to see the subjects for study. There were no library facilities for Child Study at her school) professional books were kept in another building. Although confusion seemed to result from the changing of consultants, Mrs. H said she believed the group had probably gained from hav­ ing the different consultants. She said, "The group met on Monday, every two weeks, at two o'clock. We could have gone faster if we had met more often.” She said that her practice had been to make hasty notes concerning her observations. These notes she dated and later recorded in her book . "The group study helped all of us j we are more aware of why children behave as they do and are more interested in children. We, as teachers," she said, "are more tolerant and un­ derstanding. More home visits have been made since the study has been in progress," 159 Mrs, R expressed the opinion that she has overcome reacting emotionally to children's behavior, especially behavior which is unac­ ceptable and unpleasant to her. She can more easily identify with the case, end she sees the necessity to vary the child*© requirements. The child whom she always wanted to be the leader had ,fno discipline at home.” She felt that Child Study program consult­ ant© should tell teachers more, give more in­ formation, and demonstrate more how the work is to be done* Although her group was small enough to allow each person to keep up with all of the records, she said, ”1 guess we wanted our prob­ lems solved in a hurry.” She thought the teachers were more self- reliant and resourceful because they had to fig­ ure out what to do. When they had asked what to do, no one had told them directly; they had been encouraged to think things through. Mrs. B said that she liked to talk about her subject. Sample Interview Bo. 2 "The student is not important to me because it is my reputation and the programs I produce that count. "I haven't gained from Child Study because I selected a normal boy, and he Just does the things in school that any teacher would expect of him. Next year, I am not going to select a normal child to study because X feel you gain more from observing the individual who has prob­ lems needing the teacher's help. ikO "I accept the child as he is, and I pre­ fer to knov nothing of the child’s home life or other teachers* opinions, "Working with large choral groups, I do not have the time to focus my attention on one child; hut I have to think of the entire group to attain the results expected of me. “Child Study is not allowed to interfere with my teaching assignment. My heavy schedule makes it necessary to miss many group meetings; in fact, I quit writing several weeks ago. I saw nothing to write about as the hoy lust sits in class quietly. "X am not obligated to Child Study because I do not have to teach. “The meetings take up a lot of valuable time, I guess the consultants were satisfactory, X heard that there were professional books in the central office, but I haven’t used any, “The workshop before the opening of school is a good idea. They seemed to have learned a great deal in the workshop last summer, but I dldn*t attend.” Sample Interview Ho. 5 In answer to the question, “How do you feel toward the Child Study program* " he replied with one word, "Bad!" There followed quite a speech: He was hired as a science teacher and did not take the job with any idea that there was such a thing as Child Study. If he had known, he believed he would not have begun teaching. He has a B.S. in chemical science; and science teaches us to 1**1 look for the truth. This stuff was not in his field. Maybe if he were to go on teaching, he would have to go back to school and take a bunch of psychology. He claimed he simply had not had the background for this stuff, nothing but pseudo­ science. He could see no value In the stuff. "Well, just a minute, I have gone to every meeting. I even made coffee, and took my cookies, and enjoyed eating with the group. "I won *t put my name to anything as silly as that stuff. They can fire me--which they probably will--but I won’t write a book. If I do write a book, it could be about a character in my group which, believe you me, would be good, but none of this monkey business. "I instructed people seven or eight years in the army in the field of science, but none Of this m m b o - jumbo . " Mr. L stated that he had gone around and talked to nearly everyone in the group, and they would nod and all say they did not know what it was all about} then when a consultant came, they would just nod their heads, and say how much good the work had done, and how they were now a better teacher. Such a farcej where was the truth in all that? "How, what I really get a kick from, is seeing the enlightenment that comes from kids* faces when they finally see through some par­ ticularly difficult problem that has been bother ing them for some time. Just seeing that look, when they finally understand, Is enough for me." As I the interviewer was walking down the hall, he came behind me and said, "You may even quote me. I'll even sign and seal this be­ fore anyone.w 1 * 2 Earlier, I asked a question about con­ sultants. "Consultants 2 A is okay ; so is C .** Bo others were mentioned. Teachers Interviewed The interviews reproduced were from teachers working in first-year Child Study. The first teacher is a primary teacher, the second a high school choral direc­ tor, and the third a high school teacher of science. The three teachers are from three different schools, in dif­ ferent sections of Texas ; and they were each interviewed by a different person. They were selected to portray the variations in responses, and were selected from first- year participants because of the direction which this study has taken. Mo attempt will he made to analyze these particular responses here; a later section of the investi­ gation will present a summary analysis of all the inter­ views at all levels. The primary teacher whose interview was chosen as "Sample Bo. 1” was from a west central Texas town of ap­ proximately 25,000 population, most of whom are small businessmen whose trade territory is largely stock farming. There is little if any industry in the town that is not 1**3 directly agricultural, a creamery for example. The town Is the home of two fairly small denominational colleges, and many of the teachers received their teacher training in one or the other of the local college®. The school system was undergoing it® first year of Child Study, and a "reactionnaire” used by the administratton,at the end of the first year *s work produced results which will he described In detail in a later section of the study. The second interview was chosen from a school In a small city of approximately 60,0 0 0 . There are two or three small industries; but the total industrial payroll, as such, would not b® over three hundred persons* The chief source of income from a very wide trade area is cattle raising, with some oil beginning to be developed. The city is one of the oldest small cities in the state and ha® a fairly well developed upper class, with cattle money being very "high status.” The school system was participating, at the time of the interviews, in its third year of in -service education; and there were some twenty-five groups of parents engaged in a study program concerning the development of children, without using anecdotal records . Ikh The third interviewee mentioned here comes from a small city in extreme south Texas* The Child Study program was In its fourth year. The chief sources of income are fourfold: citrus, cotton, truck farming, and the canning and fruit-paeking industry. The population is decidedly heterogeneous and is quite cosmopolitan in the source of origin. The communities which comprise the area are isolated from the rest of the state and form al­ most an island of the state*® population. The percentage of Latin-American population is between sixty and seventy per cent of the total. This mass of detail, perhaps useless here, is presented in part to point up the effect of random selec­ tion of the three samples. Just such variations might have been delineated for any other factor entering into the set of interviews to be described in this investiga­ tion . Staff response to interviews The receipt of so many widely .differing responses led to much conversation, study, and self-evaluation among the members of the staff. There was no doubt but that 1*45 some people were participating in Child Study because of pressures, real or imaginary. There could be no doubt as to hostility existing on the part of some participants toward the program. There was every evidence that much of the material given to the interviewers was at a feel­ ing level, and that the emotions of many people were deep­ ly involved, some of them seemingly directing their feel­ ings primarily toward professional consultants who worked with them in the program. Finally, there was ample evi­ dence that the majority of teachers participating in Child Study were very favorably impressed with its results; there were not enough unfavorable responses to cause con­ sternation, but everyone concerned was deeply interested in the results of the interviews. The consultants were interested in the comparative responses of people at vari­ ous levels of work; and an analysis of these responses was prepared by this investigator, and will be presented in detail later in this chapter. Use of Data Criteria for arriving at feelings Of an original three hundred plus Interviews, al­ most one-third were discarded for the purpose of this 146 Investigation because of ambiguity, terseness, or in­ ability of the investigator to determine direction or depth of feeling toward Child Study. Two hundred and thirty-one interviews were determined to be sufficiently definite to warrant inclusion. Aiding in the determina­ tion of interviews to be used In this study were members of the field staff who work regularly with the Child Study program. The’analysis of the interviews was based on gen­ eral and specific comments, both favorable and unfavorable. General positive comments would be exemplified by such statements as: 1. Program was beneficial. 2. Program was wonderful. 5. Program was helpful. h . Program was interesting. Program was valuable. Such statements, while positive, did not specify any reason or give an area in which the program was "beneficial,” "wonderful," and so on. "Specific supporting comments" would cover such statements as: 1. More understanding and/or knowledge of children. 2. Practical. Ihj 3. Good way to bring teachers together. h . Makes one more understanding of himself. 3. Helped with parents. Unfavorable comments, general in nature, fall usually into a pattern similar to the following; 1. Program confusing--no direction. 2. Program was resented by teachers. 3- Program not worthwhile. k . Studying one child won * t help in under­ standing the rest. 3. Program was hated. Included in the generally negative comments were those which essayed Judgments as to the feelings of others. Special comments, giving exact reasons for nega tive response, Included examples such as the following; 1. Teachers want to be told, and they get confused when they are put on their own and Just told to go to work, and there Is no one around to answer their ques­ tions and problems. 2. Adequate instructions were not given by consultants. 3. I had a course in college just like this. **. One teacher in the group monopolized THE WHOLE TIME. 3. I don't believe the carry-over value is great enough to justify the time and ef­ fort spent on the study. These responses, both positive and negative, are indicative of the expressions so classified throughout IkQ the entire group of interviews. The discarded interviews, numbering almost one hundred, were either indefinite or were so widely variant in their expressions that they were Judged possibly to be the results of people’s attempt­ ing to be ambiguous for reasons of political expediency* Tabulation of 1930 interviews The interviews of first-year participants in 1950 and interviews of the same persons responding in 1951 at the end of their second year of Child Study will be con­ sidered chiefly in this study; but the total interviews present an interesting comparison of favorable and un­ favorable responses by years of participation. Percentagewise, the first-year participants showed 59*7 per cent responding favorably to Child Study; second- ^ year people responded favorably in 75*6 per cent of the interviews; 91.9 per cent of third-year participants,and 85.7 per cent of the administrators interviewed likewise responded favorably. Only six people engaged in their fourth-year of in-service education, the study of learn­ ing situations, were interviewed; and four, or 67 per cent, responded favorably. With the extremely low percentage Ik9 TABLE 1 POSITIVE ABB 9SGATIYS KBSPOUSES AT ALL LEVELS OF PAETICIPATIOH, 1950 INTERVIEWS Level of Positive Iterative Total Participation Hum- Per Hum- Per ber Cent ber Cent First Year ho 59.7 27 kQ , 3 67 Second Year 53 73.6 19 26. k 72 Thii'd Year 3k 91.9 3 8.1 37 Fourth Year k 6?*o 2 33.0 6 Administrators k2 85.7 7 Ik . 3 k9 Totals 173 Ik ,9 58 25 .1 231 130 of favorable responses for first year people, the over­ all average of responses vas 7^.9 per cent favorable. Coming back to first-year responses, it is also interesting to note that fifteen of the favorable inter vievs indicated that there were grave doubt© as to the value of Child Study at one time or another, but that further participation in the program convinced them of the value of increased understanding of children. Exam­ ples of such statements are quoted from the original in­ terviews : 1 . The way the program was presented was rather confusing. Consultants should be more spe­ cific in giving instructions. As we went further into the program, the work began to take form and mean more to me . . . . The program is needed, and I believe it has knit the teachers into a more compact group which has become cognizant of the needs and problems of all children. 2. I was very confused at the beginning because I did not see what it was all about and could see no purpose in it. I could under­ stand why elementary teacher© could be in terested but not us. . . . I feel different­ ly now, and 1 give credit to [ a consultant 3 because he made it quite clear on one of his visits. . . . The study has made me quite conscious of the needs of all my children, . . . it has also helped me to work better with a group. 131 3 . It vas all so new to me that I didn’t get much out of it until spring when we started studying patterns of behavior, then it be­ gan to clear up. . . . 1 think I have mode some changes in my teaching. I am more con scions of how my children are feeling now. I really think I understand their behavior better, though I don’t seem to know much more about what to do about it. . . . I ’m going to take the second year of it. The excerpts from the interviews quoted were se­ lected at random, to illustrate an unfavorable beginning which became more favorable as the program progressed* There is evidence, even in the excerpts, of analysis as to reasons why the change was made in the program. The responses which were so vague in their analysis as to be excluded from the study were never so critical as those quoted here. As can be observed fro® the quoted portions, the chief objection in the beginning of each interview was a vagueness or confusion, laid to the consultants, a criticism that is no doubt well warranted. Sampling unfavorable responses Teachers who were definitely opposed to child Study, at the first-year level, rather generally followed a pattern. .They stated that they (a) "'had had a course 152 Just like this in college,” or (b) "they had always studied children," or (c) consultants did not "present" the program adequately. From notes given parenthetical­ ly by interviewers, and from on© or two personal experi­ ences of the investigator himself, there were usually evidences of feelings of compulsion to participate in the program in some cases. The following excerpts from inter­ views may aid in recognition of patterning of unfavorable responses: 1. The program was, or is, Just a I haven*! gotten anything out of it. I ‘ve al­ ways studied the needs and problems of chil­ dren, and I don * t believe a good teacher could do otherwise. . . . It has been good for us to get together and read our problems over. Kov I do observe some of the children who have been studied, and I am more interested in their problems, too. The program was presented wrong, and adequate instructions were not given by consultants. I am speaking for the group, we Just haven’t got anything out of it. I talked to another teacher, and she told me she had gotten much from the program. . . . Oldn *t have time to read as she had to spend her time in home visitation. This is more important than read­ ing these professional books . . . . I realize a need to study the needs and prob­ lems of children, but the consultant should give ideas and Instructions so as not to confuse teachers. . . . I would rather have a lecture that Is something I can really use , Intervlever 1 s note; Healizes need of pupils, but program hasn't helped her a bit. The program ha® not been worthwhile. I'd rather do a hard day's washing than to sit in this group because one teacher in the group monopolizes the whole time. She seems to take great pleasure in matching wits wit)-* the consultant . I believe that if the consultant would bring a sample case and explain the program, it would be more beneficial. The teacher then would be able to continue her arguments about her case. 1 am professionally minded, but I had a course in college Just like this . I think Child Study has been a failure, at least in this school. Some others say it ha® done good, but I can't see it. You un­ derstand this has nothing to do with you or ____ ; I Just think there was too much confusion . . . . I believe a workshop in reading would do us a lot of good. We need to know how to teach better, and a good teacher is already study­ ing the child. We don't feel that there is anything practical in Child Study; it is in­ teresting to know some of the things . . . most of which I already knew and all good teachers knew . . . but it doesn't really help u® to teach English and math. I don't want to sound like bragging, but my wife and I feel that we are years ahead of Child Study. We always useu to discuss our 1 5 * problem children,and how we could help them . . . that was years ago . . . * It is interesting to note here that the wife ‘s response is listed, in part, in sample 1 as an example of a participant who indicated a change to favorable from an unfavorable beginning In the program, She goes on, in addition to the short excerpt quoted, to say; Teachers have been drawn closer, and they feel the program Is worthwhile. Children were given more freedom of expression. They were even al­ lowed to stop a lesson and tell the thing or things they wished to. Teachers changed to this after being in Child Study program. Had not done this before. Number 3 continues: I think we should have clinics or workshops like Scott, Foresman conducted here last fall. The woman they sent out was really good, and the teachers were helped a great deal with their reading problems. When they asked a question, they got a direct, clear answer as to how the child could be helped. I believe a series of lectures would help. I realise we need to understand the child bet­ ter, and I know this sounds contradictory. What I want to say is that this is the wrong way to go at it) teachers want to be told, and they get confused when they are put on their own and Just told to go to work, and there is no one around to answer their ques­ tion® and problems. 135 At the risk of emphasising the unfavorable com­ ments regarding tha program, it might be interesting to quote largely from an interview conducted for the same person, Humber 3* in the series immediately above, by an­ other interviewer* The first interview, quoted above, was conducted by a staff member; the second, immediately following, by a teacher who was from a neighboring school. The teacher first talked with this interviewee; and the staff member, a personal friend, talked later and infor­ mally. The teacher’s interview follows; The program as it is presented and is conducted is no good for the teachers here. The program Itself may be good; in fact, I am sure it Is. I hope the program will not go on, because I feel teacher© have wasted time in participating. * « * The confusion created in the teachers* minds was, definitely, not good . . . . The University of Texas has given itself a black eye. It [the program] hasn’t been good for the University, and it hasn * t been good for this town. Workshops are better. Scott, Foresman Company sent out a representative for two weeks. This was much better for teachers than the Child Study program; much more definite. I am going to see Dr. Knight and talk to him about the program--nI * 11 tell him what I think about the program.*1 156 A fairly close scrutiny of these interview© will reveal the pattern of objections expressed to Child Study, There may be significance in the toct that nowhere in these or similar interviews is there a semblance of doubt expressed as to whose "fault" the lack of success is; there is no indication that anything in the dissenting teacher© or their situation could have contributed to the failure of teacher© to benefit or to recognise benefit, if any existed. In interviews where teacher© expressed (a) only favorable comments or (b) comments which indi­ cated a change from unfavorable to favorable attitudes, there were often doubts expressed as to the benefits of certain procedures. In almost every case, however, the teachers would say that they were sure "there were Jus­ tifiable reasons," or "later on, we found out there were reasons for asking us to do thus and so." This was not true, in a single case, with the responses of teachers who were, from beginning to end, unfavorably disposed toward Child Study. The second-year interviews Before tabulating the interviews, it would be well to account for the second-year interviewing, In 157 order to secure sampling of opinions concerning Child Study through time, it was decided to interview the same persons who, in 1950, had finished the first-year of the program. Accordingly, efforts were made to secure inter views with the same sixty-seven person® in May, 1951, who were interviewed a year before. The tables follow­ ing give results of both first- and second-year inter­ views of these persons. Factor® such as age, sex, mari­ tal status, and others are included in Tables 2 to 6} and accounting is made to provide information concerning interviews of the same persons in 1951 a® were quoted in 1950. Tabulation of intervlews -- consideration of various factor® One of the first questions usually arising in a situation such as has been described here deals with the persons themselves who participated in such a program and who responded to the interviews. The tables below account for all participants represented in the original 1950 interviews who went on to respond in the 1951 inter views . hater tables carry the data through two years 158 In an effort to determine reactions to and changes re­ sulting from Child Study. Table 2 records facts concerning first year par­ ticipants and Table 5 concerns second-year people in the 1950 interviews^ Table ^ represents responses of second- year person® in 1951. Table k, second-year participants* 1951 inter­ views* represents the over-all impression of the same people as are indicated in Table 2. Table 2 gives the responses to the question* "How do you feel about Child Study?" at the end of one year of participation in the program^ Table k, with the exceptions listed below, shows the response of the same people to the same question after a second year’s participation. It should be noted here that there is no shift in age classification. Per­ haps there were one or two who became thirty-one or forty - one years of age in the interim between interviews, but the only differences noted here will be in type of re­ sponse. It should also be stated here that one Individual, reporting unfavorably as to her reaction in 1950, refused to be interviewed in 1951» The interviewer has noted, "Mrs. A, second grade teacher, did not want to be interviewed; Age Type of Besponse FIBST- Total YEAH TABLE 2 PABTICIPAHTS, 1950 Married INTERVIEWS Single Parents Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female to + (l6) 3 13 3 8 0 5 3 5 50+ -HO) 2 8 2 2 0 6 0 1 31 to + (15) 5 10 * 7 0 3 k k ko -( 9) 2 7 2 5 0 2 0 k 21 to + ( 9) 1 8 1 3 1 5 1 2 30 -( 8) 0 8 0 3 0 5 0 1 Totals + (!*0) 9 31 8 18 1 13 8 11 -(27) k 23 k 10 0 13 0 6 ■~~'-r'T^TTT • -“T-T-T!-"—*rrrr—--— -r — . .— ,— - .—---- »- Code: 4* Favorable responses. - Unfavorable responses. 1 59 TABLE 3 3EC0HB-TBAB PARTICIPANTS, 1950 INTERVIE¥S Age Type of Total Married Single Parents Response Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female 4l to + (21) 3 18 3 13 0 5 3 8 50+ -( 8) 1 7 0 5 1 2 0 3 31 to + (19) 5 lb 3 10 2 k 2 6 k o -( 5) 2 3 1 2 1 1 1 1 21 to + (15) k 9 3 2 1 7 2 2 50 -( 8) 2 k 2 3 G 1 1 2 Totals + (53) 12 hi 9 25 3 16 7 l6 -(19) 5 Ik 3 10 2 k 2 6 Code: + Favorable responses - Unfavorable responses 0 9 1 TABLE k SECOND-YEAR PARTICIPANTS: AGE, SEX, AMD MARITAL STATUS, 1951 INTERVIEWS Age Type of Response Total Male Female Married Male Female Male Female kl to 50+ + {l8) -( *) 3 1 13 3 3 1 8 1 0 0 7 2 31 to ^0 + {17 3 -< *) 3 1 12 3 5 1 9 2 0 0 3 1 21 to 30 + (11) -( 3) 1 0 10 5 1 0 3 3 0 0 7 2 Total 1951) Interviews) + (fc6) -(13) 9 2 37 11 9 2 20 6 0 0 17 3 Losses from, 1930 Inter-\ vlevs ' + ( 3) -( 3) 1 1 2 k Code: ♦ Favorable responses - Unfavorable responses T 9T 162 after several rebuffs (e.g., HI*d like you to interview someone else*), no interview took place. Balancing the tables ~~ changes in interviews for 1950 and 1951 The following changes must be accounted for in Table k to balance out the total©s 1. Two men who were interviewed in 1950 were not in the 1951 interviews* one had reported favorably and one unfavorably in the over-all impression of Child Study in 1950. 2, One change from unfavorable to favorable re­ sponse was noted from 1950 to 1951 for male respondents. 5. Six women were lost from the 1950 replies, accounted for in Table 2. Of these six, one was the in­ dividual who refused an interview. Of the six losses, three were in the age bracket of kl-50, and one had originally been favorable, two unfavorable to Child Study. Two women, one favorable and one unfavorable in Table 2, were lost from the 31~^0 age group. The final loss, froia the 21 -30 group, was of a woman who had 163 originally indicated an unfavorable reaction to Child Study. if. Changes in the If 1-50 bracket vere two, both going from negative to positive feelings toward the pro­ gram . 5. Change® in both directions were noted In the 31-*f0 group, one from positive to negative, and three fro m negative to positive responses toward Child Study. 6. There were two offsetting changes in the 21-30 age classification, one fro® positive to negative and vice versa. Tables 5 and 6 deal with age-level responses by years of experience, grades taught, local and state (col­ lege) workshop attendance, and on the basis of participa­ tion in in-service education being required or not re­ quired by the local administration. Results of interviews of second year of Child Study Before summarising and accounting statistically for Tables 1 to 6, it should be worthwhile to compare some of the interviews of these same people through a TABLE 5 SECOIfD-YEAR PABTICIPABTS: MFlRIIffCl, GRADE-LEVEL TAUGHT, 1951 INTERVIEWS Age Type of leers of E x p e r i e n c e __________ Grades Taught Response 2 3-5 6-10 10-20 Over 20 1-3 *-6 Junior High School Senior High School Special hi to ♦ (18) 0 0 11 k 3 7 k k 2 1 50* -( k) 0 0 1 1 2 1 I 0 1 1 31 to ♦ (1?) 0 2 9 5 1 6 k 2 3 2 k0 -( M 0 1 2 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 21 to ♦ (11) 2 5 3 1 0 7 2 1 1 0 30 -( 5) 2 2 1 0 0 1 1 0 2 1 Totals + {h$) 2 7 23 10 k 20 10 7 6 3 - (13) 2 3 k 2 2 3 3 0 k 3 Code: ♦ Favorable responses - Unfavorable responses 1Includes visiting teacher, supervisor, physical education teachers (3), music teacher. 16k 165 TABLE 6 SECOBD-YEAR PARTICIPANTS? WORKSHOP EXPERIENCE AfIB PAR TIC I PAT I OH III THE CHILD STUDY PROGRAM Age Type of Response Worksbop Attendance PartieIpation In Program Local State Re - quired Volun­ tary to + (18) 5 2 7 9 504* 1 0 3 1 51 to + (17) 7 3 7 10 ko -< *0 2 1 2 3 21 to + (H) k 1 b 9 51 **( 5) 3 0 2 2 Totals ♦ ( } Ik 6 l8 28 ~(13) 6 1 7 6 166 year's time, Wherever possible, excerpts will refer back to those quoted from the same persons in the 1950 series of interviews. Yet to be studied are the reac­ tions to the mechanics of the program on the part of teachers and administrators and the feeling about changes in personnel and programs. Sample Interviews - 1951 A. Favorable both first and second year *i- . I've taught school for some time, and I cer­ tainly know that times have changed. Modern methods of teaching school are clearly seen now to be better. ♦ * . And I'm glad to hear that your meeting at the High School the other day explained to some of the teachers I've talked to how this program helps us toward these modern methods . . . . It's very difficult to describe outcomes of the program, but it has had a great effect. In terms of my last year's study for instance --he was a habitual "hookey” player and ran around with the most undesirable characters. He had gone to summer school three successive summers to make up work, and he didn't need to fail. Well, when I started writing a record on him we gradually got so we talked together a lot; and I think the fact that I was studying hi® is a great measure of the cause that he's doing very creditable work now. . . . Our discussions this year have been finer as a result of the carry-over from last year's 16? program. . . . Teachers are working so well together. . . . When there 1® something good going on in other groups, we should combine more . 5* It's a good program. Any teacher can tell you it adds something to work on. I*® glad consultants don * t come every time. We need time to work on our own problems, and need to get used to doing it without a con­ sultant. We have some very fine meetings by ourselves--hot discussions. Sometimes people get griped because they ask a consultant about some kid, and he can * t know enough about the kid to come anywhere near the answer. . . . The meetings ere interesting. I'm never bored, anyway| and we usually stay longer than we have to. We all have an understanding of children that we didn't have. We 're trying to figure out why the fellow did what he did Instead of be­ ing brokenhearted that he did it. I've spent sore time on ay students than I ever did before. I spent three hour® in one boy's home so he could show me how he made a crystal radio set, and I've visited twice since. <* # » B. Unfavorable In 1930 and favorable in 1951 6. We have had a much better year this year than last. hast year we had a very haay idea as to what it was about. . . . We could hardly ask more of consultant service. We have a more professional attitude toward in-service education, this year. 168 I'm much more conscious now of some of the problems my students have. When I see a child having difficulty, I try to think of all the factors involved. . . . I think my time put in in this program is very well spent. I’ve enjoyed my teaching more this year. 7. I think the second year is a lot more inter­ esting than the first. We get into it more. The more I put into Child Study the more I like it. There Is more interest in our group as we work more. From my standpoint, I see the point of the whole thing more--why we study one child. I see it more than last year. This year, I began to notice the ?,why * of things, the effect a thing in one area has on other areas. I’m sure there are changes, but can’t think of any as related to my teaching. I do know my case study doesn’t irritate me any more. . . . I understand more why a child does things a teacher doesn’t approve of. . . . A lot more of the background of children is being studied . . . records in files are being used more. C . Positive in 1930 and negative in 1931 8. I ’m pretty disappointed In the program this year. I can’t think of anything concrete we have accomplished. The kind of program I would like would be hav­ ing experts on different subjects come and talk--not lectures, but come and talk, and let 169 us ask questions. The way we do now doesn’t seem to carry over to do any good for the stu dents. Some of the teachers say it carries over, but I haven't been able to see It. X attended a workshop last summer. Every day a speaker who was an expert came . . . there was concrete value to It. . . . The program may be having more effect than I think. I can't see any. 9. The program hasn't meant a thing to me ♦ I was child-centered before I started teaching, and I have been ever since. As I see it, this study has taken time for working on one child that I could have been spending learn­ ing to understand all my pupils. The kind of program we need is for someone to come in and show us something--how to do things--like a workshop. . . . For instance, Dr. Hoyt came last week and gave us some real wonderful help on reading. If we have to do it--have to go on having the program--the University should send us some men who are capable of telling us what to do without muddling us up. Men with high ideals--ideals and standards that we can be proud to live up to--without that we might as well quit . . . . It would help if we had more of the meeting on school time so we could get home earlier. I can't honestly say I can see any outcome of the program. D . Negative in 1950 and negative in 1951 10. It might not be f£ir to pay too much atten­ tion to what I might say about the program; 170 I haven*t participated as a regular member of a group this year. I did last year, but this year I*v© been working on reports, and w e ’ve felt it worthwhile to take the time off during the Child Study time. . . . I will say that I don’t think the program is worth our while. I don’t believe it is meeting our needs. I hope this is considered my personal opinion and not the general belief of my faculty. But I think we need some other kind of program such as a workshop. . . . I will say that the second-year pro­ gram is a big improvement over the first. Still I don’t believe it has helped teachers. . . . The average teacher automatically studies each child and his problems without this course. Already a lot of the teachers ©re farther along with that than this course is. • * • There are possibilities to the program. A little different approach--unified consultant s@rvice-~men from the public schools that know what w e ’re up against. . . . It’s hard to say about outcomes. The teach­ ers are a long way ahead of the program to start with--it's old stuff to these teachers in actual practice. . . . Probably some of our teachers have a different viewpoint than they did, but I have no evidence of it. 11. The program is a waste of time and proved of no value. There was a great deal of resent­ ment among the faculty because of the time- consuming element of it. I tried any number of times to locate a book on the reading list that sounded good. I never located it, and gave up in disgust. 171 I just don't like the program. It is not ’worth the money that Is being spent on it. . . . How can you study Just one child and help the entire room? If we had more consultants, I think perhaps the program might work, but you can't turn people loose without something to go on. • # a One weakness, to my motion, was in the Uni- versity sending a different consultant at each meeting. . . . One would tell one thing, and the next month someone else would con­ tradict it. . . . There is no change in me that I can see. I try to work with all my pupils instead of with Just one. The one common thread that seems to run through the negative responses is that of feeling toward the me­ chanics of the program. If the feeling Is not directed against consultants, the most common source, there are objections raised to the time of meetings, time required, location and number of books in the library, etc. Persons responding favorably seemed, on the other hand, to have more difficulty in stating exactly why they found the program helpful. They usually mention "more understand­ ing'1 of children as one of the major benefits. Perhaps the man quoted in Interview Ho. 5 as saying, "We*r@ trying to figure out why the fellow did what he did instead of 172 being brokenhearted that he did it,” comes most nearly to expressing a desirable outcome to the program. The search for underlying causes was mentioned also in In­ terviews Nos, 6 and 7, individuals who reported an un­ favorable over-all impression in 1950, but changed to favorable in 1951. These samples were repeated almost as a pattern in all Interviews reporting favorable feel­ ings in 1951 Interviews. It would seem that increased scientific knowledge leads to Increased appreciation for some teachers. On the other hand, there were two who reacted in a negative manner toward Child Study at the end of their second year, after having reacted favorably in 1950. In­ terview No. 8 represents some of the most commonly ex­ pressed ideas for these people: (l) a let-down feeling after the first year--perhaps a realisation that scien­ tific information was an Increasingly Important phase of the program, (2) a feeling that "experts” were needed, (3) &n inability to see a carry-over of human development concepts into daily classroom work, and (**) a resentment at giving tiie to in-service work. Interview No. 9 is the second-year response of the. wife of the respondent in 173 Interview Ho. 3# on page 153 of this study. This indi­ vidual responded favorably in 1950, after an unfavorable feeling at the beginning of the program. The complete reversal of feeling is interesting, ©specially in light of the husband*© two interviews in 1950 and a softening attitude in 1951# when he preferred to have his interview regarded as hi® own opinion; when he said the second-year program was a big improvement over the first, and when he recognized possibilities to the program with "a little different approach” and with ’’men from the public schools that know what w e ’re up against." These reversals in feeling toward Child Study present only one reason why it has been felt that a study of the emotionally centered re­ actions to the program might prove exceedingly valuable for future reference. Within the scope of this study it is not feasible to devote more time to the feeling responses of Interviewees. There are still four areas to be examined: (l) reaction® to the mechanics of the program, (2) feelings regarding changes in the teacher and/or her program, (3) responses tabulated to the questionnaire, and (4) the results of study of anecdotal records kept by teachers during the 174 two-year period, 1949-1950 and 1950-51? accounted for in the interviews, Beactions to the mechanics of the program Teachers were asked, in both sets of interviews, to respond to (1) consultant service, (2) time and length of meetings, (5) library service, and (4) organisation of the program, including the use of group leaders. Since there seems to be no purpose to be served in arranging these responses in tabular form, due to the extreme di­ versity in the manner and wording of responses as shown in Appendix A, these responses will only be enumerated. It will be noted, however, that many who responded in a manner to Indicate favorable feelings toward Child Study will be seen to be adversely critical of parts of the mechanics of the program. The reverse is also true. Mr. L, whose Interview Ho, 5,was one of the most bitter sgalnst Child Study as a "pseudo-science” and "mumbo- juito,” admitted that he enjoyed meeting with his group, while all the time railing against the program and its 175 implied threat that he would, if he remained in teach - ing, probably have to go bach to school and "take a lot of psychology.” Perhaps the area most severely criticised in statements from interviews was that of consultant service. Some of the comments regarding consultants, times of meeting, and other phases of the program emerging from an analysis of the interviews are quoted: 1. Consultants were regarded as being "helpful” by 10 of the first-year people interviewed; 20 felt con­ sultants were "not helpful enough,” and h persons regarded consultants as being of "inadequate quality,” while 3 ©aid that consultants were not always helpful. Among specific complaints about consultant service, the following were most frequent; (1) not specific enough, (2) too much variety in consultants, (3) needed different consultants for the purpose of getting different ideas, (k) consul­ tant® did not give goal© and/or purposes, and (3) con­ sultants should talk more to entire group, not Just leaders. 2 . Consultants were favorably regarded by k2 of the same people in the 1951 interviews; 12 people com­ plained that consultants were not specific enough, and 5 accused them of "talking over the head© of the group.” 176 In the second-year interviews, however, there were no references to inadequacy or lack of helpfulness on the part of consultants. Lack of specificity is the chief complaint; and that usually stems from the period of closing out of records, according to an intensive ex­ amination of the interviews. Among comments about con­ sultant service, the second-year people said: (1) con­ fusing information from different consultants--two re - spendents saw this situation as good in that it resulted in thought on the part of participants, (2) purposes not explained clearly enough, (3) there were 26 persons who felt that more consultant service was needed, not in it­ self an unfavorable reaction to consultants and their work, C M four persons wanted the same consultant during the entire year, and (5) five persons liked a variety of consultants, but stated that "some consultants are better than others.f 5. Not all respondents indicated their feelings regarding scheduling of meetings, but the following were noted, with numbers in parentheses Indicating the number of persons sharing the opinion: meetings satisfactory (22); meetings on school time were liked (10)-“ were not liked (M ; length of meetings was approved (7); and need more frequent meetings (6). ITT h . Second-year participants approved time, fre­ quency, and day of meetings (^5)* There were scattered statements as to the value of meeting In homes, the value of meeting at night, and the advisability of the school furnishing part released time for meetings. 5. First-year participants regarded library serv­ ice a® not being adequate because of number and/or loca­ tion and selection of books, with 26 responding thus and 16 disagreeing. Twelve persons indicated they had done no professional reading, and T said they were unaware of any library services. There were h comments as to need for more direction in reading. 6. Second-year people in the number of 23 found library service® ample, while l6 complained of location and choice of books. Only 9 indicated no reading, and there were comments on need for more periodicals, need for more time to read, and need for direction in reading, with 2 people still asking for direction in the second year. 7. Both first-and second-year interviews showed about an equal division as to feelings toward group lead­ ers with regard to their capabilities. There was an equal division as to expressed need for better leaders. First-year 178 people were Inclined to be more critical of leaders than were those in second-year child Study. Changes in teachers and in program The third section of the interviews being studied should fee most revealing. In it, the interviewees re­ sponded to the question, "What changes do you feel have taken place in you, your teaching, or the program of the school as a result of Child Study?” The following re­ sponses were elicited from first-year peoples 1. Mo changes 6 2. Improved relations between teachers k 3. Improved teacher-parent relations 3 k. Improved teaeher-pupil relations 13 h . Increased emphasis on testing for counseling k 6. More home contacts 6 7. Reserving of Judgment regarding any behavior lk 8. Improved techniques in Child Study 12 9* More democratic classroom procedures 20 10. More concern with meeting needs of child 18 179 Second-year participants responded regarding changes as follows: 1. Ho changes 2, Changes in methods of teaching because of more understanding of areas af­ fecting development of child 5. More home contacts k. Better parent-teacher relations 5. Improved teacher-pupil relations 6. Improved techniques In child study 7. Improved teacher-teacher relations 8. Use of records Improved 9. Better school-community relations 10. More and better group discussions of teacher© Resistance to change If, as assumed? there are resistances offered to change? there should be a patterning In the expressed objections of teachers to such change. Examination of the mass of comments coming from the interviews and repro­ duced in part in Appendix A, shows that the following comments seem to recur with most regularity: 8 10 7 9 27 2k 18 8 10 k l8o 1. I have always studied children, 2. I had a course in college Just like this, 3. There are things in anecdotes that are not our business. h. There is nothing we can do about children. 5. This will not help me teach my subject. 6, What good will it do to study one? T. So solutions are ever given us. 8. This is good for beginners--I've taught a lot and it has nothing in it for me. 9. We need more consultants and more lectures; also we need more definite instructions as to what to expect and what to do. 10. At first it was all very confusing. Administrators 1 reactions to program As explained earlier in this study, the responses of administrators were not included in this study proper. It is only fitting, however, to compare the responses of principals and other administrative personnel with those of classroom teachers. Of h9 administrators whose Interviews could be regarded as definitely positive or negative, the following l8l results were observed: (X) k2 gave unqualified endorse­ ment to the program and its observed results, and (2) seven principals indicated an unfavorable attitude toward the program. Thus, as shown in Table 1, a total of 8.5-? per cent of administrative personnel reported favorably. This percentage compares with the total of 71.8 per cent of classroom teacher® reporting favorably, Excerpts from the comments of administrators re­ veal some interesting statements. Among the favorable comment® were such as; 1. The program has been good for us. My hat is off to anything that can make teachers more aware of the individuality of a child and of the way he grows up. 2. This is the finest thing our school has ever done , I began to see it lest year , and I be­ lieve no other program could have accomplished so much. 3. The things brought out in Child Study are basic. Our teachers had been asking for some­ thing practical, and this is it, as far as we are concerned. h . Some of my teachers griped at first, but only three or four out of thirty are dragging their feet now. 3. I have kept a record for years of discipline cases sent to my office. This year the list has been much shorter. Teachers seem to be delaying action until they examine evidence. 182 6. The number of pupils sent to the office by teachers this year is less than half what it was two years ago; I actually keep records every year. Anything that will cause a teacher to look for the causes of a child’s behavior will cause her to be a more understanding person. 7. We feel that our aim of “every teacher a guidance person” is being helped by Child Study, The comments could be extended, but the foregoing should give a fairly good picture of the over-all atti­ tude of administrators. With reference to the mechanics of the program, principals approved of length and time of meetings, li­ brary facilities, use of group discussions, and use of local resource people and their supplemetation by out-of- system consultants. There was a distinct trend favoring the continued and increased use of released time for group meetings. Several principals mentioned the need for ad­ ministrators to participate on a peer basis if the pro­ gram was to become as effective as it needed to be. There were some comments to the effect that con­ sultant service was needed more often, fourteen of the group expressing this feeling. On the whole, however, 183 the quality and quantity of consultant service received the approval of the principals. It Is interesting to note, In this connection, that teachers were often hit­ ter as to the general ineffectiveness of consultant serv­ ice. This should be a point for continued investigation; perhaps consultants and resource people spend too much time with school administrators, thus giving them a bet­ ter concept of the program as well as Increasing rapport, and not enough time in the classroom with the individual teacher. The topic of group leaders came in for some com­ ment. Suggestions embodied increased guidance for lead­ ers, increased care ori the part of groups in the selection of the local leader, and the necessity for the principal to "let the leader do the leading” rather than inadvertent ly or purposefully taking over her duties as he meets with the group. Principals who approved of the Child Study pro­ gram were usually more able to give specific reasons for their attitudes than were teachers. Some general com­ ments regarding individual benefits follow? iBk 1. It helped me with parent conferences. 2. I learned to look into a child*a background for an explanation of his behavior. 3. It showed me that I should study the child first and then the subject matter of the curriculum. k. It helped me to study myself and caused me to ask the question in many situations, ’Was I responsible for thisl** What I learn about one child permeates to others. 3. How I see pupils as Individuals--good and bad-~and accept them. As to the actual change© which principals pro­ fessed to have observed in teachers and in the instruc­ tional program, ©any comments were so stated as to fall into definite categories . The exact statements have been taken with the number of people responding being given In parentheses. It must be noted that several people made multiple statements (e.g., one principal used expressions 1, h, and 6 in his interview). The most frequently stated comments were: 1. Better teacher-pupil relations 15 2 . Better teacher-teacher relations 23 5. More home contacts 18 k. Better discipline 15 185 5 , Better teacher -administrator relations 1*4 6. Better technique in working with classes 18 7. Better school'•community relations 7 There were many other scattered comments which could have been easily and fairly interpreted to fall in­ to one of the above categories of remarks. There were also some exact wordings used repeatedly which were so am­ biguous a® to be relatively meaningless *, for example, eleven said, "We can see changes in teachers," and often went no further or used one of the seven listed above later in the interview. "Helps in better understanding of the child"was also used eleven times. There were some comments with unfavorable conno­ tations, in addition to several comments from principals who said there were no observable changes in their teach­ ers. The three unfavorable connotations were (1) "Teach­ ers Just did not respond as they might have," (2) "There will be lower achievement grade© because of lack of time for teaching,” and (3) "The youngsters don * t mind as well." 186 The second Instrument used in this study was a questionnaire administered to the fifty-nine persons who have also responded to the interviews. A discussion of this device follows: The Questionnaire Introduction Between the use of free-response interviews and the analysis of Child Study records, it was decided to Interpose a questionnaire directed to participants. The purpose of the questionnaire was twofold: (1) to compare each of the instruments, interviews, questionnaires, and records as devices for revealing the feelings of parti­ cipants toward Child Study and the results from participa­ tion In such a program; and (2) to inject an additional question designed to test one of the hypotheses: "Would you, on an over-all basis, say that Child Study had met your needs as a teacher?" Teachers were asked to respond with a simple check to "yes" or "no" as related to each of the items of the questionnaire. Answers have been ©ought to add 187 further insight into the favorable-unfavorable responses to partieipation in Child Study j to check further the de - gree to which Child Study may have functioned in meeting the needs of teachers; and to compare the willingness of teachers to participate further with their over-all re­ sponse to participation , Two items should be taken into account at this point. First, the objection might be voiced that the ques­ tionnaire limits to a yes-no response, and that it would have been a better device had it been constructed on the nature of a rating scale. The value of s rating scale can­ not be denied, but it would, it seems, not fit entirely into this study for two reasonss (X) the major purpose of the study is to investigate favorable and unfavorable re­ sponses to participation in Child Study, with no elements of a gradation of feelings involved; and (2) it was be­ lieved that a yes-no type of response would perhaps be most likely to capture, as nearly as is possible in a paper -and "-pencil type of response, the feelings of the persons responding as well as their more calculated answers. The second consideration deals with the identifi­ cation of needs and the influence of needs having been met upon expressed satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the program of Child Study and upon the willingness to con­ tinue the program. It could be pointed out here that an Incident occurred only recently which has led this in­ vestigator to question the validity of the hypothesis concerning the meeting of needs and feeling toward the program. A statement was made early in the present school year by a group of twelve high school teachers in Temple, Texas, a school which does not figure in this study, which said in effect, "We have had two very unsatisfactory years in Child Study. We think the main causes lay in the in­ effective use of consultants. We believe, however, that there are things in Child Study which can be of great bene­ fit to us, and we would like to continue with a third year of the program.” As a result, they are working on their own time, without college credit, in the third year of Child Study. Statements such as these lead to a question­ ing of the influence of needs, and consideration will be given to that hypothesis in more detail in the chapter to follow. 189 Data from questionnaire The data from the questionnaire will be presented in the following table; and the number of responses will be indicated, with reference to be made to the totals of satisfactory“unsatisfactory responses as indicated in Table 2. It will be recalled that the adjustment of re­ sponses as indicated in Table 2 resulted in a total of 37 positive and 22 negative statements regarding participa- tion in Child Study, The table below accounts for the responses to each of the twenty-six separate items of the questionnaire. The results of these questions will be treated more fully in Chapter V . 1 The fact that many more of the items were answered positively than were indicated in the first-year interviews might indicate that a fairly high degree of correlation might be expected between the questionnaire and the interviews. The data will also be examined for evidences of teachers’ awareness of changes in classroom procedures and Increased understanding and acceptance of the basic concepts of human development as shown In answers given to the questionnaire. Evidences of such awareness will be further examined in the light of analysis of 190 TABLE ? RESPONSES TO ITEMS OF QUESTIONNAIRE 'ZHZZZZ".. '5*77*7 =—™=~~ Item Yes Ho 1 . Approval of Child Study 44 15 2 . Voluntary participation 25 54 5. Meetings, time and place, satisfactory 55 24 4 . Enough consultant visits 42 17 5 . Preference for regular consultant 49 10 6 . Consultants sufficiently helpful 52 27 7* Child Study has met needs 45 16 8 . Benefit from Keeping anecdotal records 40 19 9 . Study of one child--value in working with entire class 55 26 10. Every human being unique 51 8 11. Every human being valuable 45 16 12 . All behavior caused 50 9 15. Causes of behavior multiple, complex, inter -related 54 5 14. Behavior must be accepted 59 20 15. Benefit from reading 25 56 16. Leadership satisfactory 27 52 1?. Help in understanding and recognizing individual differences 41 18 18. Behavior symptomatic 45 14 19- Using information before passing Judg­ ment on behavior 4q 19 20. Heed for home and community background 42 17 2 1. Changes in classroom procedures 54 25 22 . Use of group work more satisfactorily 56 25 25. Use of pupil-planning 28 51 24 . Work better with fellow teachers 59 20 25. Teach "fundamentals” more effectively 57 22 26 . Participate in further Child Study 42 1? 191 records. This analysis of records kept by teachers will follow in the next section of this chapter. The Records Teacher responses and evidences in the records As has been explained before, teachers participat­ ing in Child Study keep anecdotal records of behavior ob­ served on the part of a child chosen for study. These records, while devoted to the recording and analysis of the observable behavior of children, also reveal much of the way of working of the teachers who keep them. If the feeling of a teacher toward Child Study is favorable, the assumption has been held that she will make greater effort to keep the sort of objective recording of anecdotes deemed to be most fruitful. It has also been assumed that the teacher will reveal, in the record kept, a better under­ standing and acceptance of the basic concepts of human de­ velopment if she Is in sympathy with the program and if her feeling toward the program is positive. To test the hypotheses derived from these assumptions, the records kept by the respondents to the interviews were carefully 192 examined, first for evidences of a better understanding of the -mechanics of the Child. Study program as repre­ sented by number of anecdotes, the scope of the record as revealed by variety of situations in vhich the teach­ er observed the child and recorded behavioral incidents, and the way in which the record was used in the listing of patterns, the formulation and checking of hypotheses concerning pattern®, and in analyzing the behavior of the child on the basis of recorded anecdotes. Second, the records were examined for evidences of increased under­ standing of the basic concepts involved In human develop­ ment. Tabulations were made on the basis of positive and negative responses to the interviews to determine the dif­ ference, if any, existing in the way teachers kept anec­ dotal records compared with their responses. Records were read to determine the following items considered signifi­ cant in teachers* mastery of the fundamentals of records kept in the program of Child Study: (a) number of anec­ dotal entries, (b) scope of the records as regards types of situations in which the behavior of children was re­ corded, (c } adequacy of background material secured during the study, (d) completeness of anecdotal recordings as to setting, action, and follow-up, (e) objectivity of recordings, 193 (f) use of anecdotes in seeking out patterns of behavior on the part of the child, (g) formulation and testing of hypotheses through supporting evidence, and (h) develop­ ment of skills in closing out records. Use of readers as Judges of records Assistance was given by members of the Extension Teaching and Field Services staff of the Division of Ex­ tension In determining the adequacy of records chosen at random. Readers were asked to Judge samples fro® the records chosen on the basis of adequacy of reference to background material (Table 8 ), and their Judgments were compared with that of the investigator. An agreement of 92 per cent was reached on this item, with five records chosen at random and read as to background material gathered for the study. Agreement of 9I per cent was reached with regard to completeness of anecdotes (Table 11), using the same records. Other items examined were specific enough to obviate the necessity of the use of Judges, con­ sisting in the main of simple counting. The percentage of agreement was deemed sufficiently high to warrant the in­ clusion of (c) and (d) in the study. 1 9k Humber and distribution of entries It must be remembered that certain people were lost from the initial results of the first-year interviews, and there were several changes, From ko positive and 27 negative responses in 1950* 9 people were dropped in 1951, leaving 31 positive and 22 negative responses. Of these, 2 persons changed their feeling from positive to negative, and 6 persons changed from negative to positive, giving a net gain for positive over negative of % persons. Table 8, which follows, will therefore show a discrepancy with Table 2 in total®, since the records of persons Interviewed in 1950 who were subsequently not included in the 1951 interviews were not included in the study of the records. The revised totals for Table 2, based on Table 21^ would show: TABLE 2B CONVERSION OF TABLE 2, BASED 01 WITHBBAWALS AND CHARGES Male Female Male Female Totals Positive 8 29 Instead of 9 51 negative 3 19 *■ 25 11 kS 13 5** 195 In the beginning of the Child Study program, one of the questions most asked of consultants usually is, ’How many anecdotal recordings are we supposed to have? ” Ho amount of explanation seems to clear this point in the minds of first-year participants; and often, upon be­ ing pressed insistently for an answer, the consultant has responded about as follows, "There can be no set numbers; most people try to record three or four per week," Bas­ ing part of this study on the assumption that persons who are interested in a program will evidence a part of that interest in the amount of effort expended, Table 8 has been constructed to show:the range and number of entries and their distribution. It is recognized, of course, that quantity is not too valuable a criterion. The possibility that a lack of interest or an unfavorable attitude might cause a per­ son to attack an in-service program with less zeal than might otherwise be the case is one that cannot be ignored. On the other hand, there is a likelihood that continued effort at recording behavior might result in a sore favor­ able feeling toward the program. The question might here be raised as to cause and effect: Did (1) a more favorable reaction to Child Study result in an increased interest 196 TABLE 8 RANGE AND NUMBER OF ENTRIES AND DISTRIBUTION (According to Type of Response) Range ... Firs t Tear Second Tear Posi­ tive Nega­ tive Posi- Nega­ tive tlve Number of Entries High 154 137 141 128 Lov 45 27 46 25 Mean 94.3 70.2 96.1 63.4 Frequency Distribution 25-50 2 5 1 6 50-100 12 7 10 5 100-125 18 7 32 3 125 plus 5 3 3 1 Totals 37 22 46 15 197 and effort In the recording of anecdotes, or (2) did the process of increasing the number of anecdotes result in a more favorable feeling toward the program? There is perhaps no point of disagreement in the final analysis; but it can be stated that participants In Child Study, while encouraged to see and record behavior in as many and as diverse situations a® practicable, were never as­ signed the task of collecting any given number of anec­ dotes. Suggestions were made, but participants were aware that volume would not be too heavy a determinant where credit was concerned. In addition, a "blanket" grade was always given where credit was desired; and the person who wrote voluminously would not receive reward in the nature of higher grades. Further discussion of Table 8 will be presented in a succeeding chapter of this study. Scop© of records To secure an analysis of behavior that will be meaningful, it is generally assumed that a child should be observed In a variety of situations. Child Study con­ sultants continually emphasise the fact ‘hat a child will behave differently as the demands of the situation and the 198 expectancies involved tend to alter. It was, therefore, assumed that there would be a variation in teachers' con­ cepts of the scope of a record and the desirability of the inclusion of many aspects of the life of a child and that this variation would reflect the feeling of the in­ dividual teacher toward the program. For the purpose of investigating this assumption, the anecdotes were tabulated under the following headings: (l) anecdotes coming from the classroom situation, (2) anecdotes recorded as having come from the playground, (3) anecdotes from the home, (h ) situations recorded from sources other than the home or school (e.g., a casual meeting on the street, In a cafe, at church, or any one of many such situations), and (9) anec­ dotes supplied the participants by other adults, including parents, other teachers, and acquaintances of the family, For this tabulation a total of 3*^92- anecdotes were considered from people responding positively at the end of first-year Child Study; 1,5^5 were checked from the records of negative respondents in first-year work. The second-year people who responded favorably wrote a total of U,338 anecdotes, and those unfavorably disposed wrote a total of 824. The percentages of anecdotes from each situ­ ation are to be found in the following table. 199 TABLE 9 SOURCE OF ANECDOTAL MATERIALS (According to Type of Response} Source of First Year Second Year Anecdotes Posi­ tive Nega­ tive Posi­ tive Nega­ tive Per Cent of Total Classroom 6k 7 6 5k 71 Playground 27 20 28 23 Home k 1 10 1 Situations other than home or school 1 1 3 3 From other adults k 2 3 2 Total 100 100 100 100 Total number of anecdotes 3,^91 1 15k1? k,33& 82^ Total number of respondents 2? 22 k6 13 200 Background material With the importance of the teacher's use of case history material in the background of the child being studied, it was felt that a survey of such material was needed if there was to be an estimate made of the total influence of feelings upon records kept. To that end, background material for each of the 118 records was read; and references were judged a© to their adequacy in such material as (1) previous health record, including an esti­ mate on the child's rate of energy output, later to be substantiated in the record itself, (2) reference as to the physical appearance of the child, including grooming, (3) references as to the apparent physical, social, and psy chological maturity level of the child, also to be sub­ stantiated later, (h ) a description of the family constella tion, (3) a description of the family's way of life, to be supplemented where possible by a visit to the home, (6) an objective comparison of the child with hie peers, (7) in­ formation secured from school record®, and (8) information from other teachers, with statements as to their evalua­ tion of the child. In the determination of adequacy, the judges were 201 asked to read sample record® and judge simply as to ade­ quacy or inadequacy on the basis of what was considered the most desirable and beneficial sort of information which would come under the eight headings listed In Table 10. The amount of disagreement with the judgment of the investigator was less than 1 per cent. The low percentage of teachers with information regarded as ade­ quate perhaps indicates that standards were set too high, but a purely arbitrary scale aimed at the most desirable content possible was being used. Perhaps many teacher© would have secured much more information had the importance of such content been stressed even more than it was. The rise in inclusion rate for the second year indicates that this is perhaps the case. Reason© for ©electing children for study An interesting sidelight can be developed briefly here. Teachers usually give some reason for the selection of the child whom they propose to observe. More than one - half of the teachers in first-year Child Study were ap­ parently attracted to the child because of a felt need to help in some problem they believed possessed by the child. 202 TABLE 10 BACKGROUND MATERIAL OF RECORDS, PERCENTAGE OF TEACHERS* RECORDS WITH ADEQUATE BACKGROUND (According to Type of Response) Adequate reference First Year Second Year to Post- Nega- Posi- Nega­ tive tive tive tive Health Record Appearance Maturlty Family Constellation Family Way of Life Child and His Peers School Records Information from Other Teachers Per Cent of Total 53 ^0 67 k2 76 6? 86 72 3 8 11 56 12 6k 21 79 22 53 13 7^ 12 26 85 38 56 53 7^ 69 59 57 6k 58 203 This number dropped sharply in the second year, for both those vho reported favorably and those who reported un­ favorably, In the Interviews, specific comments were made by negative teachers in many instances, complaining that their records were made dull and uninteresting be­ cause they were "not allowed to select a problem child for study." A few teachers who responded favorably made the comment, but they were outnumbered in the ratio of 5 to 1. Selection of names for children studied The selection of fictitious names also provided an interesting item of speculation to the investigator and those who aided him in the study of records. A first - year teacher in one group, for example, called her study by the name of "Vers Suite," because she said that the girl was such a sweet child--a reflection of the teacher *s evaluation of the child before having any knowledge of the child. Another teacher, member of a colored group in Midland, called her subject "Little Hip." She explained that his outstanding characteristic was sleeping. He was a second-grader, and the group made many guesses as to the 20k possible reasons for the child’s sleepiness* After about three months, this investigator again visited the group. The teacher announced that she had discovered the cause of the child’s somnolence *9 he bad, several months before, discovered that he liked the sour taste of aspirin, and had been taking aspirin from home and sucking them in class. After the teacher had talked with him and with the parents, Hip became a much more alert child. Records of fifty-nine person®, over a period of two years, contain many such examples of evaluative, descriptive terms em­ ployed in the background of the child’® history, examples which are too numerous to list here. Completeness of records A further study of records was made on the type of anecdotes appearing in teachers’ observations, based on their completeness. In an effort to gain objectivity in recording, it is noticeable that many teachers frequent­ ly employed conversation only. Certain teachers have said, in groups, that they did ®o to avoid writing a record that would be "all wrong.” Others have been similar to MSarah came up to the desk and asked a very intelligent question 205 concerning tomorrow * s assignment. I felt qu ite pleased, because she usually has no interest in her work at all.*1 Still other teachers, particularly in the elementary grades, omitted giving the setting or- perhaps the follow- up of possible comments by other pupils, or omitted other pertinent items in the anecdotes which would have made the record much more meaningful. These three types of omissions have been checked against the record for employ­ ment of full anecdotes, those which provide a setting, an objective description of the action which took place, and a follow-through on the reaction of classmates or teacher. Table 11 presents the results of findings as regards com­ pleteness of anecdotal recordings expressed in percentages. Phrasing of patterns Buring the course of group meetings, it was often observed that members seemed to have difficulty at times in formulating phrases for identification of patterns of. behavior. For example, It was quite common for first - year participants to use the phrase, "Is seeking attention," a description of behavior. With aid from leaders, resource persons, and consultants, progress was usually made in 206 TABLE 11 COMPLETENESS OP ANECDOTES (According to Type of Response) Type of Anecdote First fear Second fear Posi­ tive nega­ tive Pos i - tive nega­ tive Per Cent of Total Conversation only 9 12 5 19 Action only 18 21 10 2k Incomplete anecdotes 3k kk 21 k6 Complete anecdotes 39 23 8% 11 Totals 100 100 100 100 20? differentiating between descriptive and interpretive phrasing. It was found, upon checking the records kept by first-year participants, that individuals who responded positively as to their feelings regarding Child Study ex­ perienced difficulty far less than did those people who responded negatively. Taking a complete count of all pat­ terns of behavior listed, favorable respondents failed to use descriptive and objective term® in 9 per cent of pat­ terns listedj negative respondent® experienced this dif­ ficulty in almost twice as many cases, 17 per cent to be exact. Further, in reading the records of all first-year persons included in this study, it was discovered that only 5 per cent of the people expressing satisfaction with the program identified nonexistent patterns of behavior or failed to recognize patterns present in their records $ 1? per cent of the other group were offenders. The re are perhaps many other technical items in­ volved in the keeping of adequate Child Study records, but those enumerated here seem to be pertinent in light of the tentative hypotheses advanced as the basis of this study in Chapter I . The use and understanding of the six-area framework, introduced in second-year Child Study, has not 208 been included in this study because it has not been em­ ployed in first-year work; and it seemed desirable to use only those items which persisted throughout the two years, in order that a continuity might be maintained In the ex­ amination of changes which might have occurred to greater or lesser degree, likewise, the concept of developmental tasks and its employment In the analysis of records has been omitted from this study. Concepts of human development as shown In records In concluding the study of the records, a final investigetion was made to determine evidences of increased understanding and acceptance of the basic concepts of hu­ man development. It goes almost without saying that a better way to have arrived at such evidences would have been through direct observation of the classroom procedures employed by teachers. This was, in fact, attempted; but the factors surrounding the administration of in-service education programs such as face the consultants here con­ cerned were such as to forbid the employment of any such means of investigating teachers* understanding and ac­ ceptance of basic concepts. It became necessary, therefore, 209 to search the record® kept by teachers to determine whether such understanding and acceptance existed, to what degree it was present, and its relation to the feelings of teachers about Child Study, whether positive or nega- tive . The basic assumptions for Child Study have been stated In Chapter III* The records were carefully scanned for evidences of teachers1 acceptance of the following: (l) Behavior Is caused; (2) the causes of behavior are usually multiple, complex, and interrelated; (3) behavior must be accepted, If not condoned; (k ) each individual is unique; and (5) each individual i® valuable. The results of the examination of records is offered below. Behavior is caused. The following anecdotes from, one of the records examined will serve to illustrate the way In which teachers in the early part of first -year Child Study tend to regard behavior: Sammy, usually on® of my prise pupils, dis­ turbed the class all morning. He made a perfect nuisance of himself by pushing and shoving Sue, who sits just in front of him. I spoke to him two or three times, but when he continued to npester" her, I sent him out of the room and told him not to come back In until he could behave nicer. 210 "What*11 I do, Mis® Bt* he asked. "Just stay out in the hall until you can be a good citizen," I told him. He came back in in about five minute® and was a model boy the rest of the day. later on in Miss B * s record we find the following anecdote, again dealing with Sammyi Sammy has been on a "tear" again this morning'. He has been, as usual, pushing and shoving and hitting. I spoke to him sharply, and he looked at me and got red in the face. I *v@ noticed that he seem® worse some days than others . Wonder what could cause him to be so aggressive? He is usually such a good child, and it puzzles me, because he is such a good student. The way it is, though, he is getting to be very unpopular with the other pupil®. Another entry regarding Sammy*® behavior with the other pupils follows some time later: Sammy came in after morning recess almost boiling. He said the other© had ganged up on him while they were playing football, and he had beaten up on Gen© and Tom. I asked him to stay after school and talk to me about it. "Why, Miss Bf” fee asked, "1 wasn’t to blase. Those 'chickens* don't even know the rules, and when I try to tell them how to play they always gang up on me. A fellow has to do something." 211 I suggested to S a army that we talk It over* and that I vasn*t angry at him, but that we needed to see what we could do to have pleasant play periods. He wasn’t happy, but agreed to stay. When school was out, I said, "Sammy, will you stay after the others have gone? I need soma help to carry some things down to the office, and I * 11 run you home in my car after we have finished. That way, you won’t be late." Sammy looked at me strangely, colored a bit, and said, "Yes, ma ’am, I ’ll stay.*1 After we had carried some books down to the office and I had put the® In the bookroo®, we got in my car and started out. I had never been to Sammy’s house, so he directed, I discovered some things I had never known about the vocabu­ lary of fourth grade boys. ‘'Ganging up" seemed to mean a loud disagreement, and "beating upif can mean anything from argument to wrestling to actual fighting. Sammy’s mother seemed surprised when we drove up, and asked at once, "What's the matter, Sammy‘2 " I quickly assured her nothing was wrong, that I had asked hi® to stay and help me, and then had driven hi® home. Mrs. F asked me to come in and offered me a cup -of coffee or a coke. I accepted the coffee, and we began to talk. She seemed quite concerned about Sammy and ,!his temper *” Among the things which I found out where: Sammy’s mother is considerably older than one would assume for a nine-year-old; his father is partially disabled, and must spend some time each year in a nearby veterans hospital; Mrs. F works to supplement the father’s income and pension; there are two older brothers; Sammy was a "sickly baby,” and his mother still worries about his health (he seems strong as a young mule to me); he has been accustomed to having his own way pretty much; the older' brothers are critical of 212 the things that Sammy is allowed to do; the mother is very much determined that Sammy get an education--”so he won * t have to work so hard and may he able to get along better than we have; he *s a smart boy, Miss B, hut I just don't know about that temper.* I did some talking, hut not much , since Mrs, F was really "wound up.*' 1 believe, how­ ever, that I have seen Sammy in a new light. Maybe there are some reasons for his aggressive behavior. I am going to teat out some things to gain his confidence and see If I can get at this sort of behavior through what may be the causes. These anecdotes, and subsequent recordings not quoted here, serve to illustrate a teacher*© progress toward the understanding that there are reasons for the things that people do--"Behavior is caused." In the analy­ sis of records, this would be listed as positive progress toward understanding of this basic concept. This teacher progressed, through a period of four months covered by the three anecdotes quoted, from (l) a summary treatment of symptomatic behavior, to (2) ©n inquiring attitude which implied that there might be reason© for Sammy's be­ havior characteristics, and on to (3) an attempt to seek out cause© rather than to speculate and a desire to try out some ways of working with the boy in an effort to aid him in determining acceptable behavior for the school 213 situation. It would be fine to be able to report that she was able to convert Sammy Into a "modelw pupil. Such was not the case, but she did gain understanding, and she reported In her interview, "I did not succeed as much with my subject a© I had wanted toj but next year I am going to start looking for the causes of behavior earlier, and never again will I refer to a child as mean or lazy. There are always things which cause them to seem that way to us - -this much Child Study has taught me. Maybe next year I can come closer to figuring out what I, as the teacher, can do to help the child." Causes of behavior are multiple, etc. The ex­ amination of records for evidences concerning this concept eventually arrived at study of the number of hypotheses offered for behavior patterns and of the recognition of developmental tasks and their treatment. Teachers, by and large, who made progress toward acquiring this con­ cept could be seen to progress from a one-cause hypothesis, based on overt behavior, to multiple hypotheses offered to explain behavior patterns. There was also an increased tendency to examine the background evidence more and more as furnishing possible causes, and s definite trend of 21k increasing information by home visits, talk* with other teachers, and examination of school record#, especially vhen the teacher became aware of and was willing to ad­ mit to a paucity of Information upon which to base ten­ tative conclusions. In the second year of Child' Study there was m tendency, among those teachers regarded as having progressed in understanding of-basic concepts, to use samples of the child** creative work and to rely upon Interest Inventories, sociograms, and other devices to broaden the teacher* s understanding of the multiplicity of causes. Behavior must be accepted, etc. There are evi­ dences In the records of progress made by teachers toward acceptance of the behavior of a child as a part of his being, even though the teachers may show strong evidences of not having approved of the behavior. This movement toward acceptance is usually marked by evidences of strug­ gles to alter their value-systems in order to regard be­ havior as a symptomatic manifestation of inner feelings and tensions, There are, in the records, many cases where the teacher found It Impossible to accept either the behavior or the child. On the other hand, there are 215 In the records, Instances where a teacher has been able to accept the child and to work toward the alteration of behavior. One such case is that of Henry, a fifth-grade boy from a socially prominent family, an only child who was not able to control his emotions. His tantrums and punishing tactics, self-directed, made him an object of disapproval on the part of his peers. Originally chosen as a child to study because of his quiet, eager-to-please attitude, he quickly became his "trueself. Investiga­ tion revealed a demanding father and an overprotectlve mother, with expectancies of the child which were beyond his competency. This teacher, the pupil, and his age - mates ell worked together in an open, matter-of-fact ap­ proach to the problem of Henry's behavior tactic®. Final­ ly, Henry himself came up with the suggestion that he be given a ’’pouting room" to which he could retire when he needed to sulk or have a ntemper-fit.t? His disturbances, within a few months, became noticeably fewer and less violent, to the extent that the mother talked with the teacher regarding the change in Henry at home. This second- year teacher not only accepted the child along with his characteristics such as &lae, color of hair and eyes, and behavior; but she was also skillful enough and understanding 216 enough t© accept his behavioral characteristics and to work through and with the peer-group t© bring about de­ sirable alterations in formerly unacceptable behavior patterns * gach individual Is unique. Evidence® of in­ creased understanding and acceptance and usage of this concept are less evident in the records because of its tendency t© be buried in classroom procedures. The use of interest groupings, pupil-teacher planning, seeking of consensus rather than majority rule, Individual assign­ ments, and similar devices were sought in the records. There seems to be a decrease in the use of the technique of mass-assignment of lessons, and a corresponding increase of individual assignment of task® in records of teachers thought to have made progress in this concept (as veil as a corresponding increase in treating disciplinary meas­ ure® Individually)• The tabulation presented later will indicate the quantitative result® of the survey as it ap­ plies to this area of understanding and acceptance. Every human being i® .valuable, The following anecdote will serve to illustrate a teacher*® experience 217 with the maintenance and enhancement of a child *s self- concept and self-respect: Tragedy has struck in Mis© Prim's house­ hold. The shack where she and her eleven "brothers and sister and father and mother lived has burned. They were all at the drive-in, and apparently an oil stove exploded. Every­ thing they had was destroyed, and what will be done is a mystery. Miss Prim wasn't at school today. The following day, the teacher has recorded in a lengthy anecdote the action taken by the class, an action which seems to point out the realisation of the value of this one individual to her teacher; The girls were talking today about Miss Prim and the fire* The general topic centered around the query, "What can we do?” The school and town authorities, ©s well as certain groups have come to the rescue by "farming out” the children and by collect'ng clothes and food, as well as household articles. The family has been installed in a large vacant old house and is fairly comfortable at the moment, or will be as soon as enough beds have been collected for the family to sleep all together again. The class, the girls rather, decided that each would "bring whatever money they could spare out of allowances, etc., and three girls ©aid they could bring clothes which were out­ grown but almost new. Barbara, always one to speak up, said, "Gee, I'd certainly hate to be in her [Miss Prim's) shoes. Having to wear someone else 's clothes." The girls protested, 218 but X certainly did some fast thinking. Final~ ly, I thought I had worked out a plan, and I asked the girls to meet is© at afternoon recess to talk the whole thing over. We decided on a plan to put into effect the next day, . . * When Miss Prim came up on the school ground the next day, she was greeted by the three girls chosen as the welcoming committee. She was led into the room, and Sally made a little presentation speech, saying that the girls had been thinking of her and wanting to help, and that they had decided she wouldn’t mind if they gave her some skirts and sweaters which would help out until her folk® could get settled after the fire. Miss Prim seemed overcome with her gift®, and they were nice. Some of the things had hard- ly been worn — It is amaxing how much children can feel toward one who has had a misfortune. Three girls, already chosen, then carried Miss Prim down town and, using the allowance money, they bought her a new pair of school shoes and all came back to school, arm-in-arm. At recess, I spoke to Miss Prim and told her that the girls had wanted to do these thing® for her because they loved her as a classmate and a friend, that they had given proudly, and that I hoped she would wear all the things Just a® proudly as they had been given. She cried, and announced that she certainly would. I ’m afraid I cried a little bit, too. It would be pointing up the obvious to discourse at this point upon the teacher’s working at the Job of preserving the child’s ego. Many such examples are, of course, available in the records examined. There remains 219 to fee seen the connection, if any, between the feelings of teachers toward Child Study and their acquisition ’of the basic concepts of human development* tabulation of results The technique used for collecting data in the area of increased understanding Is a simplification and condensation of that employed by Greene (57). This in­ vestigator served as one of the Judges mentioned by Greene, and it is felt that the experience so gained and the re­ sults obtained fey the study tend© to validate such © tech­ nique when employed, with modifications, in the study now being developed. The evidences in records of teachers* understanding and acceptance of basic concepts appear in Table 12. Summary Chapter IV of this study has presented the results of investigation of teacher reactions, positive and nega­ tive, to a program of Child Study, and has attempted to connect the feelings indicated by teachers toward the program with their performance in (1) understanding and executing 220 TABLE 12 EVIDENCES IN B1C0BBS OF TBACH.KR8 * UNDERSTANDING AND ACCEPTANCE OF BASIC CONCEPTS (According to Type of Response) Basic Concepts Evidenced in Records Weighted Average Frequency of Evidences First Year Posi­ tive Nega­ tive Second Year Posi­ tive Nega tive Behavior caused 3^7 185 60k 221 Multiplicity of causes 536 12^ 728 212 Acceptance of behavior 286 1U9 505 178 Uniqueness of individual Value of individual 370 kl9 151 196 589 76? 166 22? 221 the mechanics of the program and (2) in understanding and accepting the basic concept© of the Child Study program. Other Items related to both ma^ior phases of the investi­ gation* such as age* sex, previous preparation through workshop participation, and voluntary-enforced participa­ tion in the program, have also been examined and data pertinent to the study have been presented in both tabu­ lar and discussion form. The basic assumptions underly­ ing the study and the tentative hypotheses resulting have been used directionally in the ordering of the elements of the study and in the presentation of the data before its analysis. Analysis and treatment of data resulting from the study will be presented in Chapter V, and con­ clusion® and recommendations in light of the findings will be presented in the concluding chapter. C H A P T E R V TREATMENT OF THE DATA Introduction Considerations In treatment of the data The preceding chapters of this study have teen devoted to a presentation of basic data pertaining to the investigation, beginning with the interviews conducted with people who had been participating in organised Child Study. The interviews were aimed at securing responses indicative of feeling© toward participation in Child Study. Analysis of the interviews and preliminary exami­ nation of the data led to various assumptions concerning the length of participation, conditions of operation of the program, and other considerations upon the feelings of participants toward the program. These assumptions have been outlined in detail In Chapter I; and from their statement certain hypotheses were evolved, from which the study has taken It© form. Chapter ¥ of the study proposes to examine data tabulated In Chapter I¥ in light of the hypotheses presented In the first chapter of the study, £22 223 The order of the presentation and statistical examination of data will follow the order of the presen­ tation of the hypotheses. It is reiterated that such an organisation is not to he construed as implying a grada­ tion according to order of Importance, nor are the hy­ potheses to he assumed as being regarded of equal im­ portance. The order of presentation has been employed solely as s device which is intended to lend coherence to the study and aid in the systematic presentation of the analysis and treatment of the -data. References will be made to the tabulations of Chapter IV, in which evi­ dences from the examination and analysis of the instru­ ments employed are presented in untreated for®. Treatment of Data: Hypotheses Length of participation and nature of response The first set of Interviews mentioned in this in­ vestigation consisted of 231 responses concerning par­ ticipation at all levels of Child Study. These inter­ views, in toto., were not used directly in this study, ex­ cept for those first-year people who remained in Child 22h Study for the year immediately succeeding, and who were again interviewed, at the end of the second year. It is interesting, however, to note the results of an examination of Table 1, presenting a cross-section of persons participating in four years of the program, and including a section devoted solely to the responses of administrative personnel. Dispensing with the us© of t percentages, and employing the method of using chi-square as described by Edwards (13* 250-252) for determining significance where more than two groups are involved, we find the following table resulting from a treatment of data obtained from the original favorable-unfavorable re­ sponses . An examination of the results obtained from statistical treatment of these data, as presented in I Table 13* demonstrates that the response to Child Study obtained from a cross-sectional, random sampling consist­ ing of 176 classroom teachers, while not-directly applica­ ble to the testing of the first hypothesis from the stand­ point of continuity in the program, is nevertheless sup­ portive in that the value of chi-square is highly sig­ nificant at the 1 per cent level. It is also supportive 225 In the fact that not only Is there evidence in longitudinal samplings hut it also makes vertical sampling available. It should be noted here that responses of people at the fourth year level of Child Study were not included. Due to circumstances beyond the control of the interviewers, it was possible to secure only six interviews from these people* and it was felt that such a small sampling would not be of significant value. A further comparison, not actually included in the hypotheses proper, is here presented, a comparison of re­ sponses of first-* and second-year participants of Table 15 with the responses of administrators a® shown in Table 1. The results of this comparison, while not influencing the first hypothesis, show certain trends which will be ex­ amined more fully in the chapter on conclusions and recom­ mendations. The comparison of response® of first-year and second-year participants and administrators is shown in Table® 1^ and 15, respectively. The comparison presented in Table 15, when viewed in conjunction with the results of the comparison of re­ sponses of first-year participants and administrators, as shown in Table lb, illustrate® quite clearly the significance of a second year of participation in Child Study upon 226 SIGNIFICANCE TABLE OF BSSFONSES OF CHILD 13 AT TEHEE-YEAH LEVEL STUDY Favorable Unfavorable Total First Year Lo 27 67 Second Year 53 19 72 Third Year 3** 3 37 Total 127 kg 1?6 d .f. s= 2 Xs r= 17- 63 P =S .01 227 T A B U Ik C O M P A R IS O H OF RESPONSES OF FXRST-YKAB FARTXCIPANTS AHD ADMIWSTRATORS Farticipsnts Favorable Unfavorable Total First Year ko 27 67 Administrators k2 7 kg fatal 82 3k 116 TABLE 15 COMPARISON OF RESPOUSES OP SECORD-YEAR PARTICIPANTS ARC ADMINISTRATORS ini ■_«*. 11"_^ ^ i' in r ii'T^iiisr.''"1 l e»se r* to r^ r.in?! *n ^^ afsssjir!^ x ii^ssifty^ ss. \. LiTu?? Participants Favorable Unfavorable Total Second-Year 55 19 72 Administrators h2 ? **9 Total 95 26 121 229 favorable -unfavorable responses to the program„ The re­ sponses chosen to Illustrate this point were those of the first set of inteririw8? it 'being felt that they would be more meaningful, since they were taken at the same time as those of the administrators. The results emphasise the effect of a second year's work when the chi-square value of Table 1h is compared with that of Table 15# the ratio being that of 12 .525 ; 2.55**-. The favorable response© of administrators drops from a percentage significance of 1 per cent to one of from 20 to 50 per cent. When one con­ siders the further fact that administrators of most of the centers where interviews were conducted were given a much more thorough orientation to Child Study than was afforded classroom teachers, the results of an additional year of participation become even more apparent . The investigation proper is concerned with responses through a two-year period of time; and the first examina­ tion of such data concerns itself with information con­ tained in Table 2 and Table SB, corrected for persons who dropped out of the Child Study program between the 1950 and the 1951 interviews, and including one person previous­ ly mentioned who refused to be Interviewed in 1951- This correction gives a through-time testing of responses. 250 and Table 16, as amended fro® Table® 2 and 2B follows. If continuation in Child Study .resulted in no change In favorable responses, one would expect the ratio of favorable to unfavorable Interviews at the end of the second year of participation to remain the same as that at the end of the first year. Instead, there is an in­ crease in nine in the number of favorable responses, with a corresponding decrease in the number of negative re - fiponses. Statistically, these results show significance at the 2 per cent levelj it is therefore safe to assume that there is a definite influence favoring a positive response to the query, "How do you feel about the Child Study program?” This Influence, while slightly less sig­ nificant than the alteration of attitudes represented in Table 13, nevertheless eeems to affirm .the assumption that on® additional year's participation results in a more favorable attitude toward the Child Study program. Through comparison of results shown in Table 13 and 1 n Table 16, we find that favorable responses to par­ ticipation in the program Increased significantly under two conditions of sampling: (1) simultaneous, cross- sectional sampling through a period of three year® and (2) responses secured from the same person© at the end of 251 TABU 16 SIGNIFICANCE OF HESPONSES THROUGH TWO-YEAR PERIOD OF CHILD STUDY Participants Favorable Unfavorable Total First Year 37 22 39 Second Year k6 13 59 Total S3 35 118 d.f. = 1 X2 5.871 p = .02 232 one year and at the end of two years of participation, a longitudinal sampling through time. Under both conditions of sampling, responses showed a frequency of favorability in such a degree as to be statistically significant. The evidence presented in Tables 13 and 16 are of­ fered, therefore, in substantiation of the statement made in Hypothesis 1 : Favorable responses to Child Study will increased with increased years of participation. Workshop participation and responses Information in Table 6, Chapter IV, accounts for the responses of those of the fifty-nine interviewees who responded favorably In the ratio 37 i 22 and who had also attended a local or state workshop in human development. Attendants at one or more such workshops responded favor­ ably in the ratio 20: 7, and nonattendants responded in the ratio 26 s 6. Table 17, following, places these r e ­ sults against chi-square to determine the degree of sig­ nificance existing. The results of Table 1? do not give the value of chi-square a large enough weight to cause it to Indicate a significance; and the hypothesis that favorability of 233 SIGMIfICAMCE (According TABLE 17 OF WORKSHOP to Type of EXP.&BXEHCBS Response ) Experiences Favorable Unfavorable Total Workshop 20 7 27 Nomrorkshop 2 6 6 32 Total 16 15 39 d .f . z 1 xc = .1*38 p 2= *50 - *70 response vi 11 increase with workshop experience is un­ tenable, at least insofar as the sampling of this study tends to indicate * The results of Table 1? have proved to he some­ what surprising, in view of the feeling usually expressed t o -the contrary by those persons vho participate in work­ shop experiences. The fact that there is nothing in the evidence here presented to substantiate the assumption that workshop participation will increase the ratio of favorability of feeling toward Child Study does, however, have another and perhaps more meaningful implication for the program. As revealed by answers given in the course of the interviews and in the treatment of data thus obtained, there is a significance throughout both the longitudinal and vertical samplings in the increase of favorability of responses. This increase would, then, tend to support the assumption that favorable feelings toward the program are fostered more through the program itself than through any one concomitant of the program. The implication here is that the operation of Child Study through time is more effective than intensive preparation through workshop par­ ticipation, and that one thing would seem to strengthen 235 the program itself without lowering the value of work­ shop participatlon. Responses and meeting of needs In the first-year Interviews, thirty-seven per­ sons either stated directly that Child Study met certain of their professional needs or else stated that the pro - gram aided them, or, at least, contained possihilities of being helpful. Among the needs met, the following were mentioned: better understanding of children, better understanding of behavior and the problems which it might indicate, more sympathy for the problems of children, and better staff relations. Of the twenty two person® report- ing unfavorably, seven saw Child Study as having such possibilities, but as having failed of success because of weaknesses in the administration of the program. Recog­ nition of the meeting of needs was thus present In forty- four of the responses, with thirty--seven directly claim­ ing such results from the program. The questionnaire asked the direct question, MDid Child Study help meet needs which you have felt in teach­ ing?” As Table 7 shows, the responses were in the ratio 236 h3 : 16 . It Is altogether possible, as in the first-year interviews, that some of the sixteen reporting "No” might have recognised the existence of the possibility that Child Study could meet certain needs, even though the actual accomplishment might not have been realized. The interviews at the end of second-year Child Study revealed that forty-six persons reported favorably| each of their Interviews, as indicated In Chapter IV, stated directly or by clear implication that certain needs in their teaching were met by the program. As in the case of the first-year interviews, an additional number, four in this instance, indicated their awareness of the possibility of Child Study as being helpful, but stated that they had not been benefItted. Again, the lack of help in meeting needs was ascribed to elements within the program and not to inherent weakness. In all cases, how­ ever, there were those who neither benefitted nor recog­ nized the possibility of benefit from Child Study as re­ lated to felt professional needs, It should be pointed out, also, that negative re­ sponses in the interviews usually stated needs other than increased understanding of children. Meeds were expressed for better teaching of reading and other subject matter 237 skills, and each unfavorable respondent indicated an in-* ability to see potential benefit to a ciiisroo® of chil­ dren from the intensive study of only one pupil* Thus, the reverse of the hypothesis also seems to be true: negatively inclined teachers {1} do not recognise certain needs, (2) have other felt needs which overshadow in im­ portance that of understanding, or (5) do not recognise or admit benefits which they ©ay have derived. The re­ sults later to be shown in the testing of Hypothesis 7 would lead one to believe that the last reason is perhaps the most likely one * In view of the nature of the responses to the In­ terviews end to the questionnaire, and further in view of the fact that workshops and voluntary participation have no apparent effect upon feelings toward Child Study, it seems feasible to assume that the meeting of needs does follow the nature of feeling expressed toward the program. The hypothesis seems sound In light of the results of this examination. There 1®, however, a distinct need for a more sensitive instrument to test the hypothesis further, with the idea in mind that Implication© for the program might be derived thereby which would aid In the recogni­ tion of existent needs on the part of participants and 238 which might conceivably aid the® in the recognition of benefits when and if sue!; occur as a result of taking part in the program. Realatan.ce to change If has already been stated that there was not a single Instance where a person who reported unfavorably toward the program gave his own unwillingness or inabili­ ty to benefit as a reason therefor. The presence of such a condition leads one to recall the statement of Cantor to the effect that To change may mean to surrender balance and control earned at great cost. When self organiza­ tion is threatened, feeling or emotion is aroused, and change is fought. In spite of resistance, people change, but at a cost, especially when an­ other's will is imposed. Change need not occur in this manner. Move­ ment may proceed by enlisting the positive aspect of one's will. A positive willingness to move in the direction of another is mad© possible if the one who Is to change is given the right of self- determination. (6: 67} As pregnant with meaning as this fourth hypothesis is felt to be, If Is impossible to offer, from the data at our command, proof positive of its validity. It must, 239 TABLE 18 REASONS GIVEN FOR UNFAVORABLE RESPONSES Reason® given Interviews Questionnaire First Second Number of negative responses 22 13 15 Consultants unsatis­ factory 12 9 Meetings unsatis­ factory 16 11 Leadership unsatis­ factory 18 12 No help from Vending 15 10 therefore, he regarded as being inconclusive. There are certain figures, however, which will he presented here, to justify the original assumption that unfavorable feel­ ings toward and responses to Child Study result in much of the resistance to change observed in certain teacher® throughout this investigation. See Table 18. Voluntary and enforced participation and responses It has already been stated that various require - ments were In effect in the nineteen schools comprising this study with reference to participation in Child Study, and that the situations ranged fro® completely voluntary to rigidly required participation. The data shown in Table 6 of Chapter IV reflect the responses of teachers in comparison with conditions under which they took part in Child Study. Obviously, no attempt has been made to account for whatever indirect pressures teachers may have felt j the only criterion which could be fairly used seems to be that of direct administrative compulsion. In schools where participation was required dur­ ing 1950-51, teachers responded favorably in the ratio 2hl of X8 s 7} in schools where participation was voluntary (to the extent that no administrative directive had been issued) the ratio -28 : 6 was found. Examination of these results for their significance is seen in fable 19. The value of chi-spare as shown in this table does not show statistical significance beyond the 30 to 50 per cent level) and it is, therefore, safe to assume that very little importance can legitimately be attached to requirements made of teacher® to take part in Child Study, in spite of the feeling that has long been preva­ lent on the part of consultants and many resource persons as to the value of voluntary participation. There are two considerations which must be stated here with reference to the matter of enforced vs. volun­ tary participation. First, it should be pointed out that there were certain schools where teachers had no oppor­ tunity to volunteer) participation in Child Study was in­ cluded as a requirement of employment. Had there been an opportunity to volunteer, it is likely that many teachers would have done so. As it was, it is possible that cer­ tain teacher** here categorized as partic ipat ing non- voluntarily might actually have been volunteer®, had the opportunity to be such been theirs. 'Second, there is a TAB IM 19 VOLUNTARY AND SHFORCED PARTXCIFATIOH IM CHILD STUDY (According to Type of Respouse) Participation Favorable Unfavorable Total Required 18 7 23 Voluntary 28 6 j>h Total 13 39 2k$ need for investigation as to the possible results from forced participation upon groups and group members, for example, the influence which might have resulted from the presence in a group of certain unenthuslastic members upon the total work of the group. Ho data are present for such an inclusion in this study; its mention is made in an effort to bring out possibilities existent but un­ tested * The fact that teachers are required to participate will likely result, as in this case, in an increase in un­ favorable responses, but not in great enough degree to be statistically important. As in all other interpretations, it should be pointed out here that the data in this study apply only to the schools here represented; no broad gen­ eralisations will be attempted. It should also be borne in mind that the sampling here is relatively small. There are other items contained in Tables 2 through 5, such as age, sex, marital status, parenthood, years of experience in teaching, and grades taught by teacher® interviewed. When these factors were tested, it was found that the value of chi-square was of no sig­ nificance In the case of age or sex, thus bearing out the findings of Eohl (6^), at least as far as the sampling 2kh for this study was concerned * The significance in the effect of marital status upon responses was hardly greater, with a percentage figure of only .50 to *50* When re­ sponses of parents, nonparental married teachers, and single teachers were treated, however, the value of chi- square becomes ^.59®* with significance at the 10 per cent level, not indicating exceptional importance, but perhaps worthy of notice for further investigation, especially in a larger sampling than was treated in this study* The responses of parents, nonparents, and single teacher® is presented in Table 20. It should be noted that figures used here are those of the first set of in- tervievs, and have not accounted for those respondents who dropped out of the study between the two sets of inter­ views . Table ;> , Chapter I?, was also examined for the possible results of years of experience. Since categories were so small, it was decided to divide experience into two classes: (1) ten years or less and (2) more than ten years, There was no particular basis for such a di­ vision; it was made arbitrarily to secure larger numbers in each cell, there being no intention to use whatever results might have become apparent in testing hypotheses. 245 TABLE 20 RSSP0HS8S OF PARBBTS, HOHPAREHTS, ABB SIHOLE TEACHERS Status of Teachers Favorable Unfavorable Total Parents 19 6 25 Monparenta T 8 Single Ik 13 27 Total ko 27 67 d.f. = 2 X* = 4.598 p = .10 2kS The chi-square test of significance vas at the 50 to 50 per cent level, thus further hearing out Hohl's findings that there is no apparent influence exerted through length of experience of teachers. Another examination not pertinent to this study and the hypotheses selected for testing was carried out in connection with level of teaching, with responses of teachers of grades 1 to 6 compared with responses of Junior and senior high school teachers as to favorable - unfavorable nature regarding participation in the program, chi-square was found to have a value of 12.928. Since a value of 9*^10 Is considered significant at the 1 per cent level, it might be well to consider a further investiga­ tion concerning participation of teachers above the ele­ mentary level, with the idea of examining the effective­ ness of Child Study at that level and with the further idea of increasing the favorability of response to the program on the part of secondary teachers, a response that seems to be too low at the present time. Responses and mechanics of the program Hypothesis 6 deals with the responses of interviewees 2kl and their relation to adequacy of understanding of the basic mechanics of Child Study. The elements of the pro- gram* as revealed through study of the anecdotal records kept by participants* will encompass the following se­ lected factors; (1) number of entries, shown in Table 91 (2) source of anecdotal materials, Table 9; (5) adequacy of background material presented in the record* Table 10; and (3) completeness of anecdotes, Table 11. It Is pro­ posed to test the, connection between type of response to the program and these elements of the program; and to that end, the number and range of entries are compared with positive and negative response® for first- and second- year participants. Table 21 is based on the assumption that three to four anecdotal entries weekly would be an amount which could be expected, with a total of one hundred to one hundred and twenty-five entries resulting from such a record. The resultant table, developed from the data of Table 8, is presented to compare responses with adequacy of records. The significance of chi-square, while not at the 1 per cent level, is nevertheless great enough to warrant the inclusion of this Item in the consideration of the 2kB TABLE aX HUMBSB OF H1COBBS WITH SOFPICXSUT ABICDOTAL EHTBIBS ( According to Type of fiesponse) Year in the Child Study Program Favorable Unfavorable Total First tear 18 T 25 Second Year 32 3 33 Total 50 10 60 d.f. « 1 X* = 3.961 p = .02 - .05 2k9 hypothesis. Ho significance, however, is to b© observed in any of the items of Table 9, Chapter IV. A steady trend toward inclusion of more desirable source© of anec­ dotes, such as playground, home, and situation© other than horn© or school, as opposed to the use of anecdotes solely from the classroom, while present, is not of enough strength to show statistical significance. An examination of Table 10, Chapter IV, reveals the sa^e lack of significance as is shown in Table 9* Several items, such a© teachers* inclusion of material concerning family way of life and peer relations in the background of the record, show rather marked increases for those Individual© reporting favorably, Teachers who responded unfavorably, on the other hand, also showed in" creases in the inclusion of material regarded as desir­ able. There is here the implication that the lessons of record keeping, while reasonably well learned, do not have any significant connection with feelings toward Child Studyi or, by the contrary token, did not result in bet­ ter feelings toward participation in the program. There is, at this point, apparent evidence that participation, of itself,, resulted in the learning of certain basic techniques; but there is hardly evidence of cause and 250 effect In the testing of the hypothesis. There is, however, a. different picture presented in Table 22, adapted fro®. Table 11, Chapter IV, and deal ing with the completeness of anecdotes. For some reason, the completeness of anecdotal recording seemed to be a phase of learning of the basic techniques which tended to substantiate the hypothesis more readily than did any of the other factors considered. The acquisition of this skill seems to be more readily apparent than that of any other in the mechanics of thc program. The results of testing Hypothesis 6 are regarded as being inconclusive. The test of chi-square applied to teachers* Inclusion of material other than from the class­ room and to teachers * wider use of background material produced no evidence of significant variation. On the other hand, the test produced results at the 2 to 5 par cent level of significance, while Table 22 shows chi-square to have a value of 7.710 and significance at the 1 per cent level. Th© split in results in testing led to an imme­ diate suspicion of error, but a re ■‘'examination of the basic data revealed no change in total figures as original­ ly presented. The lack of consistency in testing this 251 TABLE 22 COMPLETENESS OF ARECBOTES, SIGHXFICAHCE AT WO-YEAR LEVEL CAccording to fype of ,Be®,pona®) Year is the Child Study Frogra® Favorable Unfavorable Total First Year 59 S3 82 Second Year B k 11 93 Total 1^3 3^ 177 d *f . = 1 Xs rs ? .710 p ss .01 252 hypothesis does not lead itself readily to explanation, Among possible reasons for the inconsistent results, the possibility has been recognized that perhaps consultants and resource people stressed the importance of source of material and of inclusion of background material more than the number and completeness of anecdotes* Another possibility exists in the fact that it requires more work to observe and record more anecdotes, and that those vho were unfavorable toward participation were reluctant to put in the extra time and effort required, It is likewise true that the use of cumulative records, Interviews with other teachers, and similar ef­ forts connected with writing complete records involved much additional effort on the part of the teacher keeping the record, hence a reluctance on the part of those un­ favorable toward the program to exert the energy necessary to secure pertinent information required for complete records, It is also true to a degree that the use of more complete anecdotes result® in the teacher herself playing a more important part in the dynamics of the classroom as narrated in the anecdotes. If this Is true, then it could be that certain teachers--and It is assumed j that they would be those unfavorably disposed toward Child 233 Study — would become wary of portraying themselves in roles that would be unfavorable. If these suggestions have merit; then the discrepancy in results becomes less mystifying. Whatever the reason for the lack of con­ sistency in testing results, and in spite of the high de gree of significance shown in Tables 21 and 22, it seems logical to assume the results of testing Hypothesis 6 ren­ der it untenable, and that feelings toward participation In Child Study have no significant bearing upon perform­ ance in the mastery of the techniques here concerned. A more liberal interpretation of the results would assume the validity of the explanations offered, but statistical result© are such a© to render it unlikely, in the scien­ tific manner striven for in the study, that one could do more than to classify the results as more than 'incon­ sistent , " at the best. It should be noted here that the result® of this study, within Its own framework, bear out the findings of Mershon (68) and Hohl {6h ) . Mershoa, for example, found Increase in acceptable use of the mechanics of the pro- gra through a two-year period. This study has seen something of the same increase. Persons who indicated dissatisfaction with the program, its operation and its results upon teaching 25^ showed, In most cases, a more limited Increase in facili­ ty of employment of techniques than did those who ex­ pressed satisfaction. A major difference in the studies lies in the use of data. Mershon, for example, was us­ ing paired records; this study, by its very nature, used dissimilarity in a basic area as its approach to the prob­ lem. Rohl used prepared tests, conducted in a testing situation; this study, as did that of Mershon, has used the records kept by teachers as an important source of data. For these reasons, the study has not paralleled previous findings, but it is believed that it has tended to bear out former investigation insofar as variations in approach to the problem would permit. Responses and understanding and acceptance of basic concepts of human development It has already been pointed out that, since this study is of a longitudinal nature with reference to time, it has not been considered practicable to include pos­ sible increase in understanding of the six-area framework employed in second-year Child Study. An effort ha® been made throughout the investigation to consider only those 255 elements in Child Study which would run through the en­ tire two years of the study proper. Since the results were not paired and were differentiated on the basis of feelings expressed toward the program, some basis of com­ parison became a necessity. Had it been possible to have had enough data to have kept the same favorably and un­ favorably inclined teachers, a study of more significance might have resulted. Since that was not possible, it has been deemed worthwhile to tabulate and study evidences in the records which indicate growth in teachers* understand­ ing and acceptance of the basic conce pt s of human develop­ ment: (1) behavior is caused; (2) the causes of behavior are multiple, complex, and interrelated; (5) the behavior of an individual must be accepted as an integral part of his self structure; (*0 each individual is unique; and (5) every individual is valuable. For obvious reasons, it was not practicable to test the sixth concept, that the scientific method is our most effective way of work­ ing toward an increased understanding of people. As explained and illustrated in the preceding chapter, the records were read for evidences of such in­ crease; and the results were recorded in Table 12, Chapter IV. Table 23 is a reproduction of this Information with TABLE 23 EVIDENCES IN RECORDS OF TEACHERS* UNDERSTANDING AID ACCEPTANCE OF BASIC CONCEPTS SIGNIFICANCE NOTED (According to Type of Response) Basic Concepts Weighted Average Frequency Evidenced of Evidences_____________ Statistical Treatment in Records First Posi­ tive Year Nega­ tive Second Posi­ tive Year Nega - tive d.f. chi square & Behavior Caused 3^7 183 60k 221 1 10,098 .01 Multiplicity of Causes 336 I2t 728 212 1 it .JS6 .05 Acceptance of Behavior 286 Iks 303 178 1 &.B0h .01 Uniqueness of Individual 370 131 589 166 1 8.109 .01 Value of Individual kX9 196 767 227 1 16.865 .01 M VJ* C\ 257 the results of statistical analysis. Data presented in falsie 25> as discussed in Chapter IV , were gathered from an intensive analysis of the records kept by fifty-nine persons over a period of two years. The basic concepts of human development upon which the data are based were developed in Chapter III of this study. The frequency of evidences of understanding has been weighted to equate the fact that first-year people responded favorably toward Child Study in the interviews in the ratio 37 : 22, and second-yea r people responded favorably in the ratio 46 : 13. The frequencies for positive responses are exact figuresj the frequencies for those responding unfavorably have been weighted to account for the difference© in numbers of re­ spondents; this weighting also allows for the avoidance of the use of percentages. It would see® significant that all participants showed evidences of including references which indicated increased understandings of the basic concepts. In no case was there a record with less such anecdotal refer­ ences in the second year than in the first, and the sum­ mation of frequencies shows significance at the 1 per cent level for all concepts except that of the causes of behavior being multiple, complex, and interrelated. This 258 fact has been taken to mean that, in spite of negative responses, there has been a change in the concepts pos­ sessed by those taking part In two years of the program* This evident change in concepts also seems to cor­ relate with a statement made in an earlier portion of this investigation to the effect that negative feelings toward Child Study were, in every instance, directed against con­ sultants or leaders or some other implementing factor of the program. The fact is that not only were criticisms not directed by participants against themselves or their part in the program, but they were never directed against the basic concepts of Child Study. Feelings against the program do not seem to deter learning; they might result in a participant *s dropping out of the program. Evidences of increased understanding and use of the basic concepts of human development came not only from examination of the anecdotes themselves, but also from the summations made by the teachers in closing out their records. The number and kind of hypotheses as well as treatment of the evidences in the record in substantia­ tion or refutation of the hypotheses were examined, and the results of acceptance were presented in Table 25* Di­ rect statements were found, especially in the perusal of 259 teachers* responses to the three questions employed In analysis of records: (1) What Is the child trying to dot (2) What assets and what liabilities doe® the child seem to have? (5) What might the school and the teacher do to help the child in the attainment of his goalst Consistency of responses The validity of testing devices used in this study rests upon the assumption of consistency in responses of teachers to each of the instruments used; interviews, questionnaires , and records. It has been seen in the in- tervievs, separated m® they were by an entire year, that the consistency has been in an Increase in favorability toward Child Study as indicated in the responses and their statistical examination. It remains to be seen if the questionnaire is consistent with the interview result®. The insertion of the questlonnair© between the Interviews was done to secure another type of response, and was not intended originally as a check on the interviews. Con­ sistency of response® will be examined from four approaches: (1) favorable-unfavorable, (2) basic concepts, (5) changes in classroom procedures, and (k ) attitude® toward consultants. 260 TABLE 2k COMPARISON OF FAVORABLE AMD UNFAVORABLE RESPONSES-- INTERVIEWS AND QUESTIONNAIRE Occasion of Response Favorable Unfavorable Total Interview No. X 37 22 59 Questionnaire kk 13 39 Interview No. 2 k6 13 59 Xm » 5.789 ««M.. 111 ■■»H» >11 W — Wi 261 The value of chi square for the above set of data vas found to be and no significance could he attached to the variation found, since such a value is significant at the 20 per cent level. In the light of this finding, there appears to be a high degree of con­ sistency in the favorable-unfavorable response® as shown by interviews and the questionnaire. Inability to get complete agreement is Indicated by the fact that the ques­ tionnaire respondents indicated their approval of the pro­ gram in the ratio kU : 15J yet the last item of the ques­ tionnaire shows that only k2 people would be willing to continue in the program on a completely voluntary basis. It is possible, of course, that the small difference could be the result of carelessness In answering, or It could well be that another program of in-service work would have been more attractive to those who indicated a lack of de­ sire to continue Child Study. A second item of the questionnaire which seemed to lend itself to comparison with the other device of evidences in the anecdotal records is found in items 10 to Ik of the questionnaire, as set out in Table 7, Chap­ ter IV. These item® and the number of responses ares 262 Responses Post- Regrn- tive tive Every human being is unique 51 8 Every human being is valuable ^5 l6 All behavior is caused 50 9 Causes of behavior are multiple 5U 5 Behavior must be accepted 39 20 The greatest amount of agreement between records and questionnaire in the matter of basic concepts of -hu­ man development is shown in the area of multiple causes of behavior. This concept was given the highest acceptance in the questionnaire! it showed the last significant vari­ ance in the analysis of anecdotal material. Likewise, the concept of the uniqueness of the Individual was second in acceptance 'both in the records and in the questionnaire. The interviews, likewise, give relatively high frequency in (1 ) responses indicating the necessity for seeking causes and a realization that causes are not always readily apparent and In (2 ) references to individual differences, used in a manner synonymous with uniqueness . There is, it would seem, a high degree of agreement between the instru­ ment© used in this study insofar as this area is concerned. 263 There is also a high degree of agreement in the interviews in regard to teachers* awareness of changes in classroom procedures; in two sets of interviews, only fourteen people declared they could see no change, and the high value of chi-square in the statistical calcula­ tions hear® out this awareness. When asked the same item on the questionnaire, however, responses indicated aware­ ness of change in the ratio of only 3*+: 25. When tested -for variation, chi-square indicated a significance at the 1 per cent level, and consistency seems to be lacking in this particular item. Agreement is present between two of the three testing devices, and the possibility of answers* to the questionnaire being influenced by the time element cannot be ignored. This is to say that while the imme­ diacy of response in an interview tends to draw out feel­ ing level answers, the situation surrounding a question­ naire tends to reflection on the part of the teacher; and she might possibly consider that admission of change in class procedure would constitute an admission of previous­ ly ineffect Ive teaching methods * Xn any event» and In view of the fact that two of the three instruments show a high consistency In response, it will be assumed that the apparent inconsistency in on© will not affect the over-all 26 k results, particularly in view of the amount of change re vealed in the study of the anecdotal records. The fourth and last item, evaluation of con­ sultant service, also shows similarity of response. There Is no commensurate quality between records and the inter­ views and the questionnaire, hut the latter two show agree­ ment. Examination of the first-year interviews indicates that, although thirty-seven positive responses to the total program were given, there were thirty persons who offered resistance to consultants and 'their mode of operation in the program; and there were twenty one persons in the secondryeer interviews who offered, similar criticisms. The low percentage level of chi-square, 2 0 to 30 per cent, would indicate a relatively high degree of correlation of results, although not in the degree found in the preceding three items tested* Summary Chapter V of this study has concerned itself with the testing of hypotheses advanced in the first chapter. These hypotheses, seven in number, were derived from as­ sumptions growing out of the examination of results of two 265 sets of interviews and one questionnaire concerning teachers* reactions toward participation in a program of in-service education, the organized Child Study pro­ gram of the Institute for Child Study of the University of Maryland, as conducted for teachers in nineteen Texas cities by the Division of Extension of The University of Texas. The techniques of the program and the manner in which this study developed have been explained in preced­ ing sections of the study. It now remains to assess the hypotheses in light of data studied as to their tenability. There is evidence that Hypotheses 1, %, and 7 are clearly tenable, that there are enough data to support these assumptions in the sampling here present. These three hypotheses, dealing with continued participation, meeting of felt needs, and understanding of human develop­ ment concepts, form what seems to be the most vital part of the study. Two hypotheses, Bos. 2 and 5, are untenable in the light of treatment of data pertaining to their assump­ tions. There is no evidence in the data studied to sub­ stantiate the claim that workshop experiences or volun­ tary participation will Increase the favorabillty of ^ teachers toward the program. It Is felt, on the other 266 hand, that the response of teachers is due more to the vhole program and to- continued work in the program than to the influence of any one phase or condition of the program. Examination of Hypotheses k and 6 resulted in no evidence definite enough to support or to refute their assumptions. Evidence is present to support the fact that there is resistance to change , but it is in such form that its tabulation and evaluation would lead to an­ other study. There are four elements in the mastery of the mechanics of the program which have been explored here. Of the four, two gave evidence of supporting the sixth hypothesis; but two vsre not significant when statistical measures were applied. Chapter VI will be concerned with conclusion© drawn from the study and with recommendations which seem pertinent in view of the findings here related. C H A P T I B f l CONCLUSIONS AED BICGMMEBDATIOBS Introduction The foregoing investigation has been concerned with an analysis of responses by teachers to their par­ ticipation in the Child Study program. The responses were favorable or unfavorable toward the over-all program or to various elements within the program. The responses were so selected as to give both a cross-sectional and a longitudinal approach to the investigat ion, and the major portion of the study concerned itself with the responses of participants through © period of two years. The data were assembled against a background of seven major hypothe­ ses. Three of these hypotheses were significantly sup­ ported by the evidences from tabulation of the data; two were of such a nature that the data from the study proved to be inconclusive; two were found to be unsupported by the evidence. The last two, in their lack of support, however, were found to substantiate certain basic premises of the Child Study program as viewed by consultants en­ gaged professionally in it® staffing. 267 268 Acting upon the assumption that the use of sever­ al instruments for testing during the course of the inves- tigat ion had necessitated a check on consistency of results thus obtained, such a comparison of data fro® interviews, the questionnaire, and the record® has been made in some detail in Chapter V • It was found that consistency did exist, except for minor variations5 and the validity of the instruments has bean accepted. It is sometimes difficult to draw conclusions fro® evidence; interpretation becomes increasingly diffi­ cult when several factors must be dealt with. The study now being completed has attempted to draw together certain elements of Child Study, growing out of the program. There are Instances where data did not exist in quantity sufficient to warrant statistically provable conclusions; there are other instances where conclusions have been clear and distinct. Conclusions have been drawn from the examination and statistical treatment of data, and will be presented in this chapter in connection with their bearing upon the hypotheses being tested. Certain recommendations which have evolved from the study will also be presented. Both conclusions and recommendations are offered for the 269 improvement of in-service education for teachers, with emphasis on Child Study, to the end that better under­ standing of children may result and better instruction follow increased understanding of human development. Conclusions 1. With reference to findings developed in the explora­ tion of Hypothesis 1: a. Increased length of time spent in participation in Child Study results in increased favorability of response by teachers to the program. b. There is no appreciable connection between the favorable-unfavorable responses of teachers to Child Study and their age, sex, or marital statu© . c. There is a significance of relationship between favorability of response to the program and the grade level taught, elementary teachers respond­ ing more favorably than secondary teachers. d. There is a significant increase In favorability of response during the third year of Child Study — a© compared with the first and second years. e. There is evidence that administrators are more ready to accept Child Study as a new experience than are classroom teachers. With reference to Hypothesis 2 , the result of work­ shop experiences, considered in light of the responses of teachers to part1cipation in the Child Study pro­ gram, led to two conclusions most readily apparent; a . The strength of the Child Study program depends upon its operation through time. b. The responses of teachers in general toward par­ ticipation in Child Study do not reflect influences of accelerated and intensive procedures, such as workshops. With reference to Hypothesis 3, when responses were considered in light of the program having met the felt needs of teachers, the data have suggested that; a. A significant number of teachers state that Child Study meet© a need on their part for greater un­ derstanding of children. - b . Teachers will express approval of an in-service program if they feel that It offers them a means of satisfying felt professional needs. With reference to Hypothesis k, no significant statis­ tical data were found relative to resistance to change. There are, however, certain item© suggested by the investigation of interviews, questionnaire, and anec­ dotal records: a . There are evidences of resistance to change in (a) a refusal to recognize changes which have taken place in classroom procedures and (b) a reluctance to participate in an activity calculated to induce professional development. b. Teachers who responded unfavorably to Child Study demonstrated a reluctance to change in the in­ sistence of many that the program become more of a structured, formal, instructor-pupil-course at­ tack upon subject matter material. With reference to Hypothesis 5, although there is no certain way of determining exactly how many people would have participated voluntarily in Child Study, due to the fact that certain schools made the par­ ticipation of teachers a requirement of employment and offered no choice as to taking part in the work of in-service education, from the conditions of the hypothesis itself certain evidences should fee con­ sidered : a* There seems to he so significant connection be­ tween favorable-unfavorable responses to Child Study and voluntary participation in the pro­ gram . b. Although no statistical support has been brought out in the data , there are evidences in the in­ terviews that voluntary participation appears to result in better group relations on the part of members, especially as regarded group leaders. With reference to Hypothesis 6, examination of anec­ dotal records and data resulting therefrom led to the following conclusions with regard to favorable~ unfavorable responses and mastery of techniques of Child Study: a. Teacher® who responded favorably to Child Study kept records with a larger number of entries than did those who responded unfavorably. b . Teachers who responded favorably to Child Study kept records with more complete anecdotes (set­ ting, action, etc,) than did those who were un­ favorable in their reaction to the program. c . The type of response of teachers to the program, their favorable or unfavorable reactions, did not 213 show significant relationship to (a) sources of information secured or (b) background material of the records examined, 7. With reference to Hypothesis ?, teachers who responded favorably to Child Study showed significant increase in understanding and acceptance of basic concepts of human development; (a) Behavior is caused; (b) the causes of behavior are multiple, complex, and inter­ related! (c) the behavior of the individual must be accepted! (d) each individual is unique, and (e) every human being is valuable. Those teachers who responded unfavorably showed, nevertheless, an increase in en­ tries indicating an increased understanding of these same basic concept®. Consistency of Results There are statistical evidences of consistency of response to each of the items of the study; interviews, questionnaire, and anecdotal records. These evidences lend validity to the study in that objective evidence®, as represented by examination of anecdotal records, cor- respond in large degree with subjective evidences, as 21k illustrated in the questionnaire and the interviews. The agreement exists both in results obtained and in facility of extraction of statistical measurements from raw data obtained from each instrument. Implications and Recommendations Certain evidences in the data studied appear to offer opportunities for drawing implications for the main­ tenance and improvement of the Child Study program. It is possible that many pertinent implications have not been recognized, but the following appear to have meaning in light of this study. Meeting of needs Teachers who responded unfavorably to Child Study frequently expressed needs relative to improvement of tech- niques of instruction. As opposed to the goal of gaining a deeper understanding of behavior, such an expression of need may have the immediate effect of lacking depth. It is suggested, however, that the earlier need may require satisfaction or resolution before an attack can be made on a concept with broader scope . Although the Child Study program constantly seeks implications for curriculum design and Improvement, there are evidences in the Interviews used in this study that many participants view themselves as working on Child Study or on curriculum* The implication here is for the need to abandon such a concept, if and where it exists, in favor of one which recognises the interrelatedness of all phases of the school program. Teachers who may have felt that such an apposition of purposes existed need to he encouraged by consultants, leaders, and resource peopl to feel that there 1© no basic conflict in purposes; the need for increased curricular skills is a valid one, and the increase will come with increased understanding. In the end, it is believed, such an approach, if kept always in mind, will increase favorable responses toward the pro gram, of Child Study and will perhaps increase confidence of teachers in their ability to recognize, identify, and work toward satisfaction of needs. Grade level of teachers and responses to Child Study The significant differences in responses toward Child Study of elementary and secondary teacher®, while 277 not unknown, Is always somewhat disconcerting. There have been many reasons advanced for the greater acceptance of the program on the part of elementary teachers; the fact remains that, except in a very few cases, Child Study has not had the appeal to secondary teachers that it has had for those in the lower grades. The implication has always been that certain factors resident in the pro­ gram itself, together with administrative features of Junior and senior high schools, have made success exceed­ ingly difficult. There is a feeling, however, that inves­ tigation from the proper frame of reference might serve to disprove former assumptions. It is suggested that the program be examined, not in the light of what exists and what difficulties must be overcome, but from the frame of reference of those secondary groups which have been suc­ cessful. The implication for Child Study, if such exists, would appear to focus on the expressed need of many second­ ary people for greater skill In guidance and counseling. Whatever the approach, there is believed to be a need for examination and evaluation .of the entire program to the end that its purposes and goals be brought more nearly into accord with felt needs of high school teachers. 273 Desirability of increased support and encouragement from administrators There is evidence In the body of this study that teachers respond to in-service work more favorably and work with better grace when they are aware of support from the adaainistrationj there is also evidence that ad- ministrators responded favorably in statistically signifi­ cant ratio when compared with' teachers engaged In first- year Child Study. This favorable response on the part of administrators has been ascribed to earlier and more thor­ ough orientation received by the© and to more frequent contacts with consultants and resource persons. Such con­ tacts and orientation have been held to result in a ©ore clearly defined sense of the goals and implementation of the program. It would see© logical to recommend, therefore, that administrators be brought closer into contact with the operation of Child Study. The interview®, although not examined directly for such evidences, do point out feelings toward administration, particularly with refer­ ence to (1) the opportunity which principal® had of closer contact with consultants and (2) to the requirement of 219 participation in the program as a condition of employ­ ment. Principals -would have, it is believed, a better chance of working with teachers, whatever aims were held, if they were to work In their in-service groups? and it is felt that the recoaaendation should be made that no centers in Texas schools be given consideration as pos­ sible participants in Child Study unless the administra­ tion is willing to assume responsibility of working with the teacher groups as peers. Encouragement of the pro­ gram is not enough? leadership working within and with the faculty Is strongly recommended. Heeded research The inability of this investigator to single out enough conclusive information regarding certain factors implied in the study and apparently related to the pro­ gram of Child Study has led to this expression of a need for further research in certain areas which seem to have meaning. The following areas are offered as seeming to in­ dicate a need for research, with little or no comment added to that already made in the body of the investiga­ tion : 280 1. There is a need for research concerning per­ sonality and feelings toward in-service work designed to promote greater gains from teaching; perhaps the area of threat to ©elf'-concept might offer a field for research. 2* Action research, as already indicated, might prove valuable in determining better ways of working through Child Study with secondary teacher®. 5. It is believed, in the face of the many de­ mands on the part of teachers, that more structuring be given the Child Study program, that another piece of ac­ tion research might be indicated. The suggestion would be that matched groups be selected, and one be given the accepted introduction to the program! the other would be given outlines of ways of working which would satisfy the need expressed by many to know what is ahead for a period of time. Various devices could be used in setting up such a research problem, and the results might prove of inter­ est. It is believed to be worthy of trial, at any rate. Concluding Statement The writer has studied the responses of partici­ pants In Child Study to interviews and to a questionnaire, 281 and has attempted to relate these responses to the work done In the anecdotal records kept by the teachers. The Importance of the feelings held toward the program has been presented a© objectively as possible, and there has been no attempt made to minimize their impact upon future part 1cipation in the program. On the other hand, it has not been suggested that undue or unreasonable effort should be made to guarantee favorable feelings .toward the program. As significant as the feelings so expressed have proved to be in the development of the study# it Is still felt that on® cannot Judge $ one must accept the re­ actions toward the situation as the outgrowth of the self of the participating teacher as that self responds to its ex­ perience background and Interprets what is happening in light of its own concept. The task undertaken here was that of gaining increased insight into the causes of certain behaviors and of gaining acceptance of and respect for those affected in unlikely ways through participation in Child Study. If the information here presented can assist in bringing together the teacher and the program, the effort expended has been indeed worthwhile. B I B L I O G R A P H Y B I B L I O G R A P H Y 1. 2 . 3. U. 5. 6 . 7. 8 . 9. 10 . Books All port, Gordon W , "Attitudes, w in A Handbook of Social Psychology. Carl Murchison? ed . Worcester, Mass.: Clark Univarsity Press. 1935* Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Action for Curriculum Development. Washington, B.C.: national Education Association, 1951* „ ___________ Postering; Mental Health in Qur Schools. Washington, B.C.: Rational Education Associa­ tion, 1950. Axline, Virginia Mae, Play Therapy. Boston: Hough - ton Mifflin Company, 19^7. Bruechner, Leo J., and Foster T. Grossnickle. Bov to Make Arithmetic Meaningful. Philadelphia: The John C . Winston Company, 19^7* Cantor, Nathaniel. - Dynamics of Learning. Buffalo: Poster and StevarTJ 19^6"."" Col© Lawrence £., and William P. Bruce, Educational Psychology. Yonkers -on-Hudson: World Book Com­ pany, 1950. Cunningham, Buth, and Associates. Understanding Group Behavior of Boys and Girls. lew York: Columbia University Press, 1951. Bollard, John, and Heal E . Miller. Personality and Psychotherapy. Hew York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1950. Edmonson, J. B ., Joseph Boemer, and Francis L . Bacon. The Administration of the Modern Secondary School. Hew York : Th© Macmillan"Company, I9V9 . 285 11. 12 . 15. Ik . 15 . 16. 1?. 18. 19. 2 0 . 2 1. 22 , 25. 2b . 28k Educational Policies Commission. The Purposes of Education in American Democracy. Washington, B.C.: Katlonal Education Association, 1956. ______ . Education for All American Children. Washington, B.C.: national Education Associa­ tion, 19U8 * Eduards, Allen L. Statistical Analysis. Hew Yorks Binehart 4 Company, Inc., 19^6. Oarrlson, Karl C . Psychology of Adolescence. leu York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 19^7- Gates, Arthur I. The Improvement of Beading. lieu York; The Macmillan Company, 19^7. Kavighurst > Robert J. Developmental Task© and Educa • tion. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, X9SS1. Hilgard, Ernest K. Theories of learning. lew York: D . Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 19k& . Hurlock, Elisabeth B. Child Growth and Development. lew York; 'Me G raw -HI 1 l^Book 'company^ 19X9 . Jennings, Helen Hall. Sociometry In Group Relations. Washington, B.C.; National Education Associa­ tion, 19k8. Kelley, Earl C. Education for What X* Real. New York; Harper 4 BroiT^ PuhXisheri"j 19^7^ _ _ _______ . The Workshop Way of learning. Hew York: Harper 4 Bros,, Publishers, 1951. Lecky, Prescott. Self-Consistency. Hew York: Island Press, 19^5. Lee, J. Murray, and lorrIs May Lee. The Child and His Curriculum. New Yorks D . Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1950. Levin, Kurt*- "Behavior and Development a® a Function of the Total-Situation," in Manual of Child 2 S3 Psychology» Leonard Carmichael, ed, Kew York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc ., X$k6 • 23- Melchior, William T , Instructional Supervision . Boston: D. C. Heath d Co., 1950. 2 6 . Meaninger, William C. Self-Understanding; A First Step to Understanding Children. Chicago: Science Research Associate©, 1951* 27- Moehlaan, Arthur B, School Administration. I-icv York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 19^0. 28. Moreno, J. L . Who Shall Survive; Washington, B.C.: Nervous and Mental Diseases Publishing Company, 195* * 2 9. Mcrt, Paul B . Principle© of School Administration. Kew York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 19^6. 30. National Education Association. Helping Teachers Understand Children. Washington: The American Council on Education, 19^5* 31. Olson, Willard C . Child Development« Boston: D. C. Heath and Company, 19^9* 32. Plant, James £. The Envelope. lew York: The Hildreth Press, Inc., 1950. 35* Prescott, Daniel A. Emotion and the Educative Process. Washington, B.C.: The American Council on Edu­ cation, 1938. J h . Rogers, Carl R. Client-Centered Therapy. Hew York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1951* 35* Ryan, W . Carson. Mental Health through Education. Kew York: The”Coamonweai~th Fund', 1936. 36. Shane, .Harold G . , and E. T . McSv&in. Evaluation and the Elementary Curriculum. Kaw York: Henry Holt and Company, 1951. 57* Sherman, Mandel. Basic Problems of Behavior. New York: Longmans, Green 4 Co., 19^1 * a 86 ♦ Mental Hygiene and Education* Hew York: Longmans, Green A Co., 1934. Snygg, Donald, and Arthur W, Combs. Individual Be- hav ior . Kev York: .Ear per A Bros ., 19I89 . Strang, Buth• An Introduction to Child Study. Hev York: The Macmillan Company, 1931• Stratemeyer, Florence B ., and Associates, Developing a Curriculum for Modern Living. Hew York: Cc Xumbi a ’ Univers 11y' Fr ese~, 1987 * • Watkins, G . S., and Others. The Management of Per­ sonnel and Labor Relations. Hew York: McGraw- Hill Book Company, Inc.,, 1930. Wiles, K i m b a l l Supervision for Better School# . Hev York 1 Prentice Hall, Inc ., 1930, Wi1ty, Paul * •Beading in Modern Education. Boston: D . C. Heath 4 Co., 1930 Witty, Paul, and David Kopel Reading and the Educa­ tive Process . Boston: Ginn ar.d Company, 1939 Periodical Articles 46. Ahrens, Maurice. "Helping Teachers with Their fen- sions,” Childhood Education, January, 1952, pp. 211-2X5. 47. Barr, A. S., et al . "-The Measurement and Prediction of Teaching Efficiency: A Summary of Investi­ gations, ’* The Journal of Experimental Education, June > 19^ -S"# pp'V 2 05 83 J 48. Cunningham, Buth. ‘"Toward M&turity~-We Grow in Self* Understanding,M Childhood Education, November, 1930, p. 105. 49* Feather stone, W. B, "What Bo We Know about Glow Learners!" The Clearing Bouse, February, 1931, pp. 323-328. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42 . 43 . 44 . 45 . 2u t 5 0 . Hoover, F. W . “Attitudes , Those Elusive Behavior Be terminal* ts , " Educational Administration and Superviaion , April, 19^3, p p > 215 -222 . 51 - Hufiiedler, Virginia. “The Child Study program in Corpus Christ!,w Sducat Iona I Leaderah ip t May, 1950, p p . 555-55& * 5*2, Byrnes, James L . , Jr. ‘Interpreting Children’s Needs, Childhood Education, October, 19^7, pp. 51-55. 53. Layeock, S. B* “Toward Mental Health for Exceptional Ch 1 Id re n, " Journal of Exceptional -Children, February, 1950^ pp'*"" 5^. Lindsey, Margaret. “An Integrated Curriculum for Future Teachers,” Childhood Education, May, 1950, pp. k o b - h 08 . 35. Me Swain, 1. T . “What Child Do You See': “ Educational Leadership« May, 1930, pp. 5^0-3kU. 56. Mershon, Madeleine, Oerthon Morgan, and Daniel Pres­ cott. “New Skills for Teachers--Hew Understand ing of Children,51 Educational Leadership, May, 19**9, PP. 500-303. 37. Perkins, Hugh V,, Jr. “Teachers Grow in Understand­ ing Children,” Educational Leadership, May, 1950, pp. 5^9-555. 5 & . Prescott, Daniel A* “Is Child Study a New Fadi n BE A Journal, October, 1930,- pp. 507-506. 59* Wood, Hugh B. “In-Service Education of Teachers--an Evaluation,M The Journal of Teacher Education, December, 1951*? pp"* 2 k ^ ~ - 2 k j V ~ " Unpublished Materials 60. Cunningham, Myron A, The Child Study program' In Arfeangat * Unpublished report, Little; Bock, Arkansas 2 State Department of Education, 19 268 61. * The Use cf Child Study Techniques In the Improvement of Instruction, Unpublished Ed, IK dissertation, northwestern University, Evanston, 111., 1952* 62. Goodefiougt, Celia E. Age-Mate- Rel&tlonsbips in Second and Fifth Grade Classrooms. UnpubXished M&ster ‘ s thesis, The Universlty of fexas, Austin, Texas, 1951. 83. Greene, John D . Changes in Curriculum Practices of Teachers Who Participated in Child Study * Un­ published Ed.XK dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park, M d ., 1952. 6b. Hobl, George W * Some Effects of a Program of Child Study on the Professional Growth of Teachers, Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Chicago, Chicago, 111*, 1951 (Abstract). 6 3 . Knight, James, and Virgil Herrick. ‘"Child Study and the Improvement of the Educational Program,w reprint from The Elementary School Journal, March, 1951. 8 6 . Mays, Maurino, and Myron A* Cunningham. The Measure­ ment Program in the Jonesboro Elementary Schools, 19^9'"i'95oT U n pu hi I she d"' r ®p 0 vtP Little Rock Arkansas; State 'Department of Education, 1930, 67- McGuire, Carson. Sotos toward an Analysis of In- Service idueatior*. Unpublished .memorandum. The University of Texas, 1930. 68. Merehon, Madelaine. Ch Teachers during Child Study Program. Unpublished Ph.D. University of Chicago, 1951 dissertation. The D I A P P E N D I X A vnocnmm tn a n a l y s is or rassjtvxB w s A P P E H B X X A PROCEDURE XI ANALYSIS OP FIRST-TBAR XKTEftVIEVS X. First-Year iBttrvlevs A • Location of Interviewees- (Bach Interview assigned a number for reference to item© pertaining to teacher such as ago, sex, Bi'ri- tml status, experience, and grade level taught.) B . General Bating ©f Program 1 . General eomMnts--positive and negative 2* Specific comments — positive and negative (Examples are given In Chapter XV of study.) C. Bating of Mechanics of Program 1 . Schedule--positive and negative--general and specific statements 2. Consultants--positive and negative --general and specific statements 5. Libraries--positive and negative--general and specific statements 't. Group leaders--positive and negative -general and specific statements 5* Actual changes in school program--genera1 and specific statements B . Over-all Bating--Final Categories Positive Renattva Indeterminate (Over-all rating by interview numbers (X,A); inde­ terminate ratings were discarded to reach final 6? interview® used.) 291 IX» Second-Year interviews (The same general procedure was followed, with ad­ dition of a section for listing changes in reactions to the program? unfavorable to favorable and vice versa. These changes are enumerated in Chapter XV and result in Table.2® on page 19^-) XXI. Tabulation of Personal Data Cards Hame _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Age School ______ Bex Interview lumber _ _ _ _ _ Marital Status Oradc or Subject Taught _ _ _ _ Children Years of Teaching Experience Years in Child Study VA P P E N D I X » I. QUESTIOHHAIRE USED IN THE STUDY XI* BROWNWOOD QUKSTIORKAIRE A P P I H S 1 X B I * QUBSTIOHHAIKE USED XU THE STOBf The followlag Items constitute replies to a %uit8tioaMire presented to fifty-nine respondeat© to In­ terviews conducted in May, 1950. The introductory state meat© have been deleted, and response® are shown in the appropriate columns. IslSL SSL X. Would you, on an over-all basis, give your approval to Child Study as a way of in-service education? hh V} 2. Has your participation in Child Study been on a wholly voluntary basis? 23 3k 5- Have time and place of meetings been satisfactory? 55 2k h . lave you had enough consultant visits? k2 11 5« Would you prefer to have one regular consultant rather than several con­ sultants? kg 10 6* Have consultants been sufficiently helpful 32 2? 7. Would you say that Child Study had met your needs as a teacher? k% 16 8. Do you see actual benefit from keeping anecdotal records ho 19 9. Would you ©ay that study of one child could be of value to you in working with an entire elaaa? 53 26 2 9^ 10. 13. . 12 * 13. 11. £95 fee Ho Would you accept the following statements? a * Every human being is uniquet 51 8 b „ svery human being is valuable? k3 16 e . All behavior in caused? 50 9 d • The causes of behavior are usually multiple, complex>- and interrelated? 5** e* Behavior, even if not approved, must be accepted? 39 20 lave you benefitted from reading? 23 36 las leadership in your group been satis­ factory? 2? 32 Would you say that Child Study has helped you toi a. Understand and recognize individual differences? hi 18 b., Realize that behavior is symptomatic? b -'t Ik c. Realize the necessity for using a great deal of information about a child before passing Judgment on his overt behavior? hO 19 d . Recognise the need for as much back­ ground of home and community as pos­ sible in order to work better with children? hs 17 e. Make changes in classroom procedures which have helped me to utilise my understanding of behavior? 3k 23 f. Use group work more satisfactorily with my pupils? 36 23 g. Use the planning of children as m device to teach more meaningfully? 28 51 h * Work together better with my fellow teachers? 59 20 i. Teach the so-called ^fundamentalsM more objectively? 37 22 Would you participate, on a purely voluntary basis, in further Child Study? k2 17 II. BROWSWQOD OTIS'” XGRR A I M 296 The following questionnaire, with introductory statement* deleted, was presented to Brovnwood teachers in 1950, before the first interviews used in this study Replies were ©ado anonymously, and all answers refer to first-year Child Study, begun is 19^9*90 in the system. Composite answers are given in the appropriate columns. The questionnaire below is included Is the appendix be­ cause it furnished the idea fro® which the preceding questionnaire was developed. Results follow, with ques tlons stated exactly as in the original questionnaire5 Grades Grades 1-6 6-12 Yes Ho Yes Bo 1, Has the program helped you to better understand and appre­ ciate individual differences in children? 59 22 1? 15 2, Has it made you more aware of the child's physical, social, and emotional needs? 39 2& 19 12 3, Has it helped you to see the need for a better understand­ ing of your children in order that you will be is a better position to meet their needs? kO 22 16 16 t . Has- it caused your teaching to- become more chi Id-centered? 33 25 13 Ik 29? Grades Grades 1-6 7-12 Yes Ho Yes go 5. Is it causing you to better un­ derstand behavior patterns? ^9 1? 19 9 6. Has it caused you to better un­ derstand what is meant by "teaching children instead of teaching subject©*’? ho 23 13 7 . Do you believe your group has had sufficient consultant service? 8 2 28 8. Has the consultant service been a© helpful a® you think It should be? 13 ^9 10 22 9. ¥ould you like to have this particular program continued next year ? 30 28 13 12 10. If the matter were placed.on an entirely voluntary basis, with absolutely no pressure from the administrative staff, would you participate in this program next year? 18 1? 16 Ik 11 , Would you participate in a workshop if one were provided here this summer? 29 9 80 A r r i i u x c PROCEDURE XV ABAX.Y8XS OF ASBCDQTAL RECORDS (08BS XS TSSTXIO STP0TBX8X8 7) A P P E N D I X C PROCEDURE IS AEALYSIS OP AKBCDOTAL RECORDS (USED IS TESTISO HYPOTHESIS 7) Bumber of Instances X, Behavior X® Caused. A, Use of background material B, Report of talks with other teachers in seeking causes C , Report of talks with parents in seeking causes__________________________ _______ __ D , Follow-up of anecdotal incident® in following recordings . E , Withholding Judgment in dealing with unsatisfactory behavior Other evidences , II« Multiplicity of Causes A, Making of multiple hypotheses B, Use of background material in hypotheses _________ C , Statement of teacher in the anecdotal record __ 0. Use of conditioning statements rather than positive concerning causes of behavior E,. Statement© in answering, t*What is the child trying to d o t ” etc, _____ __ F, Other evidences ____ _____ III, Behavior Must Be Accepted A. Action® of teacher indicating ac­ ceptance (anecdotal record) B , Action® of teacher to help child learn better way® of working with peers 299 500 Humber of Instance® C . Actions of Teacher to help child learn better ways of working with admits _ _______ D . Other evidences _____ lir. Each individual Is Unique A. Direct statements of teacher in anec­ dotal record B. Efforts of teacher to give child op­ portunity for development 0. Evidences in hypotheses D , Evidences in answering question®, "What Is % e Child trying to dot" etc , B. Other evidences V. Every Human Being Is Valuable A* Direct statement® of teacher in anec­ dotal record B. Efforts of teacher to provide child with opportunity to enhance self C * Ivi&enees in closing out of record D, Other evidence® V I T A Alton CXeo Murphy was horn at Temple, Texas, June 25, 1909. He received the Bachelor of Science de­ gree In 1955 from Southwest Texas Teachers College, San Marcos, Texas, and the Master of Arts degree from the same Institution in 19^1 . He began his teaching career inOenaville, Texas, in I929, and served in various schools as teacher, coach, elementary principal, and high school principal. He in­ terrupted work as high school principal at Weslaco, Texas, in April, 19^2, and served with the U.S. Air Force, both in the continental limits and oversea® with the Fifteenth Air Force, until September, 19^5» He became superintendent of schools in Weslaco in July, 19**7, and retained this position until Joining the staff of the Division of Exten­ sion, The University of Texas, as lecturer in Educational Psychology In September, 19**9. His work since has been with in-serviee programs of Child Study and curriculum de­ velopment in Texas schools. permanent address: 2908 Dormarion lane Austin, Texas V I T A Alton Cleo Murphy was born at Temple, Texas, June 25, 1909* He received the Bachelor of Science de­ gree in 1935 from Southwest Texas Teachers College, San Marcos, Texas, and the Master of Arts degree from the same institution in 19^1. He began his teaching career inOenaville, Texas, in 1929* stnd served in various schools as teacher, coach, elementary principal, and high school principal. He in­ terrupted work as high school principal at Weslaco, Texas, in April, 19^2, and served with the U.S. Air Force, both in the continental limits and overseas with the Fifteenth Air Force, until September, 19^5- He became superintendent of schools in Weslaco in July, 19^7* and retained this position until joining the staff of the Division of Exten­ sion, The University of Texas, as lecturer In Educational Psychology in September, 19^9- His work since has been with in-service programs of Child Study and curriculum de­ velopment In Texas schools. Permanent address: 2508 Dormarion Lane Austin, Texas