ABSTRACT Title of dissertation: CHAMBER MUSIC IN FRANCE FEATURING FLUTE AND SOPRANO, 1850-1950, AND A STUDY OF THE INTERACTIONS AMONG THE LEADING FLUTISTS, SOPRANOS, COMPOSERS, ARTISTS, AND LITERARY FIGURES OF THE TIME Susan Nanette Hayes, Doctor of Musical Arts 2006 Dissertation directed by: Professor William L. Montgomery School of Music This dissertation, together with the accompanying recital recordings, constitute an examination of chamber music for flute, soprano, and piano and for flute, soprano, and chamber ensemble written by French composers between 1850 and 1950. This examination includes an annotated bibliography of the music, a written document studying the interactions of the leading flutists, sopranos, composers, artists, and literary figures of the time, and two recitals of representative works from the repertoire of about 120 minutes, which were recorded during performances at University of Maryland in March of 2004. The text examines the various types of chamber works written during this period for flute and soprano, with and without additional accompaniment. The amount of repertoire written for flute and voice during this period by composers of a single nationality is exceptional in the history of music. The annotated bibliography lists about 100 pieces in the genre, a truly substantial repertoire. As a performer, I was intrigued by the possibility that several generations of highly gifted, individualistic performers may have inspired these composers to produce this tremendous outpouring of repertoire. With the proximity of so many great singers and flutists in Paris at the time, it can hardly be coincidental that so many composers, both the most well-known and some who are quite obscure today, produced so many exceptional works for these combinations of instruments with voice. Indeed, I contend that the composers were influenced both by specific musicians and by their contemporaries and colleagues in literature and the visual arts, who inspired them to give so much attention to the development of what would have been regarded as a small form. Part of my historical research has been to search for the intersections between performer, poet, and composer and to determine some of the ways in which they affected one another. A second purpose of my study is to develop an annotated bibliography of these works, thus providing extensive, useful information regarding first performances, instrumentation, vocal range, flute range, keys, time signatures, dedications, timings of the works, publisher, availability, and the relative merit of the works themselves. Many of the compositions for soprano and flute are, admittedly, of dubious musical value, but some are masterworks of the chamber music repertoire, and few are actively performed today. In addition, a large number of the pieces listed in the bibliography are out of print. Because so many of the composers no longer have a significant prominence, their works today lay generally unperformed and undiscovered. The annotated bibliography also serves as a reference guide for today's performers of this repertoire. A final purpose of this study is the performance and preservation through audio recordings of a number of works associated with this project. The recordings will serve as a means of documenting some of this remarkable music. CHAMBER MUSIC IN FRANCE FEATURING FLUTE AND SOPRANO, 1850-1950, AND A STUDY OF THE INTERACTIONS AMONG THE LEADING FLUTISTS, SOPRANOS, COMPOSERS, ARTISTS, AND LITERARY FIGURES OF THE TIME By Susan Nanette Hayes Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland, College Park in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Musical Arts 2006 Advisory Committee: Dr. William L. Montgomery, Chair Professor Carmen Balthrop Professor Mark Hill Professor Donald Sutherland Professor Edward Walters ? Copyright by Susan Nanette Hayes 2006 ii DEDICATION To my father iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The completion of this degree, and in particular this dissertation, would not have been possible without the help of many people. I would like to thank Lyndy Simons, my friend and collaborator of twenty-five years, for first introducing me to this repertoire in her kitchen back in Illinois. Had I never met this talented singer, I never would have discovered the cadenzas in the Estelle Liebling book. It is with joy and nostalgia that I think on those days and how far we have come as performers and artists. I know we will continue performing this repertoire together for years to come. I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. William Montgomery, for his tireless efforts throughout the entire degree program. His guidance, support, and determination helped me to become the best performer that I can be and to bring this degree to fruition. I would like to thank the members of my committee for their care in reading this document and attending the performances. I also appreciate the excitement that my committee has shown for these works and their encouragement in the performance of this music. I would like to thank Bruce Nixon for his care and concern in editing this manuscript. For his deep knowledge and all-seeing eye, I am truly grateful. I must also acknowledge the lifelong support of my mother and father. It was my father who bought our first piano and my mother who recognized my talents. They have both been unstinting in their encouragement. Both my life and my sense of identity have been shaped by my decision to become a musician. I am grateful that they always supported me in every way as I pursued my hopes, dreams, and desires in music. iv Lastly, I would like to acknowledge the love, patience, and support of my husband, Kirk Wilke. He has never complained or begrudged me the time that it has taken to finish this degree. Through it all, he has been my cheerleader, my conscience, and my guide. I will always be grateful. v TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iii LIST OF TABLES x CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW 1 Historical Overview ? Social and Artistic Change 5 Musical Education and Composition 10 The Influence of Wagner 12 Exoticism 13 The Paris Op?ra 15 New Directions in French music following the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) 19 The Salons 21 The Soci?t?s 23 The M?lodie 24 Poets and Writers, 1850-1950 25 The Flute, 1850-1950 27 The Sopranos, 1850-1950 29 Prominent Musicians, 1850-1950 30 CHAPTER 2: HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 32 Romanticism ? The Early Works for Flute and Soprano 33 Romanticism ? Political and Social Life 38 Romanticism ? Artistic and Cultural Life 41 Post-Romanticism 43 Lyricism 45 Religion 48 Nationalism 49 New Teaching Methods for Flute at the Conservatoire 56 Impressionism 58 La Belle ?poque 63 The Avant-Garde 69 The Dreyfus Affair 75 World War I 78 The Period Between the Two World Wars 84 World War II 93 Post-World War II 97 CHAPTER 3: MUSIC EDUCATION IN FRANCE 103 The Conservatoire 104 French Composers and their Teachers 106 The Prix de Rome and the Music for Flute and Voice 111 vi Reform at the Conservatoire 113 The ?cole Niedermeyer 115 The Schola Cantorum 117 Other Composers of Music for Flute and Voice 122 CHAPTER 4: WAGNER 127 Wagner and Nationalism 128 Wagner in Paris 130 Pro-Wagner Factions in France 134 Debussy and the Anti-Wagner Factions 136 Faur? and the Development of French M?lodie 140 Satie and the Development of a French Style 141 World War I, Cocteau, and Les six 143 CHAPTER 5: EXOTICISM: THE INFLUENCE OF LE JAPONISME AND L'ORIENTALISM 148 The Near East 149 Folk Idioms 152 Le Japonisme 153 CHAPTER 6: THE SALONS AND THE INTERACTION BETWEEN MUSICIANS, ARTISTS, AND WRITERS 156 An Introduction to the French Salon 157 Composers of Flute and Voice Music and the Salons 160 Parisian Salons at the Turn of the Nineteenth Century 165 Other Gatherings of Artists at the Turn of the Nineteenth Century 171 Maurice Ravel and Les apaches 172 Les six and their Collaborators 175 Triton 179 La jeune france 182 CHAPTER 7: THE CONCERT SOCI?T?S 186 Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire 191 Soci?t? de Sainte-C?cile 197 Soci?t? des jeunes ?l?ves du Conservatoire and the Concerts populaires de musique classique 197 Soci?t? nationale de musique 199 Soci?t? musicale ind?pendente 202 Other Soci?t?s 203 CHAPTER 8: THE RISE OF FRENCH M?LODIE 207 A History of M?lodie: The Romance 208 vii The Beginnings of M?lodie 212 M?lodies for Flute and Voice 216 CHAPTER 9: THE WRITERS 221 The Parnassians 222 Naturalism 224 The Decadent Movement 225 Symbolism 226 Symbolism in Music 228 Dada and the Surrealist Movement 231 World War II 233 The Collaboration of Writers and Musicians 235 The Music for Flute and Voice and Its Poets 238 Ravel and the Music for Flute and Voice 242 Les six and the Music for Flute and Voice 245 CHAPTER 10: THE RISE OF THE GREAT FRENCH FLUTISTS 247 The Boehm Flute in France 248 Flute Teaching at the Conservatoire 251 Jean-Louis Tulou (1786-1856) 252 Louis Dorus (1813-1896) 253 Joseph-Henri Alt?s (1826-1895) 257 Claude-Paul Taffanel (1844-1908) 258 Taffanel's Teaching Methods and His Students 262 Successors to Claude-Paul Taffanel 264 Music for Flute by French Composers 265 French Flutists Premiere Works by French Composers 269 Philippe Gaubert (1879-1941) 272 Ren? Le Roy (1898-1985) 275 Georges Barr?re (1876-1944) 277 Louis Fleury (1878-1926) 282 Marcel Moyse (1889-1984) 284 French Flutists Premiere Works for Flute and Voice 291 CHAPTER 11: THE RISE OF THE GREAT SOPRANOS 293 Sopranos and the Creation of Operatic Roles 295 Great Sopranos in the Years Prior to 1850 297 The Coloratura Soprano 299 Sopranos of the Late-Nineteenth and Early-Twentieth Centuries 302 Maria Malibran (1808-1836) 303 Rosine Stoltz (1815-1903) 303 Nellie Melba (1859-1940) 304 Emma Calv? (1859-1942) 305 viii Sybil Sanderson (1865-1903) 306 Mary Garden (1874-1967) 306 Claire Croiza (1882-1946) 307 Sopranos and the Creation of M?lodie and Chamber Music for Flute and Voice 308 Pauline Viardot (1821-1910) 314 Caroline Miolan-Carvalho (1827-1895) 320 Adelina Patti (1843-1919) 322 Jane Bathori (1877-1970) 325 CHAPTER 12: THE COMPOSERS AND THE MUSIC FOR FLUTE AND VOICE 338 Auguste Panseron (1795-1859) 339 F?licien David (1810-1876) 340 Charles Gounod (1818-1893) 343 Camille Saint-Sa?ns (1835-1892) 345 Gabriel Faur? (1845-1924) 348 C?cile Chaminade (1857-1944) 355 M?lanie H?l?ne Bonis (1858-1937) 356 Maurice Emmanuel (1862-1938) 358 Claude Debussy (1862-1918) 362 Charles Koechlin (1867-1950) 371 Albert Roussel (1869-1937) 376 Maurice Ravel (1875-1937) 380 Andr? Caplet (1878-1925) 391 Jean Cras (1879-1932) 395 Maurice Delage (1879-1961) 397 Jacques Ibert (1890-1962) 402 Alexis Roland-Manuel (1891-1966) 404 Georges Migot (1891-1976) 405 Arthur Honegger (1892-1955) 410 Darius Milhaud (1892-1974) 413 Jean Rivier (1896-1987) 420 Francis Poulenc (1899-1963) 424 Henri Tomasi (1901-1971) 434 Jean-Yves Daniel-Lesur (1908-2002) 435 Other Composers 439 Conclusion 439 APPENDICES I. ANNOTATED MUSICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY 441 ix II. RECITAL PROGRAMS 496 III. SONG TRANSLATIONS 504 IV. SELECTED FRENCH COMPOSERS OF M?LODIE 542 V. PRIX DE ROME WINNERS IN MUSICAL COMPOSITION 1850-1950 547 VI. SOLOS FOR FLUTE OF THE CONCOURS DU PRIX AT THE PARIS CONSERVATOIRE 1850-1950 552 VII. A CHRONOLOGY OF SELECTED EVENTS IN POLITICAL AND ARTISTIC HISTORY 1850-1950 556 VIII. FLUTE PROFESSORS OF THE PARIS CONSERVATOIRE 1795-PRESENT 577 BIBLIOGRAPHY 578 x LIST OF TABLES Table 1?Music for Flute and Soprano on Oriental and Exotic Themes 68 Table 2?Works from the Annotated Bibliography Written Between 1918 and 1940 in Chronological Order 87 Table 3?Conservatoire Students 106 Table 4??cole Niedermeyer Students 116 Table 5?Schola Cantorum Students 120 Table 6?Notable French Composers Who Studied Privately Away From the Established Schools 123 Table 7?Music for Flute and Voice by Member of Les six 145 Table 8?Music for Flute and Voice by Members of Triton 180 Table 9?Most Performed Operatic Works at the Paris Op?ra Between 1800-1850 188 Table 10?Principal Flutists of the Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire 1850-1950 193 Table 11?Conductors of the Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire 1850-1950 195 Table 12?Music for Flute and Voice with Names of Poets 239 Table 13?Flute Professors at the Paris Conservatoire1850-1950 252 1 A Ravel Reader, 393. 1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW For me, there are not several arts, but only one: music, painting, and literature differ only in their means of expression. Thus, there aren't different kinds of artists, but simply different kinds of specialists. 1 ?Maurice Ravel 2 This dissertation proceeds from the supposition that artists working within a specific period share a world of ideas with other members of their society. Because their works are sponsored by and often addressed to their fellow citizens, the tastes of their time, including social and aesthetic conventions, and the vocabularies of their period are inevitably reflected in their output. Specifically, I have focused on the creation of a body of repertoire that is unique in the history of Western music: chamber music featuring flute and soprano; flute, soprano, and piano; or flute, soprano, and chamber ensemble by French composers between 1850 and 1950. At no other time and in no other place in history has so much chamber music for flute and soprano been produced with such variety and for such an extended period of time. The forces that brought about this phenomenon are complex and involve the educational, social, artistic, and political institutions of modern France. My purpose is to examine these institutions and the people associated with them in an effort to uncover the intersections and connections that assisted this music being brought into existence. My choice of the period 1850-1950 coincides roughly with the introduction of the Boehm flute into Parisian musical institutions and ends with the conclusion and aftermath of World War II. The acceptance of the Boehm flute at the Paris Conservatoire about 1860 marks the beginning of a transformation in the repertoire for the instrument. As a result, composers conceived of the flute as a solo vehicle in a way they did not in the years prior to 1850. There is a steady increase in the number and quality of flute players graduated from the Conservatoire during this period, and French composers develop a 3 body of French solo and chamber music repertoire that is significant in its depth and breadth. This creative and artist output is sustained through the turn of the nineteenth century until the end of World War II, when the ravages of two wars have decimated France and most artists, musicians, composers, authors, and scholars have fled the country. It is about 1950, in the aftermath of World War II, that this glittering period of artistic activity comes to an end. During this period under consideration, at about 1900, is a time when Paris could rightly be perceived as the artistic capital of the western world. The various factors which contributed to the development of this repertoire are complex and are played out against the backdrop of one hundred years of turbulent history in France. Thus, the avenues of investigation will include aspects of musical, social, artistic, and political history. As well, the individuals connected with this music, be they composers, flutists, singers, writers, artists, or patrons, will be studied. My method is to proceed by subject through the various fields of influence that lie behind the development of wind and vocal chamber music. These will include chapters devoted to the following subjects: ! an historical overview of the one hundred year period in question, focusing on specific movements and events; ! the centralization of music education in Paris; ! the impact of Wagner and his music on Parisian musical society, both positive and negative; ! the infiltration of exoticism into French popular and musical culture through international travel and the Paris Exhibitions universelles and the immense 4 influence that exoticism had on the visual arts, particularly impressionism and symbolism; ! the evolution of opera and its place in artistic life; ! the salons, which were one of the primary centers of creative activity in Paris; ! the growth of musical soci?t?s, which promoted concerts and stimulated musical development by commissioning and performing new, and often progressive French compositions; ! the evolution of the French m?lodie, from its beginnings as romance to its culmination as vocal chamber music; ! the writers who contributed verse to this repertoire; ! the flutists who inspired French composers to give the instrument a primary role in the development of m?lodie and its related forms; ! the sopranos who became the social stars of the era, a number of whom played a significant role in the expansion of m?lodie and its emergence as a virtuoso vehicle; ! and the composers who advanced this repertoire on behalf of their colleagues among the flutists, singers, poets, and writers of their time. The last chapter will deal with the specific pieces listed in the musical bibliography, pointing out the various factors, which brought about these unique and engaging works for flute and soprano. The following is a short introduction to the contents of each chapter. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW ? SOCIAL AND ARTISTIC CHANGE 2 Paris was the center of Western art culture, including the United States, from the 1870s to the 1930s. However, its influence, even in Europe, was over by World War II. The beginning of the true reign is the 1860s (with the emergence of Manet) to the early 1930s (ending with surrealism). Surrealism did not migrate or translate into other cultures as previous movements had. As a result, symbolist and surrealist poetry had a limited impact outside of France. Sowerwine, France Since 1870, 166. 3 See Appendix VII for a survey of selected political and artistic events between 1850 and 1950. Parry and Girard, France Since 1900, 34. 5 Paris's place as the heart of musical life and, indeed, of all cultural life in France is solidified between 1850 and 1950. 2 Just as the country's social and political elite lived in Paris, so too, did many of the artists and cultural luminaries of the day. Almost all of the country's patrons, producers, composers, musical instrument manufacturers, performers, publishers, critics, and teachers, together with a large public, formed a synergistic network that became a highly concentrated center of artistic activity. A wide range of performance venues and concert organizations including theaters, concert halls, museums, private homes, brasseri?s, jazz clubs, and parks, together made possible a great deal of creative activity. The Conservatoire drew the country's finest performers to the capital, assuring a succession of highly trained musicians. Extensive government subsidies of the arts also brought the musical world into the world of politics. Politically, this period saw a succession of monarchies, republics, wars, and revolutions. Every French head of state from 1824-1877, whether king, emperor, or president, was either overthrown by revolution or forced out of office. 3 Despite this, French composers were prolific in their output of new compositions, even during World War I and World War II. French society made progress as well. Several movements articulated this period 4 Sowerwine, France Since 1870, 6. 5 Haussman?s street plans were revolutionary for the time and were meant to eliminate quarters where political subversion could go on undetected. Slum districts were difficult to police and served as a hotbed of revolt. The boulevards were designed straight so that canons could bombard barricades from a distance. This was not a well-received undertaking at the time. However, it was the most expensive urban planning project in Europe up to that time and thus made many Frenchmen rich. It preceded a period of rapid industrial growth in Paris. Tombs, France 1814-1914, 400-401. 6 of cultural growth in France, and included romanticism, nationalism, impressionism, and surrealism. Each of these movements affected French composers and the music they wrote for flute and voice. By 1851, the romantic period was in full swing. New capital, made available by innovations in the French banking system, found its way into the hands of investors. 4 This influx of cash would fund the growth of heavy industries, railways, and urban development. By the 1860s, Louis-Napol?on had set Baron Georges Haussmann to the task of creating the perfect city. The old quarters and medieval neighborhoods were razed for boulevards. 5 An innovative sewer system was built, and elegant restaurants, department stores, and apartment houses were built along the spacious, tree-lined avenues. Paris was fed by expanding networks of railway lines and a growing leisure industry, which sponsored international exhibitions in 1855 and 1867. During these years, Offenbach's music contributed to the image of Paris as a capital of mirth and gaiety, an image that persists in the modern imagination to this day. Artists, too, were affected by the political upheavals of the day. By the 1850s, romantic revolutionaries in the arts, like their political counterparts, were also initiating widespread changes in their fields. In poetry they overthrew rules adhering to versification in poetry and theater. In music they revolutionized long-established 6 This period marks both the emergence of landscape painting as a major French form, as well as the radical shifts in subject matter and the high drama seen in Th?odore G?ricault (1791-1824) and Eug?ne Delacroix (1798-1863). 7 Post-revolutionary French nationalism was unique in the following attributes: the conviction that France had a uniquely important role in world history; the insistence on unity within the nation; and the perception of an intimate connection between France?s domestic well-being and her relations with outside countries. Tombs, France 1814-1914, 83. 8 Ibid., 312. 7 conceptions of harmony in the field of music theory and composition. In visual art they challenged long-established theories of color and form in academic painting. 6 They revalued French culture from the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries. They found remote parts of the world attractive instead of barbaric and exotizied the foreign. Their ideas and themes would be taken up by the next several generations as music began to assume a more central position in Parisian artistic life. Nationalism became a force in French intellectual life as early as the revolution (1789). 7 It became a common shared belief among average Frenchmen that their civilization was universal, and that it must be protected from inferior, foreign influences (such as the operas of Wagner). 8 Partly as a result of their defeat in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) and partly as a result of vogues for foreign styles in the capital, Frenchmen began to believe that their culture was in decline. As a result, there was a conscious attempt on the part of the artistic society to redefine national identity as particularly French. Musicians turned to their French heritage from the past and to their own poets and writers for inspiration. A new radical nationalist movement emerged in the 1880s which placed an emphasis on unity and rejected pluralism, cosmopolitanism, 9 Nationalism was also an excuse for purging the nation of its enemies, increasingly identified as Jews, international socialists, and democrats. Tombs, France 1814-1914, 85. 10 Littlewood, History of France, 251. 11 Sowerwine, France Since 1870, 101-102. 12 It was a painting by Claude Monet, Impression, soleil levant, that gave the movement its name. In 1874, artists such as Bazille, C?zanne, Degas, Monet, Morisot, Pissarro, Renoir, and Sisley exhibited at the 8 materialism, and individualism. 9 The extreme centralization of French creative life in Paris meant that composers and musicians moved freely within artistic and literary circles. In 1863, the so-called Salon des refus?s (Salon of the Rejected Ones) exhibited paintings turned away by the annual salon of the Acad?mie royale. This new movement, anti-academic in its orientation, can be characterized by moral detachment or disinterest, the lack of historical or allegorical disguise, the freedom from familiar painterly narrative, and a revolutionary conception of space and optics. 10 These artists would become known as the impressionists, and, although they were upstarts in the 1860s and subject to critical derision, they would become the dominant figures of late nineteenth-century French art (listed alphabetically): Paul C?zanne, Edgar D?gas, ?douard Manet, Claude Monet, Berthe Morisot, Camille Pissarro, Auguste Renoir, and Alfred Sisley. 11 Their thinking influenced the writers and composers of the day to explore similar ideas and to invent forms of music and poetry that did not abide by old rules of versification, harmony, or narrative. By the late 1870s, impressionism had become a significant movement in visual art and music. 12 Alienated from the artistic establishment, visual artists reacted against the former studio of the photographer F?lix Nadar. A derisive journalist latched on to Monet?s title and dubbed them ?impressionists.? Littlewood, History of France, 256. 13 Other nonliterary events often loomed large in the genesis of musical works. The paintings of Whistler, first seen in Paris in 1857, captivated the imagination of Baudelaire and later Debussy. Javanese gamelan and other Eastern music inspired Debussy to experiment with pentatonic and non-European scales and figures. By the 1920s, even elements of American jazz rhythms had begun to find their way to French music. Ibid. 14 Sowerwine, France Since 1870, 96-97. 15 Myers, Modern French Music, 102-121. 9 large emotional paintings and historical dramas that had been so prevalent during the romantic period. They sought to capture reality as it strikes the eye through the play of light and color. Their ideas inaugurated a radical shift for musicians as well, and composers such as Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel would experiment with a new tonal language that would also be labeled impressionistic. 13 Partly in response to the atrocities of World War I, the surrealist movement and the dada movement emerged in the early 1900s. In 1916, the dadaists expressed a marked rejection of the enlightened culture of rationalism, creating a nihilistic form of anti-art that exalted absurdity. 14 By 1924, the poets Louis Aragon, Andr? Breton, and Paul Eluard formed the core of the surrealist movement, advocating the rejection of reality for dreams, instinct, coincidence, and unexplained juxtaposition. These theories also translated to the music of Darius Milhaud, Francis Poulenc, and Erik Satie, among others. 15 MUSICAL EDUCATION AND COMPOSITION During the period from 1850 to 1950, the Paris Conservatoire and the Schola 16 The Paris Conservatoire exercised sufficient dominance in flute that it actually gave rise to a ?French Flute School.? This term usually refers to a French-influenced style of playing that became dominant in Europe and America as Conservatoire-trained players filled the orchestras and teaching positions in France and beyond. Powell, The Flute, 208. 17 Fulcher, French Cultural Politics and Music, 26-28. 18 Ibid., 223. 19 For a list of the compositions performed for the flute concours between the years 1850 and 1950, see Appendix VI. 10 Cantorum came to dominate musical education in France. 16 The French Revolution had completely altered traditional musical life by abolishing the musique du roi, which accounted for many of the performing ensembles in Paris. 17 The purpose of the new institutions were, ostensibly, to give priority to the musical education of the less privileged classes, though in effect, it gradually created highly elitist and monopolistic institutions in the Conservatoire and the Op?ra alike. As a result, music education became highly centralized, and nearly every composer and performer of the period studied in Paris at the Conservatoire or the Schola Cantorum. For the flutist, lessons at the Conservatoire were usually given in group classes and, until 1945, there was only one flute class. 18 Entry was by competitive audition only. Students were graduated from the school in public examinations, what are still today called concours, and which include a set piece prescribed for each instrument as well as a piece of accompanied sight-reading. 19 A jury could award a premi?re prix or deuxi?me prix, meaning that the competition was against a required standard rather than between individual performers. As a result, more than one premi?re prix might be awarded in the same year or it might be withheld altogether. Either way, the acquisition of a premi?re 20 Powell, The Flute, 224. See also my Chapter 10: The Rise of The Great French Flutists. 21 While the Prix de Rome winners may have found immediate success in the Parisian musical world, this did not always translate into historical significance. Many winners are relatively unknown today. For a complete list of Prix de Rome winners between 1850 and 1950, see Appendix V. 22 Cooper, French Music, 203. 11 prix marked a student's graduation from the Conservatoire and into public professional life. Nearly all successful French flutists of the day studied at the Conservatoire, and the number of professional flute graduates grew steadily between 1850 and 1950. 20 For composers, the Prix de Rome was the pinnacle at the Conservatoire and provided them with access to the major musical institutions of the day. Talented composers competed for the Prix de Rome, awarded annually from 1803 onwards by a jury that was made up of past winners (the professors of composition at the Conservatoire were, likewise, past winners of the Prix de Rome). Prix de Rome winners thoroughly dominated the musical institutions of the day, including the Op?ra, the musical soci?t?s, and the Conservatoire. 21 Teachers developed a legacy of composer-disciples who spread their artistic doctrines to the next generation of musicians and to society at large. While all this remained an unofficial policy, these circumstances conspired to exclude from the musical establishment any composers who had not followed this course. 22 Not until the acceptance of Gabriel Faur? as director of the Conservatoire in the late nineteenth century did this practice undergo any meaningful change. As a result, composers who were not Prix de Rome winners, not Conservatoire graduates, or were otherwise outside the musical inner circle, were able to have their music performed and 23 Ibid., Chapter IX. 24 Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 21. 25 Cooper, French Music, 55-59. 12 championed by French musical institutions. 23 This led to an exponential expansion in the number of composers and pieces that were brought to production, including chamber music for flute and voice. THE INFLUENCE OF WAGNER During the late nineteenth century, Wagner also left his mark on the French capital. In 1860, he conducted three concerts of excerpts from his works at the Th??tre-Italien. The premiere of Tannh?user at the Op?ra on March 13, 1861, caused a disturbance that disrupted the performance and eventually brought about the withdrawal of the production altogether. 24 Thus, Wagner was introduced to artists, writers, and musicians in France who were later to become mesmerized by his ideas. Indeed, France was an early outpost of Wagnerism, and his music would become a staple of the French orchestral repertory for decades to come, largely due to the efforts of conductors such as ?douard Colonne and Charles Lamoureux. 25 The impact of Wagner on other cultural practices, especially literature and the visual arts, was substantial and far-reaching. The poet and critic Charles Baudelaire was an early admirer of Wagner in France and other symbolist poets, including Paul Verlaine and St?phane Mallarm?, demonstrated their allegiance to the composer through their verse and in articles in La Revue Wagn?rienne. In the visual arts, the symbolists were 26 Ibid. 27 Myers, Modern French Music, 41-60. 28 Hill, Modern French Music, 8-12. 29 Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 60-61. 13 most affected, in this case Gustave Moreau and Odilon Redon, who made liberal use of Wagnerian themes in their work. Henri Fantin-Latour, better known as a realist, produced lithographs and paintings of Wagnerian scenes as early as the 1860s. Eventually, almost every French cultural figure of note had an opinion of Wagner and his influence, whether they were convinced of his genius or they took an opposing view. 26 French composers, meanwhile, including Vincent d'Indy, C?sar Franck, Ernst Chausson, and Henri Duparc, studied Wagner's scores closely and were clearly influenced by them. Other composers, particularly Debussy, Ravel, and Roussel, worked in reaction to the Wagnerian model. 27 These two factions would debate Wagner's methods for many years and, over time, the ensuing clash resulted in the development of a nationalistic voice in French music that would continue for another half century. Nationalistic ideas influenced the music written for flute and voice, especially after the end of the Franco-Prussian War in 1871. 28 EXOTICISM Exotic elements began to surface in music in France at the dawn of the nineteenth century more or less concurrent with the rise of French colonialism. 29 Exoticism has a long tradition in the history of Western music and composers of different nationalities 30 The taste for oriental flavor in the arts in France emerged with Moli?re, who included a ballet of Egyptians in the second act of his Le malade imaginaire (1673). Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 64-65. 31 After an exhibit of art from Japan, China, India, and Java at the Palais d?Industrie (1873) and the Exposition Universelle of 1878 Le Japonisme became part of the French cultural milieu. Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 62. 14 have written many exotic works in a variety of genres. Significant contributions to musical exoticism have come from France, where composers exploited the possibilities of the format into the early twentieth century. For the purposes of this study, "exoticism" is defined as a foray into the representation of another culture that evokes a certain mood associated with it by outsiders, though it in no way may represent the indigenous music of either culture. The composer's perception of the culture is operative, since many musicians did not travel and were not exposed to foreign music in its own form or setting. As a result, exotic compositions were imaginative recreations, the composer's observation of the exotic. Certain motifs or characteristics of French exoticism were simply stylistic, codified by the fashion itself. 30 Many French, however, had firsthand experience of foreign cultures ? especially in North Africa and the Middle East ? including many of the composers discussed in this study. Le japonisme, another more culturally specific and more internationally "exotic" phase, had considerable impact on musicians, artists, and writers in nineteenth- and twentieth-century France. 31 Le japonisme may be described simply as the influence of Japanese art and culture upon Western art and culture. Its mark can be seen clearly in the 32 Japanese woodcuts, some of the first Asian art of any kind to reach Paris, inspired Edgar Degas, Henri Fantin-Latour, ?douard Manet, Claude Monet, Odilon Redon, James Tissot, F?lix Valloton, and James Whistler. Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 60. 33 The Nabis were a group of young French painters, including Pierre Bonnard, Maurice Denis, and Paul S?rusier, who were influenced by Japanese prints. They rejected the tenets of naturalism in favor of the flat decorative patterning of the picture surface. Formed in the autumn of 1888, this group took their name from the Hebrew word meaning ?seer.? The New Oxford Companion to Literature in French, edited by Peter France, 554. 34 The term fauvism was coined by the critic Louis Vauxcelles to describe the works of Derain, Marquet, Matisse, Rouault, and Vlaminck which were exhibited at the Salons d?Automne in 1905. Fauvism briefly brought together these painters who were seeking to explore the expressive potential of color. This movement has been related to the emergence in literature of le naturalisme. Ibid., 302. 35 See Chapter 20 on French opera, opera comique, operetta, and lyric opera. Grout, A Short History of Opera, 329. 36 Wagner was among the European composers who tried repeatedly to obtain a Paris premiere of his operatic works. Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 21-31. 15 work of the impressionist artists, 32 the Nabis, 33 and the Fauves, 34 as well as Paul Gauguin (1848-1903) and Vincent Van Gogh (1853-1890). Le japonisme was popular with the general public as well. Japanese decorative arts were displayed during the Paris Expositions universelles of 1867 and 1878, creating a sensation with Parisians, who soon filled their homes with Japanese objects. THE PARIS OP?RA During the nineteenth century, Paris was virtually the European capital of opera. 35 Not only did many composers of eminence live there, but even those who were not themselves French did not feel they had arrived professionally until they received a successful Paris premiere. 36 The French fondness for public spectacle was gratified during the romantic period by grand opera. This form flourished through the efforts of 37 Scribe was the author of grand operas such as La Muette de Portici (music by Aubert), La juive (music by Hal?vy), and Robert le diable (music by Meyerbeer). 38 Grand opera was a particular invention of the French operatic stage and could be described as sheer spectacle on a scale surpassing anything seen previously. Plots based upon shock and contrast were adapted as long, complex musical scores, which in turn exploited every kind of novel orchestral effect. Ballets became larger and more elaborate, while choruses and crowd scenes abounded. With the introduction of coloratura arias, solo parts expanded in range, tone, and expression. In addition, impassioned dramatic outbursts often appeared in juxtaposition with ballades and romances. Grout, A Short History of Opera, 329. 39 Ibid., 339-340. 16 director and entrepreneur Louis V?ron (1798-1867), who reigned over the Paris Op?ra from 1831 to 1835; the librettist Eug?ne Scribe (1791-1861); 37 and the composer Giacomo Meyerbeer (1791-1864), whose works exemplified all the best and worst features of grand opera. 38 In addition to Meyerbeer, other romantic composers of French grand opera included (in order by date of birth) Daniel-Fran?ois-Esprit Auber (1782-1871), Louis-Joseph-Ferdinand H?rold (1791-1833), Gioachino Rossini (1792-1868), Adolphe-Charles Adam (1803-1856), Hector Berlioz (1803-1869), F?licien David (1810-1876), Jacques Offenbach (1819-1880), and Victor Mass? (1822-1884). Many of these composers wrote very early examples of French salon pieces for flute and voice. Around 1850, a new form of opera arose that would give a vehicle to the French national genius for the measured, refined, lyrical expression of serious subject matter, which was still combined with some ballet and stage entertainment. This new form was called lyric opera and, in comparison to grand opera, it expressed more introverted emotions, was smaller in scale, and was more unified in mood. 39 The leading composers 40 Thomas was a pupil of Jean-Fran?ois Lesueur (1760-1837) and a teacher of Jules Massenet (1842-1912), and thus he formed a link from the late eighteenth-century tradition to the late nineteenth-century tradition in French music. 41 ?The musical renewal which took place with us towards 1880, has no more weighty precursor than Gounod.? Hill, Modern French Music, 45. 42 The line of French light opera, called operetta, which also was prominent in France and was established in the nineteenth century by Adam, Auber, and Offenbach, was subsequently maintained by Charles Lecocq (1832-1918), Edmond Audran (1840-1901), Louis Varney (1844-1908), and Jean-Robert Planquette (1848-1903). Grout, A Short History of Opera, 335. 17 of this kind of opera in France were Ambroise Thomas (1811-1896) 40 and Charles Gounod (1818-1893). Gounod also turned his lyrical gifts to music for flute and voice. According to Ravel, Gounod single-handedly maintained characteristic French qualities in serious dramatic music. 41 Lyric opera attracted a new generation of French composers to produce works for the stage, including C?sar Franck (1822-1890), Ernest Reyer (1823-1909), Camille Saint-Sa?ns (1835-1921), L?o D?libes (1836-1891), Georges Bizet (1838-1875), Emanuel Chabrier (1841-1894), Jules Massenet (1842-1912), Emile Paladilhe (1844-1926), Benjamin Godard (1849-1895), Vincent d'Indy (1851-1931), and Gustave Charpentier (1860-1956). Some of their works, such as Carmen (1875), Samson et Dalila (1877), Lakm? (1883), Manon (1884), Werther (1892), and Louis (1900) remain in the repertory today. 42 These works (featuring a soprano as the heroine) established the soprano as the solo voice and influenced many composers to write vocal chamber music for soprano and flute. In the early twentieth century, the most radical influence on operatic style was impressionism. It originated in France and its primary exponents were the composers 43 Grout, A Short History of Opera, 497-502. 44 Since the classical period, the development of previously presented ideas in a piece of music had allowed composers to expand musical forms considerably. As a result, symphonic works, concertos, operas, and chamber music began to be larger and longer forms. This technique led to the mammoth operas of Wagner (some four to five hours long) and the symphonies of Mahler, to give two examples. Cooper, French Music, 55-65. 45 Grout, A Short History of Opera, 561-567. 18 Claude Debussy (1862-1918), Gabriel Piern? (1863-1937), J. Guy Ropartz (1864-1955), Paul Dukas (1865-1935), and Maurice Ravel (1875-1937). The seminal operatic work in this mode, Debussy's Pell?as et M?lisande (1902), changed the course of modern opera in France and elsewhere. 43 An indirect and suggestive work built on a text by the symbolist writer Maurice Maeterlinck, it marked a radical departure from the lyric opera of the preceding generation. While Pell?as et M?lisande was not the first work of Debussy?s generation to be set to a modern French text and to incorporate a new harmonic language, it began a trend amongst French composers to look to modern (and ancient) French writers for their subject matter for vocal solos and vocal chamber music; to experiment with a more concise, simplistic harmonic language; and to abandon the idea of development. 44 In this way, Debussy set the stage for the operatic and vocal chamber works of composers such as Arthur Honegger, Darius Milhaud, and Francis Poulenc, all of whom wrote opera and chamber music in the new harmonic language while collaborating with French poets. 45 NEW DIRECTIONS IN FRENCH MUSIC FOLLOWING THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR (1870-1871) 46 Hill, Modern French Music, 7-9. 47 Ibid., 20-30. 48 Ibid., 42-50. 19 The state of musical taste in Paris from 1840 to 1870, just prior to the Franco-Prussian War, could be characterized by the adoration of Meyerbeer, the neglect of Berlioz, and the craze for Offenbach. After the disaster of the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871), the rise of a new school and a new spirit in French music can be traced to the establishment of the Soci?t? nationale de musique (1871), which advocated the compositional device called Ars gallica. 46 Undiscriminating acceptance of incongruous musical styles, on the one hand, and a frivolous addiction to the trivialities of operetta, on the other, were now succeeded by a strenuous effort to restore, in modern terms, the great musical individuality which had belonged to France in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries. As a result, the range of musical activities in France widened beyond the operatic stage. 47 Before 1870, composers had devoted themselves primarily to opera, but now they began turning their attention to choral, symphonic, and chamber forms. In addition, higher standards of musical education were introduced and a more cultivated, exacting public gradually came into being. This renewal of national musical life made the opera more vital, original, and adventurous. Although the highest rewards of popular success still went to those composers who were able and willing to bend their talents to the public fancy, the best works found hearing and appreciation. 48 For the musician and the patron alike, there were numerous theaters and opera houses now offering venues for orchestral 49 Mongr?dien, French Music from the Enlightenment to Romanticism, translated by Sylvain Fr?maux, 66-71. 50 Ibid., 70-95. 51 Salazar, Music In Our Time, 166-167. 20 work, operatic work, and for the premiere of new stage works, as well as many small concert halls and fashionable salons for chamber music. The most coveted positions for instrumental and vocal performers were in the Op?ra and Op?ra-Comique, which flourished under government subsidy. 49 Several other theaters of note were active during this period: the Th??tre-Lyrique, the Th??tre-Italien, and the Bouffes-Parisiens. Competition between these theaters, along with that of the Op?ra and the Op?ra-Comique, brought an excess of operatic premieres and performances. Artists fared well and were paid high fees, while impresarios vied for control of the houses. 50 As a result, Paris became a city where the greatest singers of the age lived and worked. Many of these artists inspired vocal chamber works by French composers and collaborated with composers in the creation of operatic roles and m?lodies. The great romantic orchestras of Hector Berlioz, Franz Liszt, and Richard Wagner disclosed a new symphonic concept, in which the instrumental material itself was seen to have an expressive value of its own. This developed simultaneously with changes assumed by the chord as an acoustic and aesthetic element. 51 Thus, the use of harmonic color combined with appropriate instrumental timbres became a primary objective of musical thought and musical creation. Instrumental music was seen to have a validity of 52 Even in the symphonic medium there were parallels developing between music and literature that would become significant for instrumental music. For example, there was the realism of Richard Strauss and the material elements of sonority as expressed by Claude Debussy. Such realism corresponded directly to the realism in literature, from Gustave Flaubert to ?mile Zola and the Goncourt brothers. As well, the idealism expressed in subtleties of accent and of sensation in the music of Duparc, Faur?, Ravel, and others corresponds to similar moments in the poetry of Charles Baudelaire, St?phane Mallarm?, Paul Verlaine, and their followers in France. Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 139-148. 53 Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, see especially Chapter 7: Music and Literature, 136. 54 Some of the more famous salons hostesses were Madame de S?vign?, Ninon de Lenclos, Madame de Maintenon, Madame du Defand, Mademoiselle de Lespinasse, Madame de Stael, and Madame R?camier. Hamel, Famous French Salons, preface. 55 Kale, French Salons, 6. 21 its own. 52 As a result, symphonic music and instrumental chamber music were mediums of exploitation by French composers in a way they had not been in the previous decades. THE SALONS The French salons were places for social gatherings during the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the salons encouraged socializing between the sexes, brought nobles and bourgeois together, and afforded opportunities for intellectual stimulation. 53 By the nineteenth century there were many kinds of salons that catered to the specific tastes and desires of the social elite. In addition to various official salons, there were literary salons, musical salons, and those identified with particular hostesses 54 or celebrities. Salons were primarily for conversation, but they were also places of distraction and amusement where people went to gamble, sing, dance, play charades, listen to poetry, view art, or participate in theatrical presentations. 55 Throughout the political upheavals of the revolution, the restoration, the monarchies, and the republics, salons persisted. 56 Ibid. 57 It was in the salon of the princesses Edmond de Polignac, for instance, that Francis Poulenc met Wanda Landowska, and it was at Madame Mante-Rostand's salon that he renewed his acquaintance with Pierre Bernac, who would later become Poulenc?s partner and the interpreter of Poulenc?s songs. Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 234. 22 Salons held a place of strategic musical importance until World War II. The salons provided musicians a place of sociability with other artists. There, they had an arena for social encounters, intellectual exchanges, and unconventional social relationships. The salons were usually held at the luxurious home of an aristocratic hostess (a salonni?re), where selected company was invited for polite conversation, which gave way to larger gatherings for dinner or to some planned activity for the evening. 56 These were places where all the genius of Paris was on display and, in the Paris of 1830, there were as many salons as there were wives of men in high places who possessed the skill to form and keep a stable of individuals wishing to be entertained. Those wishing to belong to the social elite were regular visitors to eight, ten, or a dozen salons. By 1850, artists began their own intimate gatherings for their friends (such as St?phane Mallarm??s ?Tuesday Evenings?) in an attempt to make connections specifically with other artists. This social and artistic elite, playing the role of mediator, often promoted meetings between composers, performers, poets, visual artists, novelists, and critics. 57 It was also at these gatherings that musicians and writers first performed their new works in public. There, for a select audience, composers could put their latest works to the test before the public premiere took place. Those who attended these private performances were also in a position to attract a wider public to the concert halls. These 58 Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 17-18. 59 Ibid., 231-232. 60 Noske, French Song From Berlioz to Duparc, 1-2. 23 connections, especially between composer, performer, and writer, would lead to the creation of many works for flute and voice. THE SOCI?T?S The establishment of performing groups or soci?t?s for the purpose of encouraging performances of French music is another hallmark of late nineteenth-century Paris. The first group of this type, begun in 1871, was the Soci?t? nationale de musique, which would ultimately be responsible for the revival and the efflorescence of French music. 58 It would prompt the establishment of many such groups with the intended purpose of promulgating and disseminating music by French composers. These groups assisted in inaugurating a wave of French nationalism. 59 Many of the works for flute and voice were premiered at and by these soci?t?s. THE M?LODIE The chanson in France has a distinguished tradition, one that can be traced back to a time when medieval polyphony was feeling the first effects of the renaissance. 60 During the period from 1850 to 1950, French song again developed into an art form in its own right. Known as m?lodie, its inspiration was close to that of the German lied, and it achieved its pinnacle in the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries in the works of 61 Meister, Nineteenth-Century French Song, ix-xi. 24 (chronologically) Gabriel Faur?, Claude Debussy, Henri Duparc, and Ernest Chausson. Every composer in the musical bibliography wrote m?lodie for flute and voice which evolved in style over time. Beginning with the light salon works of Victor Mass? and L?o D?libes and also including the lyrical, pastoral mode of Charles Gounod and Philippe Gaubert, the music progressed to the oriental chamber pieces of Maurice Ravel and Maurice Delage and to the dissonant, polytonal works of Albert Roussel and Darius Milhaud. This stylistic evolution in the music of these works can be traced to the influence of the French poets of the day. 61 French musicians such as (alphabetically) Chausson, Debussy, Delage, Duparc, Milhaud, Poulenc, and Ravel, responded with remarkable music to the verses of French poets such as Guillaume Apollinaire, Th?ophile Gautier, Leconte de Lisle, St?phane Mallarm?, Pierre de Ronsard, Arthur Rimbaud, and Paul Verlaine. Through these poets, the literary trends of naturalism, realism, symbolism, decadence, and surrealism would seep into the music for flute and voice. POETS AND WRITERS, 1850-1950 In poetry, the decade after the proclamation of the new Republic (1870-1880) was dominated by Victor Hugo. After his return from exile, and right up to his death in 1885, his preeminence was scarcely contested. During the same years, those poets already dubbed the parnassians (Th?odore de Banville, Fran?ois Copp?e, L?on Dierx, Charles-Marie Leconte de Lisle) were also rising to fame and before long could claim to be the dominant French poetic school. In fiction, the main phenomenon of the 1870s was 62 As a literary phenomenon, it was international and by no means restricted to France. In Paris, however, the landmark year is 1871 when Zola began publication of his Rougon-Macquart series, which was to continue until 1893. Zola, along with Flaubert, Balzac, and the Goncourt brothers, would become the center of a growing constellation of younger novelists in the city. Brereton, An Introduction to the French Poets, 122. 63 The New Oxford Companion to Literature in French, edited by Peter France, 788-789. 25 the rise of naturalism. 62 The naturalist movement, which regarded itself as a reaction against the insipid novels published under the imprint of the Revue des Deux Mondes, reached its peak in 1880. After 1880, both the parnassians and the naturalist movements encountered violent opposition from newcomers on the scene while also being weakened by growing internal divergences. In the field of poetry, the decade beginning in 1880 was characterized by the emergence of a number of new trends, all of which are now embraced within the general term symbolism. 63 One of these new trends was typified by a group of poets called the decadents. They were most conspicuously influenced by Baudelaire, a poet of the preceding generation. After his death in 1867 and during the first years of the Third Republic, Baudelaire's influence, on the surface at least, does not appear to have been very strong. The poets who openly declared themselves to be his disciples, St?phane Mallarm?, Arthur Rimbaud, and Paul Verlaine, remained somewhat in the background while the parnassians continued to occupy the center of the literary stage. After 1880, the picture changed quite dramatically with the rise of the new generation that regarded Baudelaire as its most important teacher and guide, and he was returned swiftly to a position of 64 Ibid. 65 Hertz, The Tuning of the Word, 56-59. 66 Noske, French Song From Berlioz to Duparc, 69-89. 26 preeminence. 64 In the late nineteenth century, French writers were struggling to free their verse from the constraints of classicism. Many musicians, meanwhile, worked closely with writers and poets, seeking fresh ideas for their pieces with texts. Since the writer of songs must deal with words as well as music, the literary climate of a period is a basic factor in the development of its song style. The new poet-composer relationship became established during this period, when the actual techniques of music and literature had been brought nearer than in the past. It was only natural that, while the poets were borrowing from music, musicians, on the other hand, should have shown themselves to be especially sensitive to contemporary literature. Faur? and Duparc were pioneers in this field, as was Debussy in his settings of Baudelaire, Mallarm? and Verlaine, in particular. 65 The poets whose works were most often used as song texts during this period are Th?odore de Banville, Charles Baudelaire, Th?ophile Gautier, Villiers de l'Isle Adam, Leconte de Lisle, Armand Silvestre, Sully-Prudhomme, and Paul Verlaine. 66 From time to time, composers chose older texts for their songs. Many of Gabriel Faur?'s early songs, for instance, are settings of romantic poems by Victor Hugo; Claude Debussy went back to the poems of Charles d'Orl?ans, Tristan L'Hermite, and Fran?ois Villon; Henri Duparc used a translation of an elegy by Thomas Moore; and Ernst Chausson set Maurice 67 Theobald Boehm introduced a metal instrument, with redesigned placement for tone holes in the flute, along with a new mechanism and fingering system capable of controlling these holes in 1831. In 1832 he began a series of experiments to determine the proper proportions of tone hole measurement and introduced this second modification to the instrument, with public performances in Munich, Paris, and London. By 1833, Boehm had sold only one flute in London and he encountered similar resistance in Germany and France. According to Nancy Toff, Paul Camus, the principal flutist of the Th??tre-Italien introduced the Boehm flute to Paris in 1837. The Boehm instrument was officially introduced to the Paris Conservatoire in 1838, however, it would not become the instrument of choice until 1860 (largely due to the efforts of Tulou to keep the new metal flute out of the mainstream). Even after 1833, Boehm continued to refine and modify the instrument with the help of professional flutist and engineer Dr. Carl von Schafh?utl. The 1850 Boehm flute is the instrument most similar to the modern flute. Toff, The Flute Book, 53. 68 Powell, The Flute, 212-215. 27 Boucher's translations of Shakespeare to music. THE FLUTE, 1850-1950 The romantic era saw little new flute music. This was due, in part, to the perceived inferiority of the flute to other instruments of the day (such as the violin or the piano). The wooden, keyed flute produced a relatively small sound and was not perceived as a solo instrument by composers of the romantic period. This may seem surprising since the Boehm flute, a technological innovation that was to revolutionize the instrument, came into being during the 1830s. 67 However, acceptance of the new flute was slow in arriving (especially in France) and the difficulty with which players adopted the new fingering system, along with the competition generated among instrument makers, had a negative effect on flute literature. 68 Although the flute and the piccolo did become valued members of the orchestra, the growth of solo flute literature and chamber music including the flute was slow from the mid-nineteenth century to the beginning of the twentieth century. The flute was not seen as an instrument with the capacity to produce the power and variety of tone that 69 Dorgeuille, The French Flute School, 1860-1950, translated by Edward Blakeman, 25. 28 were the vehicles of romantic musical expression. Johannes Brahms, Franz Liszt, Felix Mendelssohn, and Robert Schumann were just some of the notable romantic composers who contributed no works to the solo flute repertoire. Even as it gained in acceptance, the flute became an instrument of virtuosic display and programmatic salon pieces, such as bird music. French composers of the romantic generation wrote no concertos for flute. By the 1860s, however, the acceptance of the Boehm flute in France, as well as the introduction by Paul Taffanel of new teaching methods at the Conservatoire, had a direct effect on the music written for the instrument. 69 Many celebrated flutists, including (chronologically) Paul Taffanel, Philippe Gaubert, Adolphe Hennebains, Ren? Le Roy, Georges Barr?re, Louis Fleury, Georges Laurent, and Marcel Moyse had taken their places in the performing ensembles of the day. At the same time, a new generation of French composers wrote prolifically for the flute as a solo instrument and as a collaborative instrument in numerous ensemble combinations, including flute and voice. The result was an outpouring of repertoire for the flute in many genres (including music for flute and voice) during this period that has not been duplicated since. THE SOPRANOS, 1850-1950 Not until the nineteenth century and the highly promoted careers of singers such as Giulia Grisi, Adelina Patti, and Pauline Viardot, did the mantle prima donna come to designate famous sopranos. To be a prima donna was not so much to be a great interpreter of operatic music as it was to be an outrageous grand dame. This period saw 70 Christiansen, Prima Donna, 1-4. 71 Ibid., 248. 72 Garden, Mary Garden?s Story, 60-72. 73 For example, Faur? was introduced into Parisian society via Pauline Viardot, the celebrated soprano, who, along with her husband Louis Viardot, hosted weekly soirees to which the intelligentsia of Paris were invited. Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 148-149. 29 the rise of the diva, a near-goddess who received the homage of flowers, diamonds, applause, and flattery and gained levels of power and prestige equal to those of their male counterparts. 70 Not only were these singers known for their vocal prowess but as actresses, as in the case of Emma Calv? (who became identified with the part of Carmen in Bizet's opera of the same name) 71 and Mary Garden (who inspired and premiered the role of M?lisande in Debussy's Pell?as et M?lisande). 72 Meanwhile, other sopranos were known as entrepreneurs, as in the case of Caroline Miolan-Carvalho (who created the role of Marguerite in Gounod's Faust and the title roles in Rom?o et Juliette and Mireille) and Pauline Viardot (who was essential in the creation of the roles of Dalila in Saint-Sa?ns's Samson et Dalila, Dido in Berlioz's Les Troyens, and the lead roles in Meyerbeer's Robert le diable and Les Huguenots). These singers, and others like them, were active in the salons of the day, connecting promising young musicians with artists, writers, and impresarios to have their new operatic and vocal chamber works financed and produced by the houses of the day. 73 Toward the beginning of the twentieth century, they worked closely with composers to create new operatic roles, to commission new works, to provide venues for performance, 74 See Chapter 11: The Rise of The Great Sopranos. 75 Mongr?dien, French Music from the Enlightenment to Romanticism, translated by Sylvain Fr?maux, 343- 346. 30 and to become the sole interpreters of new French vocal chamber music. Their activities were not limited to the stage. They also encouraged French composers to develop m?lodies and works for voice with instruments. 74 Composers responded with an outpouring of song for singers like Mary Garden (who premiered the songs of Debussy), Madeline Grey (who premiered the vocal works of Ravel), and Jane Bathori (who premiered the works for soprano and flute Delage, Koechlin, Milhaud, Ravel, and Roussel). PROMINENT MUSICIANS, 1850-1950 In the early nineteenth century, Fr?d?ric Chopin, F?licien David, Felix Mendelssohn, and Robert Schumann were alive; Giacomo Meyerbeer was considered the supreme master of opera; Hector Berlioz was striving (unsuccessfully) to obtain recognition; Richard Wagner and Giuseppe Verdi were at the beginning of their careers; Charles Gounod, having lately won the Prix de Rome, was earning his livelihood as an organist; Honor?e de Balzac, Alexander Dumas, Georges Sand, and Victor Hugo were at the zenith of their fame; and Louis-Philippe, the citizen king, ruled the French. 75 By the turn of the century, the period extending from about 1870 to 1920, French music had achieved a veritable renaissance in the hands of a galaxy of remarkable composers. Those who came to prominence during that brilliant period were Georges Bizet, Emmanuel Chabrier, Leo D?libes, Henri Duparc, Gabriel Faur?, C?sar Franck, 76 Myers, Modern French Music, 21-41. 31 Ernest Guiraud, ?douard Lalo, Jules Massenet, Louis-Etienne-Ernest Reyer, Camille Saint-Sa?ns, and Charles-Marie Widor. They were soon followed by Alfred Bruneau, Andr? Caplet, Gustave Charpentier, Claude Debussy, and Vincent d'Indy, among others. The beginning of the twentieth century saw the emergence of Maurice Delage, Roger Ducasse, Paul Dukas, Charles Koechlin, Maurice Ravel, Albert Roussel, Erik Satie, Florent Schmitt, and the members of Les Six: Georges Auric, Louis Durey, Arthur Honegger, Darius Milhaud, Francis Poulenc, and Germaine Tailleferre. 76 Nearly all of these composers turned their attention to music for flute and voice, some of which are masterpieces of the genre. Their works (listed in detail in the musical bibliography, Appendix I) and the history of their creations are the subject of this study. 77 Letter from Richard Wagner to King Ludwig II of Bavaria, July 18, 1867. Wagner Writes from Paris, edited and translated by Robert Jacobs and Geoffrey Skelton, 7. 32 CHAPTER 2 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW As the world now is, Paris forms the culminating point; all other cities are simply stations along the way. It is the heart of modern civilization, drawing in the blood before sending it out again to the limbs. When I decided to become a famous opera composer, my good angel sent me straight to that heart: there I was at the source, and there I was able to grasp at once things which at the wayside stations would perhaps have taken me half a lifetime to learn. 77 ?Richard Wagner 78 The boundaries of the romantic movement are hard to define, and have sometimes been described by scholars as a time period stretching from 1750-1870. However, for the purposes of this study, I am using the period articulated by Jacques Barzun in his Classic, Romantic and Modern (1961) which defines historical romanticism as comprising those Europeans whose birth falls between 1770 and 1815, and who achieved distinction in philosophy, statecraft, and the arts during the first half of the nineteenth century. 79 For a chronology of selected historical events in France from 1850-1950, refer to Appendix VII. 80 Working in Britain during the same time period (1850s) was Sir Henry Rowley Bishop and Sir William Benedict, both of whom wrote several pieces for flute, soprano, and piano that are bird pieces. Bishop?s piece, Lo! Here the Gentle Lark was made famous by Jenny Lind and Adelina Patti, who performed this piece (as well as his Home, Sweet Home) as an encore on their recital tours of Europe and the United States. 81 The new regime was seen from the start as a bourgeois monarchy. The tendency of many aristocrats to withdraw from court life in protest against the overthrow of the Bourbons accentuated the social cleavage caused by the July revolution. But the ruling elite was no longer a cross-section of the former Third Estate. 33 ROMANTICISM 78 ? THE EARLY WORKS FOR FLUTE AND SOPRANO 79 About 1851, Jean-Louis Tulou (1786-1865), Auguste Panseron (1795-1859), and F?licien David (1810-1876) wrote works for flute, soprano, and piano. Chanson by Tulou, Philomel, On entend le berger, Le cor, and Deux rossignols by Panseron, and Charmant oiseaux, the coloratura aria with flute obbligato taken from David's first opera, La perle du Br?sil (1851), are all what are now classified as ?bird? songs. These are romantic era salon pieces that were popular during this period for their frivolous text and their imitation of bird?s song by the soprano and the flute. Victor Mass? (1822-1884) would soon follow in 1853 with his piece, Au bord du chemin, air du rossignol, as would Joseph-Henri Alt?s (1826-1895) with his Le rossignol et la touterelle, both for flute, soprano, and piano. 80 Several historical factors brought this music into vogue. First, the music reflected the frivolousness of the bourgeois society of Paris. The shift from Charles X to Louis-Philippe and the July Monarchy symbolized a major social transformation. 81 1848 had only recently marked the fall of this regime that had seen the The leaders of the bourgeois monarchy included many with aristocratic titles and others who had been ennobled under Napol?on or were elected to the peerage by Louis-Philippe himself. Land ownership remained the major source of wealth for most of this new elite, but it also included bankers and industrialists who had made their fortunes in the beginnings of the industrial revolution. Wealth now allowed successful individuals to transcend old barriers of religion and status. Popkin, A History of Modern France, 97. 82 The new king and his family were prime representatives of this shift in values. The king adopted bourgeois norms of family life and became the first monarch to have his sons educated in the state-run lyc?es. The new style was symbolically represented by Louis-Phillipe?s bourgeois play-acting with frock-coat and umbrella. Tombs, France 1814-1914, 357. 83 In the first half of the nineteenth century, despite the beginnings of an industrial revolution, the national wealth of France was not large enough to permit better wages, shorter hours, more leisure time, or better housing. Lough, An Introduction to Nineteenth Century France, 37. 84 While there was sustained demand for the comic operas of Adam, David, and Mass?, in 1846 there was a largely unresponsive audience for Berlioz?s La Damnation de Faust, arguably one of the great French works of the romantic period. The French Romantics, ed. Charlton, 378. 34 establishment of a new bourgeois style or ethos that was reflected in literature, music, art, and political discourse. 82 However, in French society of this period, there were gross inequalities of wealth. 83 An appalling poverty existed side by side with the affluence of a small minority. To conservative thinkers of the time, such gross inequalities seemed inevitable. Perhaps as an antidote to the sufferings of others, the aristocrats and the bourgeois attended concert and opera performances of light-hearted, fantastical material. They indulged themselves with lively salon performances of pieces such as those described above. This relentless diet of op?ra comique and the pretty, evocative pictures of bird songs and exotic pieces had seduced the public from greater music, and a trend towards sentimentality is clearly evident. 84 Second, opera was the central musical institution in a politically centralized nation and, therefore, it drew the close attention of aristocratic society as well as the 85 Attendance at the opera was so prevalent that in 1830, Balzac made a discussion of Robert le diable by Meyerbeer a central episode in his novel Gambara, apparently assuming that his readers knew it well. In addition to the general public, Emperor Louis-Napol?on and Empress Eug?nie were loyal patrons of the opera and they attracted a wide following for opera in the period from 1850-1870. The French Romantics, ed. Charlton, 355. 86 Grand opera consisted of sensationalized drama that was brilliantly contrived, usually in a precise historical location. The verse was usually regular in accent and rhythm, with an obviousness of meter that produced a sense of banality. Subjects were chosen to provide opportunities for local color or religious or political conflicts in a strong dramatic framework. Some of the scenarios were clearly borrowed from romantic drama, while others were fantasy. The opera company made use of the latest staging effects to create illusions of movement and perspective that were previously unknown in the theater. Unusual musical instruments were exploited for their novelty and special effect, including the bass clarinet, organ, harp, and viola d?amore. The chorus took a prominent part in the story, and the operas inevitably contained a ballet. There was a predictable move toward epic stories from history that focused on great conflicts of the human race. Great singing was also a highlight of this period, with notable sopranos such a Cinti-Damoreau, Falcon, Stoltz, and Viardot commanding high fees. The French Romantics, ed. Charlton, 361. 87 The French Romantics, ed. Charlton, 354. 35 middle class. 85 Grand opera was a particular creation of early nineteenth-century France. 86 While many romantic ideas came from Germany in the field of poetry and visual art, French romantic music is striking in its failure to acknowledge how powerfully music can act on the human soul. German musicians acknowledged music as superior to other arts, yet French musicians showed a certain reserve to the more powerful manifestations of music. 87 Instead, they clung to the traditional balances and collaborations that gave music an important role in the theater, the concert hall, the salon, the church, or in ceremonies of state. Abstraction found no followers in France, where music continued to be allied to words in opera and in song. As a result, opera is the most representative French musical genre of the period, though not the most romantic. The enormous works which made up the Op?ra?s repertory drew on all kinds of romantic subject matter and fed the public taste for great outpourings of passion and fantasy (religious, political, amorous, epic, patriotic, etc.) that were characteristic of the 88 During the romantic period, the philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau advanced the idea that in opera, the whole should be a perfect union of painting, music, and poetry (Rousseau espoused this idea long before Wagner developed his theory of the union of the three arts). Melody existed to express emotion not to display the voice, yet every element of the opera should submit itself to the action. French operatic composers at the height of the romantic movement were Daniel Fran?ois-Esprit Auber (1782-1871), Ferdinand H?rold (1791-1833), Fromental Hal?vy (1799-1862), and Adolphe Adam (1803-1856). Giacomo Meyerbeer (1791-1864) exerted the greatest influence on the development of romantic opera, however, firmly establishing grand opera in Paris for more than two decades. Grout, A Short History of Opera, 315- 319. 89 Neither David, Panseron, nor Mass? were successful in disguising the sing-song quality of the verses they set in their songs. 90 Powell, The Flute, 214. 36 times. 88 The authors of this music were skillful architects who knew their audience?s preferences and were able to devote unprecedented resources to the creation of these epic works. Unfortunately, the creativity and originality of the music suffered. The verse is resourceful but repetitive and lapses into monotony. 89 All of these songs referenced at the beginning of the chapter are taken from operas written by these composers, and it is a demonstration of the frivolousness of the librettos that each contains a song for soprano imitating a bird! While operas by Auber, Donizetti, Hal?vy, Meyerbeer, and Rossini remained the chief musical forms in Paris during the mid-nineteenth century, virtuoso show pieces provided the flute?s most frequent opportunities in solo and chamber music. 90 Another form exploited during this period was the theme and variation. Several composers wrote pieces for flute, soprano, and piano in this style, including O dolce concerto (Air de Mozart avec variations) by Louis Drouet (1792-1873), and Variations on Ah! Vous dirais (a theme attributed to Mozart) and Bravura variations on a theme attributed to N. Dez?de by Adolph Adam (1803-1856). 91 For instance, one of the most popular and frequently performed solos of the period was a set of variations on God Save the King. Baines, Woodwind Instruments and their History, 317. 92 See Appendix VIII for a list of solos performed at the annual Concours for flute. Powell, The Flute, 214. 93 Fitzgibbon also quotes a reviewer in Musical Opinion (1890) who gave the following description of a flute performance: ?Air first, then common chord variation (staccato), ?runs? variation, slow movement with a turn between every other note, and a pump handle shake that wrings tears of agony from the flute; then the enormously difficult finale, in which you are up in the air on one note, then drop with a bang, which nearly breaks you, onto low C, only to bounce up again, to hold onto a note, shake it (wring its neck in fact), scatter it in all directions and come sailing down triumphantly on a chromatic (legato) run with a perfect whirlpool of foaming notes, only to be bumped and pushed about until you are exhausted.? Fitzgibbon, H. Macaulay, The Story of the Flute, 109-110. 37 Throughout the nineteenth century, flutists and composers turned out fantasies, variations on airs and opera melodies, and other similar works. 91 Jean-Louis Tulou and Joseph-Henri Alt?s were the flute professors at the Conservatoire during this period, and their works dominated the repertoire that was performed by flute students. Between 1832 and 1860, every single solo required for the concours prize for flutists was a composition by Tulou. 92 Indeed, his compositions, along with those of Alt?s continued to be the main Concours selections through Alt?s?s term as professor. These frothy works were produced in other European countries as well as France. Fitzgibbon (a British flutist of the late-nineteenth century) remarked that the public was largely responsible for the composition of such pieces: The public taste was not educated: it was the age of the air vari?e. The great professional soloists naturally played the kind of music which pleased their auditors and pupils most. Every suitable or unsuitable operatic aria, every Welsh, Irish, Scottish, or English tune was adapted by them for the flute and tortured into all sorts of interminable scales and exercises ?with double-tonguing, skips from the highest to the lowest notes and such like tricks written to show off the executive skill of the performer and to make the audience wonder how it was all done. 93 Writing a generation later, Louis Fleury (a French flutist who studied at the 94 Fleury, ?The Flute and its Powers of Expression,? translated by A.H. Fox Strangways, 384. 95 Ahmad, ?The Flute Professors of the Paris Conservatoire from Devienne to Taffanel, 1795-1908,? 78. 96 The state, according to Saint-Simon, was to be replaced by a tripartite elite. First were the intellectuals and scientists, who would discover useful laws and evaluate the projects of others. Here also were the artists, or men of imagination, whose inspiration would provide society with moral direction. The arts, and particularly music, could inspire humanity for the great tasks ahead, harmonize diversity, and 38 Conservatoire with Paul Taffanel) felt it was the fault of flutists themselves: The moment flutists tried to compete with violinists, giving themselves over to fireworks and the expression of hectic sentiment, people of good taste would have no more to do with them. 94 Whether in imitation of other instruments or to please the public, these pieces were written well into the second half of the nineteenth century. Indeed, L?o D?libes (1836-1891) wrote a bird piece for flute, soprano, and piano entitled Le rossignol as late as 1882. It was not until the appointment of Louis Dorus as flute professor at the Conservatoire (1860) and the ascendency of composers such as Charles Gounod and Gabriel Faur? that the music written for flute by French composers underwent any meaningful change. 95 ROMANTICISM ? POLITICAL AND SOCIAL LIFE These sentimental songs were written against the backdrop of the Second Empire in France. Of the three composers mentioned above, F?licien David was perhaps the most well-known and was considered alongside Berlioz in making contributions to the romantic movement. In addition to his musical ambitions, David was influenced by the political and social inclinations of his times. One of the movements of the mid-nineteenth century to affect musicians, artists, and writers was the Saint-Simonian movement. 96 This reinforce the ethic of brotherly love. Next, the businessmen and industrialists would administer and execute the great social projects that would bring plenty for all. Everyone else was to be assigned the productive functions that best suited their natural talents. In the 1830s and 1840s, the movement attracted a wide circle of businessmen, engineers, politicians, bureaucratic managers, welfare state advocates, writers, musicians, and intellectuals. While Hector Berlioz and Franz Liszt were drawn to the ideals of the movement, only F?licien David was a formal convert. Barth?lemy-Prosper Enfantin (1796-1864), Saint-Simon's successor, regarded himself as the father figure of the movement, and David enjoyed favorite son status. Thus David was entrusted with the task of creating music that would assist in effecting a moral regeneration of mankind, following the Saint-Simonian tenants. David's works were subsequently to aid in the propagation of the religious, social, and political ideals of the movement. Hagan, F?licien David, 13-24. 97 Ibid. 98 The closest affinities between music and the other arts during the romantic movement may be found in a comparative study of the music and the literature of the time. This is partly because French literary romanticism expressed most fully the changes in aesthetic ideas and because the leaders in the literary component of the movement tended to dominate French artistic society of the time. But, the general tendencies of romanticism spread very rapidly to music, largely as a result of the growing intimacy between musicians and other artists. Friendly intercourse may be noted between the composers Hector Berlioz, Frederic Chopin, F?licien David, and Franz Liszt with the writers Honor? de Balzac, Victor Hugo, Alfred de Musset, Madame de Sta?l, and Georges Sand, and the painters Eugene Delacroix and Th?odore 39 Christian technocracy was founded by Claude-Henri de Rouvroy, Compte de Saint-Simon (1760-1825), dubbed "France's last gentilhomme and first socialist." 97 David became the leading musician of this group of utopian social thinkers. Other artists of the time who counted themselves among the Saint-Simonians were Honor? de Balzac, Hector Berlioz, Auguste Comte, Eugene Delacroix, Alexander Dumas, Gautier, Victor Hugo, Alphonse de Lamartine, F?licit? de Lamennais, Franz Liszt, Prosper M?rim?e, Jules Michelet, Alfred de Musset, G?rard de Nerval, George Sand, Charles-Augustin Sainte-Beuve, Stendhal pseudonym of Henri Beyle), and Alfred de Vigny. While most of them died before Saint-Simonian ideals became accepted in France, they were of great importance to one another. This movement provided a venue for formal gatherings for artists of the romantic age who socialized and collaborated with one another to create works of art. 98 G?ricault. Lockspeiser, The Literary Clef, 1-3. 99 French Romantic Song 1830-1870, edited by David Tunley, xxii. 100 Apparently, this song so captured the French popular imagination during the Franco-Prussian war that the song was revived and sung throughout France as a demonstration of French patriotism. David also set to music the poetry of Alphonse de Lamartine (1790-1869), Emile Barateau (1792-1870), Marc Constantin (1810-1888), Th?ophile Gautier (1811-1872), Edouard Plouvier (1821-1876), and Charles Poncy (1821- 1891). Many of these writers were themselves followers of the Saint-Simonian movement. Ibid., xxii-xxiv. 101 Ibid. 102 This trip came as a result of Enfantin?s directive to carry Saint-Simonian ideals into the provinces and beyond, in particular to the mysterious world of the Middle East and Egypt. David traveled to the Middle East shortly after the collapse of the movement, around 1835. Romantic French Song 1830-1870, edited by David Tunley, xxi-xxii. 40 David turned his attention to chamber music exclusively in 1863 after renouncing opera. 99 As a result of this dramatic change, he would usher in a new interest in m?lodie and vocal chamber music at the start of the 1850s. During the 1840s and 1850s he wrote numerous m?lodies which were published in several collections, including Perles d?Orient (1846) and Album de 10 m?lodies et 3 valses pour le piano (1847). Because of his Saint-Simonian sympathies, he was one of the first French composers to set exclusively the texts of French poets, such as Le rhin allemand, a patriotic poem written by Alfred de Musset in 1842. 100 In addition, David was one of the first French composers to be called ?the French Schubert? for the lyrical charm of his songs and the sentimental turns of his phrases. 101 David was also one of the first composers to travel to the Middle East, where he composed a number of works for piano in an oriental idiom. 102 His orchestra work Le d?sert (1844) was a piece written to evoke the mood of the exotic lands of Smyrna and Egypt, and it was a great success in Paris. As discussed in Chapter 5, exoticism is a 103 Echos of Le D?sert may be heard in Berlioz?s L?Enfance du Christ (1854), Bizet?s P?cheurs de perles (1863), Meyerbeer?s L?Africaine (1865), Massenet?s Le roi de Lahore (1877), and D?libes?s Lakm?. The pieces for flute and voice written in the exotic style are considered in Chapter 5. The French Romantics, Ed. Charlton, 378. 104 Salazar, Music in Our Time, 21-30. 105 The New Oxford Companion to Literature in French, edited by Peter France, 714-716. 41 strong element in the music for flute and soprano, and Le d?sert spawned a number of imitators as well as established the French taste for Eastern color which is so evident in the operas and songs of the later part of the century. 103 ROMANTICISM ? ARTISTIC AND CULTURAL LIFE In many western countries during the romantic period, and especially in France, emphasis gradually shifted from the solitary painter or poet at work in a studio or study to innovations by groups of artists or musicians, and by workshops of decorators, sculptors, and directors, all working in close touch with the public. 104 In literature, there were high points in the great French theater tradition, including a succession of plays in the nineteenth century that began with the works of Victor Hugo (in romantic dramas such as Cromwell, 1827 and Hernani, 1830), Alexandre Dumas the younger (La dame aux cam?lias, 1852), and Edmond Rostand (Cyrano de Bergerac, 1897). 105 Meanwhile, the older tragedies by Pierre Corneille and Jean Racine, the social comedies by Moli?re, and the frothy comedies of love by Pierre-Augustine Caron de Beaumarchais (Le barbier de S?ville and Le mariage de Figaro) would provide texts and ideas for French opera and song. Soon modern French writers would also supply the texts for French composers of flute and soprano music. 106 Hill, Modern French Music, 1-10. 107 Sowerwine, France Since 1870, 50-51. 42 In music, France began producing native composers of world rank (such as Hector Berlioz, Georges Bizet, L?o D?libes, Charles Gounod, and Jules Massenet) and drawing important foreign-born composers to Paris to live and work (such as Frederic Chopin, Franz Liszt, and Richard Wagner). 106 The city also enjoyed preeminence in ballet, dating from the time of Noverre (1727-1810) and continuing until the twentieth century, with the residency of the Ballet Russe under the direction of Serge Diaghilev. As in literature and the visual arts, the latter-nineteenth century was a fertile period in which a number of excellent composers produced masterworks in every genre. The appeal of French literature has resided in, perhaps, two main factors: a passion for ideas and a strong sense of place and of detailed social observation. The romantic movement, at its height, was led by four great poets: Alphonse de Lamartine (1790-1869), Alfred de Vigny (1797-1863), Alfred de Musset (1810-1857), and Victor Hugo (1820-1885). In addition, novelists Honor? de Balzac (1799-1850), Georges Sand (1804-1876), Gustave Flaubert (1821-1880), and Emile Zola (1840-1902) pioneered important aspects of realism (in Madame Bovary) and naturalism (in Germinal). 107 In poetry the leading writer of this period was Charles Baudelaire (1821-1867), whose sonorous rhythms and sense of melancholy introduced a new sensibility into French verse. His work influenced the equally evocative poetry of Paul Verlaine and Arthur 108 The New Oxford Companion to Literature in French, edited by Peter France, 70-71. 109 Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 15-20. 43 Rimbaud. They, in turn, paved the way for the great symbolist St?phane Mallarm?. 108 French composers writing for voice and flute would eventually set texts by all of these poets. POST-ROMANTICISM By 1854, the Crimean War had been fought with Russia, France had had its first Exhibition universelle, and Queen Victoria had visited Paris. Several theaters were built in Paris during this period: the Ch?telet, the Th??tre-Lyrique, the Palais Garnier Op?ra, and the concert hall Salle Herz. Musical instruments also continued their technical development, while, as a result of Conservatoire training, the gap between professional and amateur players widened. At the Salle Pleyel and Salle Erard the performers included international artists such as Joseph Joachim, Anton Rubinstein, and Clara Schumann. The grouping of industrial populations led to the establishment of many choral societies and, as a result, the composition of new French music for solo voices and for chorales. 109 Yet beneath the show of homage to art as represented in the glittering salon performances and the performances of huge exhibition cantatas at the newly built Palais Garnier opera house, there was little official encouragement of the arts by the government of Napol?on III. Romanticism was primarily a movement of revolt, to a great extent motivated by much-needed protests against conventionality, artificiality, and the 110 The next generation of musicians experimented with the extension of form and tonality (as a result of the influence of Wagner), turning away from sonata form in chamber music and in the symphony, and cultivating smaller forms such as the m?lodie in reaction to the excesses of romanticism. This would benefit the repertoire for flute and soprano, which garnered increased attention after 1870. Salazar, Music in Our Time, 24-26. 111 Leth?ve, Daily Life of French Artists in the Nineteenth Century, translated by Hilary E. Paddon, 195-202. 44 hollow neo-classicism of the late-seventeenth and early-eighteenth centuries. In the name of natural sympathy and feeling, romanticism broke down many of the barriers of formal restraint in the arts, which had been codified and institutionalized by preceding generations. 110 Many artists who, in the 1830s, had believed in their mission to shape society had no sympathy with a regime that was half-dictatorship and half-populist or with the tastes of the rulers that shifted between the grandiose and the frivolous. Soon, romanticism was over and its leaders were either disillusioned (like Berlioz, Delacroix, or Gautier) or in exile (like Hugo). The pervasive materialism in government and society alike forced artists and writers to detach themselves from the cultural mainstream. The mood of the period also produced other movements such as the Parnassians (who elevated art for its own sake) and positivism (which sought systems in everything), both of which rejected outright the romantic belief in inspiration and genius. The political and social changes that accompanied this post-romantic era found cultural expression in the growing tendency of composers to free themselves from the bonds of patronage, to take a more independent place in society, and to take a more conscious role in the assertion of national individuality. 111 It was during this period of transition that the next generation of French composers wrote music for flute and soprano 112 A detailed study of French m?lodie is found in Chapter 9. 113 Lyric opera, by comparison with grand opera, was smaller in dimension, more unified in mood, and generally expressed more inward emotions. Melody was cultivated in this form with exceptional sensitivity 45 of a decidedly different character than the preceding generation. Lead by Charles Gounod (1818-1893), the chamber music for flute and soprano of the late nineteenth century began to incorporate the flute as an equal voice in the texture of the music. These pieces had a pastorale quality that focused on melody and line rather than technical display (by either the vocalist or the flutist). Some were based on religious themes, others were in the style of the newly developed m?lodie. 112 Many French composers turned their talents to this genre, producing works such as: Ave Maria by ?douard Millault (1808-1887); Le ruisseau et la jeune fille by Louis Lacombe (1818- 1884); S?r?nade (1866), Barcarolle: O? voulez-vous aller?, and O l?g?re hirondell? by Charles Gounod (1818-1893); Chant de Breton (1884) by ?douard Lalo (1823-1892); Une fl?te invisible (1887) and Le bonheur et chose l?g?re by Camille Saint-Sa?ns; and Agnus dei by Georges Bizet (1838-1875). Again, the historical context of the time provides several underlying factors for this new repertoire. LYRICISM Even by the mid-nineteenth century, the opera house was still providing the setting for fundamental changes in French music. Lyric opera was a form that developed somewhere between the extravagances of grand opera and the merriments of operetta, and which cultivated a measured and refined lyrical expression of serious subject matter. 113 The leading composers of this kind of opera in France were Ambroise Thomas to the text. While some ballet still remained and there was some spoken dialogue in lyric opera, the subject matter of the works turned to romantic drama, and the sensationalism of grand opera was abandoned. Grout, A Short History of Opera, 340. 114 Faust was first staged as an op?ra comique in 1859 with spoken dialogue. However, Gounod later arranged the work with recitatives substituted for the dialogue, and this new form became the most popular French opera ever written, attaining its two-thousandth Paris performance in 1934. In the intervening years since the premiere, the work has been given in forty-five different countries in approximately twenty-four different languages. Ibid., 341. 115 Lyric opera developed in France at about the same time that realism arose in the visual arts and naturalism in the literature. While the Salon exhibited as many as 4,000 paintings in the 1855 Exposition, at least twice that number were rejected. The Salon accepted some painting by new artists but only those that conformed to the preferred genres and styles. The controversy surrounding the works rejected from the 1863 Salon led the Emperor to allow a special Salon des Refus?s, an exhibit of the paintings rejected from the Salon. This occurred several times before the Republic finally abandoned the Salon in the early 1880s. The works rejected were mainly conceived in the genre of realism, which attempted to depict the contemporary world as people actually lived it. A famous work from this period is Edouard Manet?s (1832-1883) Olympia, a nude female courtesan who confronts the viewer directly rather than looking demurely aside. In literature, Emile Zola (1840-1902) represented the movement in realism with his Les Rougon-Macquart series. Zola created characters that responded to their circumstances rather than acting in fixed stereotypes, as had previous writers. Apparently, Zola researched his works arduously in order to obtain a gritty realism. Sowerwine, France Since 1870, 47-51. 116 Cooper, French Music, 14. 46 (1811-1896) and Charles Gounod (1818-1893). Perhaps the most well-known example of lyric opera is Gounod?s Faust (1859), 114 a work that is conceived in a proportioned, elegant style containing attractive melodies that are expressive but not overly so. Saint-Sa?ns described Gounod as the composer who restored a genuinely French musical ideal to French musicians. It was the simple expression of emotion with minimum effort that attracted composers of the next generation. 115 Saint-Sa?ns described Gounod?s later works: Expressiveness was always his ideal: that is why there are so few notes in his music?each notes sings. For the same reason instrumental music, ?pure? music, was never his forte. His aim in orchestration was to discover beautiful color and, far from adopting ready-made the methods of the great masters, he applied himself to the study of timbres and tried to invent new combinations suited to his own ends. 116 117 Op?ra comique originally referred to French comic opera developed in the seventeenth century by Moli?re and Lully, whose comedy ballet pieces, in which spoken dialogue alternated with songs and dances, were presented before Louis XIV during the 1660s. During the late 1670s, the Th??tre-Italien (which had been established on a permanent basis in Paris in 1661) began to intermingle French scenes, including music, with its improvised comedies. Over the course of the next several decades, the repertoire was taken over by the French, who used popular tunes (such as vaudevilles) to which the authors adapted new words. Little by little, the theaters were brought under one management and formally established as the Th??tre de l?Op?ra- Comique in 1715. For a long time they continued performing popular comedies in which vaudevilles were the principal sources of the music. At the same time new music replaced the vaudeville tunes and originally composed songs began to replace the old music. The result of this intermingling of French and Italian efforts led a new generation of French composers to create a national comic opera with original music, the op?ra comique. Op?ra comique contains arias along with spoken dialogue, whose scenes and characters represent idealized peasantry, usually with a naive heroine and a manly young hero who are saved from destruction by either their virtue or their innocence. The music was most often tuneful and charming, with an abundance of duets and other ensemble pieces. This term ?op?ra comique? is now used to refer to the theater and to the form. When referring to the theater, I will use a hyphen and capitalization (Op?ra- Comique); when referring to the operatic form, I will not (op?ra comique). Grout, A Short History of Opera, 245-257. 118 Grout goes so far as to describe Massenet?s style as ?lyrical, tender, penetrating, sweetly sensuous, rounded in contours, exact but never violent in interpreting the text, sentimental, often melancholy, sometimes a little vulgar, and always charming.? Grout, A Short History of Opera, 435. 47 As a result of this change in musical expression, the old distinctions between the forms of op?ra and op?ra comique began to disappear by the end of the nineteenth century. Soon, serious, large-scale, or established operatic works were premiered at the Op?ra, while the new, often experimental works were given hearings at the Op?ra- Comique. 117 Some of the composers who followed in the French lyrical style were C?sar Franck (1822-1890), Camille Saint-Sa?ns (1835-1921), L?o D?libes (1836-1891), Georges Bizet (1838-1875), Emmanuel Chabrier (1841-1894),Vincent d?Indy (1851- 1931), and Jules Massenet (1842-1912). Their works, such as Bizet?s Carmen (1875), Saint-Sa?ns?s Samson et Dalila (1877), D?libes?s Lakm? (1883), Massenet?s Manon (1884), Chabrier?s Le roi malgr? lui (1887), Franck?s Hulda (1894), and d?Indy?s Fervaal (1897) were all written in the lyric style and were to change the course of French music. 118 Many of these composers turned their lyric talents to music for flute and voice. 119 By the turn of the nineteenth century there existed, in essence, two Frances, one made up of Catholics and one made up of Republicans. Religion was still the fundamental way that people identified themselves and their expressions of family, community, and political identity were bound up in their religious beliefs. Mayeur and Reb?rioux, The Third Republic From its Origins to The Great War, 1871-1914, translated by J.R. Foster, 104-106. 120 Tombs, France 1814-1914, 241. 121 Many of these believers were women, and Tombs argues that this religious devotion constituted a woman?s major political act in French history. Indeed, by the 1870s, nuns outnumbered the male clergy three to two, and the cult of the Sacred Heart, the cult of the Virgin Mary, and the pilgrimages to Lourdes were led by women. Tombs, France 1814-1914, 242-243. 48 RELIGION Many of the pastorale songs and songs based on religious texts for flute and voice were written during the period after the 1860s, when France was in the midst of a religious revival. 119 The French revolution brought about great upheaval in religious life, as Catholicism ceased to be the state religion, and the government attempted to ?de- Christianize? France. 120 However, partly as a result of civil and foreign wars, and partly in response to religious persecution, religious fervor among the French people remained strong, as Catholics and Protestants in most of Western Europe were affected by a new religious devotion and spirituality. 121 Gounod, who wrote many lyrical and sacred pieces for flute and voice, was certainly one of these pious, religious, and artistic individuals. In 1847, Gounod began studying for the priesthood, but instead devoted himself to music. Encouraged by his friendship with Pauline Viardot (the soprano whom he had first met in Rome and then again in 1851), he turned his mind to opera and began producing the lyrical, balanced, elegant music for which he is still known today. Gounod was, in turn, admired by Saint- 122 Relations between Bismark in Prussia and Napol?on III in France had been deteriorating since the mid- 1860s. Although the French people had largely ignored this, concentrating instead on more appealing affairs such as the Exposition universelle of 1867,which celebrated the country?s otherwise burgeoning good fortunes, this could not prevent the inevitable declaration of war with Prussia on July 19, 1870. The French entered the war full of patriotic fervor and the Marseillaise, which had been banned by the empire, was heard again in the streets and theaters of Paris. However, the French troops were poorly prepared, poorly supplied, and incompetently commanded. The Prussian armies were victorious at every turn. On September 2, 1870, Napol?on III was captured at Sedan and surrendered. Two days later, France was declared a republic. However, the war raged on as Paris refused to capitulate and, within weeks, Paris was surrounded by Prussian armies. Four months of siege and starvation ensued until France was forced to sign an armistice on January 28, 1871. The humiliating terms of the peace included France ceding Alsace and Lorraine, paying five billion francs in restitution, and the triumphant march of the Prussian troops through Paris. These terms, along with the many hardships endured throughout the siege of Paris, were several factors that contributed to the outbreak of civil war in the form of the Commune. Tombs, France 1814- 1914, 83, 424-429. 49 Sa?ns and Bizet, who both wrote lyrical pieces for flute and voice. In 1871, when Gounod fled to England (as a result of the Franco-Prussian war), Saint-Sa?ns asserted himself as the dominant composer in Paris. NATIONALISM Nationalism is a concept that arose in the nineteenth century among peoples who became aware of their national identity without having a national state. In these cases, nationalism had first to be affirmed linguistically and culturally; then be given political embodiment. In France the state came first and, over the centuries, created a nation so that the roots of national self-consciousness can be traced long before the concept or the word existed. French nationalism was one of the driving forces of the revolutionary and Napoleonic periods. However, the word nationalisme appeared in the French dictionary in 1874, significantly, only after the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War (1870- 1871) and the loss of the Alsace and Lorraine. 122 The loss of the Franco-Prussian war was devastating for France. The composer Georges Bizet, who had joined the National Guard, described the situation in a letter to 123 Duchen, Gabriel Faur?, 29-30. 124 Tombs, France 1814-1914, 316-317. 125 The society?s purpose was to give performances of works by French composers. It can be credited with the marked rise in the number and quality of chamber and symphonic works produced by the French after the Franco-Prussian War. Grout, A History of Western Music, 677. 126 The Schola Cantorum was established to broaden the musical training of students, especially in the areas of historical study of French music. This school consciously contrasted itself with the Conservatoire, which was felt to emphasize opera to the detriment of other musical pursuits. Ibid. 127 Powell, The Flute, 216. 50 his friend Edmond Galabert: And our poor philosophy, our dreams of universal peace, world fraternity, and human fellowship! Instead of all that, we have tears, blood, piles of corpses, crimes without number or end! I can?t tell you, my dear friend, into what sadness I am plunged by all these horrors. I remember that I am a Frenchman, but I cannot altogether forget that I am a man. This war will cost humanity five hundred thousand lives. As for France, she will lose everything! 123 France now felt herself to be a mutilated nation that had fallen into cultural decadence. 124 In the wake of this loss, there were many attempts to redefine national identity. Politically, these included the establishment of political groups, such as the Ligue des patriotes (1882) and Ligue de la patrie fran?ais (1899). In musical institutions, the decades after the 1870s saw the establishment of the Soci?t? nationale de musique (1871) 125 and the founding of the Schola Cantorum in Paris (1894). 126 Significantly, after 1871, works by German composers vanished from the list of pieces for the concours for flute at the Conservatoire. 127 The changes in French music were subtle and far-reaching. Nationalism in nineteenth-century music was marked by an emphasis on literary and linguistic traditions, 128 The French were hardly alone. The search for an independent, native voice was also keen in England, the United States, Russia, and Eastern Europe, where the dominance of German music was felt as a threat to native musical creativity. Grout, A History of Western Music, 677. 51 an interest in folklore, a strong element of patriotism, and a craving for independence and national identity. A sense of pride in its language and its literature contributed to the national consciousness that led to French unification. 128 Another factor in the rise of French nationalism in music was the ambition of composers to be recognized as equals to those in the Austro-Hungarian orbit. By absorbing native French folk music and dances and identifying and drawing on their musical character, composers could develop a style with a pronounced ethnic personality that was their own. It is striking that all the works written for flute and voice during this period employ the text of French poets. A few examples from the musical bibliography are: ?l?gie by Jules Massenet (1842-1912) with a text by Louis Gallet; Viens! Une fl?te invisible soupire (1900) by Andr? Caplet (1878-1925) with a text by Victor Hugo; Portrait (1904) by C?cile Chaminade (1857-1944) with a text by Pierre Reyniel; and Soir pa?en (1912) by Phillippe Gaubert (1879-1941) with a text by Albert Samian. This is a dramatic change from the bird songs of the previous era with their fluffy texts, usually the creation of a librettist. Clearly, French composers looked to their native language for inspiration and they endeavored to raise the quality of their m?lodies by setting poetry. In addition, French composers endeavored to elevate the quality of their music through the exploitation of a French musical style that was unique and recognizable. If we examine French music as a whole from shortly before the Franco-Prussian War to the beginning of the twentieth century, it is possible to establish the gradual abandonment of 129 Hill, Modern French Music, 2. 130 Faur? was seen to embody many traits of a new French asceticism. Quoting Rollo Myers: ?Nowhere can this more indefinable and subtle aspect of nationalism be better studied than in the music of France, and more particularly in the works of composers like, for example, [Gabriel] Faur? and [Albert] Roussel whose music is so ?French? that foreigners are supposed to be unable to appreciate its great beauties. And yet the Faur? idiom, for example, presents absolutely no features that are specifically French as regards externals; the ?Frenchness? of his music has its roots in the whole tradition of French culture in its widest sense rather than in any particular manifestation of that culture as expressed in a type of melody or rhythm peculiar to the French people. What is revealed in the music of these composers is, in fact, an instinctive aesthetic and intellectual attitude having its roots in an age-long tradition of civilized living and thinking, and an awareness of the essential values implicit in all great art which Roussel expressed so perfectly when he wrote: ?Le culte des valeurs spirituelles est ? la base de toute soci?t? qui se pr?tend civilis?e, et la musique, parmi les arts, en est l?expression la plus sensible et la plus ?lelv?e.? [The cultivation of spiritual values is at the base of all societies who call themselves civilized, and music, of all the arts, is an expression of the most sensible and the most elevated].? Myers, Modern French Music, 9. Translation is my own. 52 excessive dependence upon foreign models and, at the same time, the development of an originality in musical style and thought indicating the emergence of a different type of musical art. These characteristics are summarized by Hill: Since the Franco-Prussian War, and to a large extend on account of it, French music has made almost incredible advances in technical mastery, originality, subtlety of expression, and above all in embodying national characteristics. Within the past fifty years the achievements of French composers have outranked all contemporary schools, with the possible single exception of the later Russians, who somewhat antedate them, and to whom in turn they are considerably indebted. French music, through its exploration of new fields of harmonic effect, stylistic adaptability, clarity and fineness of emotional discrimination, has exercised an influence upon the entire civilized musical world. 129 Gabriel Faur? (1845-1924) was one of these French composers who began to create a new musical language. 130 This is evident in his first volume of songs, which not only set the poetry of Charles Baudelaire, Th?ophile Gautier, and Victor Hugo, but demonstrate his complete mastery in music of the atmosphere of the poems. These works are characterized by the often incantatory vocal line, cascades of piano arpeggios beneath a soaring melody, harmonies that seem to move through chromatic slides with 131 Cooper, French Music, 8-9. 132 Prior to 1850, as has been noted, musical life in Paris was dominated by opera, and Parisians demonstrated a distinct disregard for orchestral and chamber concerts that made it difficult for French composers, such as Berlioz, to have their works performed. Between 1850 and 1885, the establishment of concert soci?t?s that 53 modulatory implications, as well as the interplay of contrapuntal voices. His music is seamless, with an element of ambiguity (especially in key) which make his music colorful, seductive, and refined. He eliminates the purely decorative elements that are extraneous to the core of the musical expression. The result is a richly chromatic, texturally vibrant work. Faur??s one song for flute, soprano and piano, Nocturne, op. 43, no. 2 (1886) did spawn a host of other works for this instrumentation in a new harmonic language. These works for flute, soprano, and piano include Louis Di?mer?s (1843-1919) S?r?nade (1884), Benjamin Godard?s (1849-1895) Lullaby (1891), Georges H?e?s (1858-1948) Soir pa?en (1898), Andr? Caplet?s Viens! Une fl?te invisible soupire (1900), and L?o Sachs? (1856-1930) Les nymphes, op. 188 (1909). During the first half of the nineteenth century, French music, largely devoted to opera, had been unduly eclectic in character. Its dominating personalities were Rossini and Meyerbeer, despite the dynamic genius of Berlioz, whose importance was not recognized until long after his death. 131 With the establishment of orchestras and chamber music societies and the consequent awakening of interest in their respective literatures, there followed a period of revolution in public taste. C?sar Franck, ?douard Lalo, Camille Saint-Sa?ns, and other pioneers of instrumental music in France, may be regarded as products of this movement. 132 performed orchestral and chamber music began to change this state of affairs. French composers began to create orchestral works, concertos, piano pieces, m?lodies, and chamber music in response. Hill, Modern French Music, 20-25. 133 In Chapter 4: Wagner is found a complete discussion of Wagner?s influence on French composers and on French nationalism. 54 Several composers of flute and soprano music inherited this legacy for chamber music and wrote small chamber works that feature these two voices with a collection of other instruments. Melanie Bonis (1858-1937) wrote some of the first pieces for soprano and small chamber groups, such as Le ruisseau, op. 21, no. 2 (for soprano, flute, oboe, clarinet, cornet, harp, string quartet, and bass) and No?l de la vierge Marie, op. 54, no. 2 (for soprano, flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, harp, string quartet, and bass). As well, Louis Durey (1888-1979) wrote his Images ? Cruso?, op. 11(1918) for soprano, flute, clarinet, celeste [or harp], and string quartet. These experiments with instrumentation were exploited to full affect by composers of the next generation in their music for flute and soprano. The Franco-Prussian War precipitated a concentrated reassertion of national consciousness that affected every area of musical activity. Still, when the bitterness of feeling after the Franco-Prussian War had subsided, musical Paris, and with it the majority of French composers, fell under the spell of Richard Wagner. 133 The inevitable reaction to Wagner's dominance led to enthusiasm for Russian and Oriental music, especially that of the so-called Neo-Russian composers. Several composers for flute and soprano who opposed Wagner?s ideas did, indeed, turn to Oriental and Russian music for inspiration. Influenced by the Exposition universelle of 1889 were Claude Debussy (1861-1918), Maurice Emmanuel (1862-1930), 134 The Universal Exhibition was a gigantic event, which brought together representations of decorative arts, music, and architectural styles from far distant corners of the world. It is in this setting that Debussy first heard the Javanese gamelan orchestra, an orchestra of pitched percussion instruments that performed intricately woven rhythmic patterns. The exhibition was also a platform for Russian music. Faur? met Tchaikovsky and Alexander Glazunov, who had come to Paris to conduct their own works. Duchen, Gabriel Faur?, 94. 135 Ravel?s Tombeau de Couperin is a particularly well-known example. 55 and Maurice Ravel (1875-1937), all of whom wrote pieces for flute and soprano on Oriental or exotic themes. 134 These works, Les chansons de Bilitis (1901) by Debussy, Trois odelettes anacr?ontiques, op. 13 (1911) by Emmanuel, and ?La fl?te enchant?e? from Sh?h?rzade (1903) by Ravel were extremely influential on other composers of flute and soprano music, especially Maurice Delage. A secondary result of the Franco-Prussian war was an awakening to the value of French composers of the past, from Lully to Rameau and even earlier. These two masters were recognized as having established many of the essentials of French musical style, in addition to embodying the dominant Gallic traits of their respective centuries. French harpsichord music by Couperin and Rameau, among others, became the object of extensive research and many tombeau were written by modern composers in homage to composers of the past. 135 French musical literature from the times of the troubadours and the trouv?res was resurrected as well, but this revaluation of the past was not limited to music. Several French composers, among them Debussy and Ravel, sought to unify the sentiments of centuries other than their own by setting to music poems by Tristan L'Hermite, Cl?ment Mar?t, Charles duc d'Orl?ans, and Fran?ois Villon. This would become important to the composers of music for flute and soprano, as they wrote 136 Tulou enrolled at the Conservatoire at the age of ten and won the premi?re prix in 1801, at the age of fifteen. Soon, he was playing second flute in the Op?ra orchestra under his teacher, Wunderlich. By 1804, he was appointed first flute in the Th??tre-Italien orchestra. In that same year, his teacher retired from the Op?ra orchestra and Tulou succeeded him as principal flute. Tulou taught many students, some of whom went on to have their own virtuoso careers as flutists, including Victor Coche, Jules Demersseman, and Johannes Donjon. More information regarding the Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire is found in Chapter 8. Amad, ?The Flute Professors of the Paris Conservatoire from Devienne to Taffanel, 1795-1908,? 49. 137 Apparently, Tulou opposed the Boehm flute because he perceived that it would harm his business connections as an instrument-maker. Tulou began manufacturing flutes in 1828 and three years later, he formed a partnership with the flute-maker Jacques Nonon (1802-c1867). The two set up a workshop and began to supply instruments to the Conservatoire. The firm employed six full-time workers and four part- time workers by 1839, earning an annual gross income of 45,000 francs. Powell, The Flute, 213. 138 Dorus became convinced as early as 1833 of the superiority of the Boehm flute, and he practiced on it secretly for more than two years to master the new finger system. In 1835, when he performed in public on the instrument for the first time, his performance was a revelation and the instrument was a success. As a result, France was one of the first countries to adopt the new flute. Amad, ?The Flute Professors of the Paris Conservatoire from Devienne to Taffanel, 1795-1908,? 69. 56 hommages to Pierre de Ronsard and set the texts of ancient French poets for flute and soprano. NEW TEACHING METHODS FOR FLUTE AT THE CONSERVATOIRE In 1829, Jean-Louis Tulou was elected flute professor at the Conservatoire. Throughout the next three decades, Tulou solidified his position as the most prominent flutist in Paris through his teaching and through his performing engagements, especially with the Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire. 136 As noted previously, until about 1860 he kept a tight hold on the repertoire performed at the Conservatoire (usually his own compositions) and he staunchly resisted the introduction of the Boehm flute. 137 French flutists who favored the Boehm flute (including Paul Camus, Victor Coche, and Louis Dorus 138 ) were obliged to cultivate the instrument secretly, without the official recognition of the Conservatoire. 139 Some of the examination pieces that Dorus included were by Lindpainter, Reissiger, Boehm, and Briccialdi, in addition to Tulou and Alt?s. Powell, The Flute, 215. 140 More information regarding Taffanel?s position in the development of chamber music for flute is found in Chapter 11. 57 In 1860, Louis Dorus succeeded Tulou as professor of flute at the Conservatoire. Dorus brought much needed change to the flute class and was quick to make the metal Boehm flute the official instrument, as well as promoting new repertoire that moved away from the technical showpieces of the past. 139 As flute professor at the Conservatoire, Dorus was in a position to influence faculty and student composers of the next generation. His emphasis on a singing tone with elegance and purity of style ushered in a new style of playing for the flute. One of his most famous students was Claude-Paul Taffanel, who was seminal in transforming the flute into an instrument that was widely viewed as soloistic and capable of projecting its sound in the orchestra and in chamber ensembles. 140 In addition, Dorus formed the Soci?t? de musique classique (c1847) together with a group of leading Parisian musicians, whose purpose was to promote classic chamber music and to encourage French composers to write new works for chamber ensemble. He often performed in concert with his sister, Madame Dorus-Gras, a renowned singer. It is possible that they performed works together for flute and soprano. Both Tulou and Dorus were frequent soloists with the Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire and did much to further the flute as a solo instrument. It is significant that the great majority of the works for flute and soprano were written after 1860 and the acceptance of the Boehm flute at the Conservatoire. 141 Early nineteenth-century painting after the Revolution was marked by a conflict between neoclassicism and romanticism. The leaders among the romantic painters were Th?odore G?ricault (1791-1824) and Eugene Delacroix (1798-1863), who dominated French painting for decades with their bold, fresh colors and expressive subject matter. Naturalism in landscape painting blossomed at the mid-nineteenth century, primarily in the Barbizon school, a group of painters who worked in the village of that name near Fontainebleau; the wistful landscape scenes of Camille Corot (1796-1875) and Fran?ois Millet (1814-1875) remain the most well-known examples. A bolder kind of realism emerged with the work of Gustave Courbet (1819-1877), Edgar Degas (1834-1917), and ?douard Manet (1832-1883), and Manet became a kind of unofficial precursor to the impressionists, a group organized around Claude Monet (1840-1926) and Auguste Renoir (1841-1919) in the early 1870s. The impressionists, who concerned themselves with the transient effects of light and shadow, had a revolutionary impact on art. It led in turn to various counter-movements in artists such as Paul C?zanne (1839-1906); the symbolist Paul Gauguin (1848-1903), whose passion for bold colors and exotic subjects eventually took him to Tahiti; Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec (1864-1901), who vividly depicted the bohemian life of Montmartre; Vincent Van Gogh (1853-1890); and symbolist Odilon R?don (1840-1916). The early twentieth century saw two major developments in French art: fauvism, in the opening years, and cubism, invented by Georges Braque, Juan Gris, and Pablo Picasso, shortly before World War I. The fauves, whose emphasis on vitality of color and design dominated their works, included Henri Matisse, Maurice de Vlaminck, and for a time, George Braque. Cubism, on the other hand, would be the first new major style of the twentieth century. Lockspeiser, Music and Painting, 14-15. 58 IMPRESSIONISM At the end of the nineteenth century, impressionism emerged as a vital stream that would characterize and determine the future course of French art, literature, and music. Impressionism derived its name from a derogatory remark made by a journalist about Claude Monet's painting Impression, soleil levant, exhibited in 1874 in the first exhibition organized by the Soci?t? anonyme des peintres, sculpteurs, et graveurs, which included works by C?zanne, Degas, Monet, Morisot, Pissarro, Renoir, and Sisley. Between this first exhibition and the eighth and last in 1886, this diverse group secured a place in the official institutions of French painting which opened the way to the modernist tradition of twentieth-century art. 141 Impressionism was a rejection of the principles and practices taught by the professors of the Acad?mie, who also formed the jury for the annual Salon exhibition. In the ?cole des beaux-arts the student learned to represent an intellectual idea of a subject 142 Littlewood, History of France, 256. 143 In the 1860s, Emile Zola praised Manet's naturalism, and in the 1870s Mallarm? wrote an important article on his open-air painting. Huysmans championed impressionism, especially the work of Degas, while Laforgue related it to developments in poetry, music, and philosophy. Such artistic exchanges gave rise to the idea of an impressionist literature with stylistic developments in prose and poetry that were analogous with impressionist painting. Zola claimed to have applied impressionist techniques in certain of his descriptions, and the term has frequently been used with reference to the novels of the Goncourt brothers, as well as the poetry of Verlaine. In writing, the term usually refers to attempts to represent through syntactic variation the fragmentary and discontinuous nature of the sensations of modern, urban civilization. Sowerwine, France Since 1870, 50-51. 59 through techniques based on drawing and chiaroscuro. Early in the nineteenth century, alternate practices developed from which the impressionists would learn, notably Delacroix's brush-stroke and use of color, the landscapes of Corot and the Barbizon group, Courbet's realism, and Manet's treatment of modern subjects. Building on these techniques and on new scientific accounts of color perception, they used more brilliant color, wider tonal range, and broken brushwork to represent more faithfully the play of natural light on objects. The effect of this new role of light and color as organic elements of picture-making was to discredit academic theories of composition, drawing, and the hierarchy of subjects. 142 From the beginning of the movement, the works of Manet and the impressionists painters engaged French writers 143 and musicians. Musical impressionism shared many of the same traits with pictorial and literary impressionism. The technique of musical impressionism may be characterized by a neglect of formal development in favor of instrumental coloring and harmonic piquancy. The clear articulation of a musical phrase is abandoned for the swinging, undulating repetition of harmonic color. The phenomenon of merging tones results in a changed role for the dissonance, whose use and desirability 144 Several years earlier, Debussy had written his now famous orchestral work L?Apr?s-midi d?un faune (1894) which featured a solo for the flute that opens the work. This work is indicative of his impressionistic style, which is apparently formless, exotic, and evocative. In the work, Debussy disavows the driving rhythms, dynamic development, and harmonic progressions that were so characteristic of nineteenth-century music. Sowerwine, France Since 1870, 97-99. 145 More information regarding the tableau and the development of m?lodie for flute and soprano is found in Chapter 9: The Rise of M?lodie. 60 now depend entirely on its value as an agent of color. Now, chords unite many far-removed intervals, such as chords of the ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth. By shifting these harmonies, the simplest melody can be adorned without changing a note. These harmonic progressions and coloristic effects usurp melody, making orchestral and instrumental chamber music the overwhelming favorite of late nineteenth-century French composers. Several works for flute and soprano were written in the impressionist style, including Charles Koechlin?s (1867-1950) Le nenuphar, op. 13, no. 3 (1897), Debussy?s Les chansons de Bilitis (1901), Caplet?s Viens! Une fl?te invisible soupire (1900), Ravel?s ?La fl?te enchant?e? from Sh?h?rzade (1903) and Trois po?mes de St?phane Mallarm? (1913), and Maurice Delage?s (1879-1961) Quatre po?mes hindous (1914). Debussy?s Les chansons de Bilitis is a truly revolutionary work in several ways. It is an early example of music for voice and chamber ensemble including the flute (the instrumentation is for 2 flutes, 2 harps, celeste, and narrator) employing an impressionistic compositional style and harmonic palette. 144 Rather than being sung, the voice part is a recitation of the poetry. This was an example of the tableau style which was prevalent at the time. 145 In addition, Debussy set the poetry of a contemporary French poet, Pierre Lou?s, and the poems are written on an exotic theme. Debussy?s work 146 While studying and composing in Rome under a fellowship as the Prix de Rome winner, Debussy submitted his work, Printemps, to an academic tribunal back at the Conservatoire. They wrote to Debussy that they were concerned about his ?feeling for musical color, an exaggeration of which readily causes forgetfulness of the importance of preciseness in line and form. It is much to be desired that you should put yourself on your guard against this vague impressionism.? Salazar, Music in Our Time, 173. 147 Ibid., 169. 61 influenced many French composers who came after him (such as Cras, Delage, Ravel, and Roussel) who all wrote music for flute and soprano that included chamber ensemble, who all experimented with exotic themes, and who all set the poetry of French contemporary poets. In much the same way that Debussy revolutionized operatic composition in France and elsewhere, he also contributed to radical changes in French chamber music. Claude Debussy is the composer most identified with impressionism in music. His youthful talent disclosed itself while he was still a student at the Conservatoire, where, at age fourteen, his strange chords and translucent harmonies surprised and disconcerted his classmates and teachers alike. 146 In later years, his friend Maurice Emmanuel described the essential characteristics of Debussy?s work as: (1.) The extension of harmonic relationships; (2.) Independence in the use of dissonances without preparation or resolution; (3.) The free employment of notes foreign to the chord; (4.) The formation of an arbitrary scale or of an oriental or modal coloring with the resulting successions of chords, and; (5.) The use of enharmonic change as a means of modulating to distant tonalities whose modality rests uncertainly between major and minor. 147 These ideas would create the musical language for the next generation of French composers who wrote for flute and soprano, including Maurice Delage, Marcel Delannoy, Maurice 148 Meanwhile, two pioneers of progressive individuality, Emmanuel Chabrier and Gabriel Faur?, also asserted modern French traits in music. Almost simultaneously, the pupils of C?sar Franck, whose teaching attempted to incite a restatement of classic forms and methods in individual guise, arose to champion and extend their teacher's ideals. The most significant of these were Charles Bordes, Ernest Chausson, Henri Duparc, Vincent d'Indy, Guillaume Lekeu, and Guy Ropartz. During this period, one may also observe the beginning of that interaction between the arts which has produced some of the most characteristic French music. Alfred Bruneau, the propagator of naturalism in opera, and Gustave Charpentier, a socialist who brought his propagandistic instincts to a naturalistic style, brought French music further on the path toward complete independence of foreign methods. Afterward Les Six, together with Erik Satie, renounced the methods of Debussy and his successors. They strived, instead, to develop a characteristic French conception of the contemporary spirit in music, deriving much of their inspiration from Stravinsky and Schoenberg. Caballero, Faur? and French Musical Aesthetics, 57-75. 149 Popkin, A History of Modern France, 153. 150 Rogert Shattuck, in his The Banquet Years: The Origins of the Avant-Garde in France, 1885 to World War I, describes the period encompassing the belle ?poque and the beginning of modernism in France as the years 1885-1918. 151 Lough, An Introduction to Nineteenth Century France, 147. 62 Emmanuel, Maurice Ravel, Alexis Roland-Manuel, Albert Roussel, and Florent Schmitt. 148 LA BELLE ?POQUE After a period of relative prosperity and economic growth which had characterized the Second Empire, there came a prolonged period in which the French economy experienced a marked slowdown. The ?Great Depression of the nineteenth century,? as it was later called, lasted from about 1873 to 1896. 149 Then in the closing years of the century, there came a new period of economic expansion that continued until the outbreak of the First World War. 150 After the war, this period was looked back upon as La belle ?poque, and it was a time marked by rapid and profound cultural change. 151 Many of these changes would have a lasting impact on French composers of flute and soprano music before and after World War I. The first was the new popularity of 152 Sowerwine, France Since 1870, 95-96. 153 The caf?-concert tradition is a unique one in French history and began as early as 1731 with the Caf? des Aveugles in the basement of the Palais Royal. These concerts exploited the radical tendencies of the revolutionary period and were eventually banned by Napol?on on the grounds that they provided encouragement to insurgents. The caf?-concerts would be alternately banned and reinstated for many years until around 1861, when they were sanctioned as a part of the effort to rehabilitate the Champs Elys?es. Irreverent and satirical, the songs of the caf?-concerts broke with the Enlightenment tradition of the past, instead, expressing the hopelessness of ?progress.? This entertainment was one of the seeds of future movements such as decadence, surrealism, and dada. Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 98-99. 154 Both Brody and Sowerwine mention Aristide Bruant (1851-1925), who sang in an abrasive voice, using argot French (worker?s slang) rather than formal French. Accompanying himself on the guitar, his song lyrics contained stories of the disenfranchised people of France, such as the homeless, unwed mothers, prostitutes, and victims of social injustice. This radical departure from the old songsters of the day was thought to have effected social change. Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 105, and Sowerwine, France Since 1870, 95. 63 caf?-concerts, cabarets, and music halls, which contributed to the development of French chanson and m?lodie during this period, and to the inclusion of several instruments with voice. Many of the composers for flute and voice, such as Debussy, Delage, Milhaud, Poulenc, Ravel, Roussel, Satie, and Schmitt frequented these performance halls and were influenced by the music they heard there. During the 1880s and 1890s, cafes provided a space for gathering and interaction for avant-garde artists. Several of these establishments were located in Montmartre, including the Chat noir, the Alcazar, the Folies-Berg?res, and the Ba-Ta-Clan (with Chinese decor). 152 Caf?-Concerts were located in places where people of relatively modest means could come to drink, smoke, and be entertained at a low cost. The chansons that were sung usually directed jibes at politicians, the boredom of traditional family life, and the frustrations of work. 153 During this time, many famous music hall performers raised the stature of the French chanson. 154 French song now became the vehicle for social commentary and serious sentiment, elevating itself above the romance 155 Ibid., 104. 156 Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 107-110. 64 of the 1850s, which had been characterized by the frivolous and meaningless lyrics. In addition, the cabaret was a meeting place for musicians, artists, and writers where improvisational performances took place. Again, chanson emerged as the principal form of entertainment, and these songs were typically satires of the ruling authorities and the government. A novelty of the caf?-concerts and the cabarets was the Th??tre d?ombres (Shadow Theater). This type of production was the inspiration of the symbolist painter Henri Rivi?res and featured oriental decor with cut-outs and Japanese puppets. Many times these scenes included musical accompaniment with narrators supplying the necessary commentary for the presentation. 155 Debussy was a frequent participant in the musical part of these performances, and these theatrical productions served as a model for the composition of Les chansons de Bilitis. Music halls, such as the Grande piscine rochechouart and the Nouveau cirque, also emerged as places of entertainment and creativity. Beginning with a menagerie of entertainments, such as ventriloquists or circus performers, the evening usually ended with chansons. Later, these songs were augmented by instrumentalists in addition to the piano, and composers (such as the operetta composer Herv?) began to write works for music hall singers and to act as the conductor of small orchestras. 156 The most well- known of these music halls was the Moulin rouge, which has been immortalized in the paintings and posters of Toulouse-Lautrec, and which is still known today for the can- can. 157 Ibid., 77. 158 The Exposition of 1855 saw the construction of a permanent exhibition hall, the Palais de l?industrie, along with a Palais des beaux-arts to display fine arts such as S?vres porcelain and Savonneries carpets. In addition the French government, which financed these exhibitions, charged admission for the first time, giving the event the feeling of a large bazaar. Ibid., 79. 159 The grounds were carefully designed by engineer/economist Fr?d?ric le Play, with exhibition space for visual artists such as C?zanne, Monet, Manet, and Pisarro, who submitted their works for display. In addition, developments in musical instruments were on display (such as the Boehm flute and the saxophone), and Victor Hugo was engaged to write the introduction to the Paris-Guide to the fair. Ibid., 80. 65 The proliferation of Exposition universelles during the second half of the nineteenth century also influenced French composers for flute and soprano. Expositions were common in various parts of the world, such as Britain and the United States, and were initially concerned with industrial progress. The French, however, expanded their focus to include the arts and crafts of the host nation as well as those of foreign countries. 157 Between 1850 and 1950, there were several Exposition universelles in France, beginning with the Exposition of 1855. 158 The Exposition of 1867 was truly an international Exposition and was the first to have a theme ? le travail (labor). The 1867 Exposition universelle was the first to actively engage the artistic communities of France and elsewhere, particularly the orient. 159 Music played a particularly important role in this Exposition. Not only were there displays on the manufacture of instruments and the printing, publishing, and distribution of music, but there were also many concert performances featuring French music as well as indigenous music from other parts of the world. This included Hungarian, Chinese, Tunisian, 160 Oscar Comettant, an attendee of the Exposition, wrote a detailed remembrance of the event entitled La musique, les musiciens et les instruments de musique chez les diff?rents peuples du monde. After hearing the music of Siam, Cambodia, and the Turks, the author remarks that Beethoven?s Ruins of Athens sounded nothing like actual Turkish music. French musicians were equally surprised by the music of other countries, in particular the music of Japan. The 1867 Exposition universelle was the beginning of a fascination in France for all things oriental. Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 80-81. 161 A month after Gustav Eiffel had signed the contract to proceed with construction of the tower, a petition from the foremost writers, artists, musicians, painters, and sculptors appeared in Le Temps on February 14, 1887, denouncing the structure as a ?menace to French history.? Some of the artists who signed the petition were composer Charles Gounod and writers Guy de Maupassant and Leconte de Lisle. Duchen, Gabriel Faur?, 110. 162 The inclusion of French music was by no means automatic. As official plans were revealed to have a singular lack of national music represented, musicians of the day put pressure on the government. This ?group de la musique? included composers such as Alfred Bruneau, Camille Erlanger, Georges Hu?, Xavier Leroux, and Gabriel Piern?. As a result, a special commission was appointed by the Republic to design musical programs that would provide a history of French music from its origins to the present day. Fulcher, French Cultural Politics and Music, 37-41 and Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 87. 163 More information regarding the concert soci?t?s in France during this period is found in Chapter 8. 66 Russian, Turkish, Egyptian, and Japanese music. 160 The Expositions of 1878 and 1889 continued to expand in size and grandeur. Attendance reached 16 million in 1878 and, in 1889, the Tour d?Eiffel was officially opened. Electricity was introduced at the 1889 Exposition, to which Saint-Sa?ns wrote a hymn of celebration (Le feu c?leste). 161 The 1889 Exposition also had many concerts devoted to French music and included works by a wide variety of composers, such as Adam, Aubert, Berlioz, Bizet, David, D?libes, Dubois, Chabrier, Cherubini, Faur?, Franck, Godard, Guiraud, Hal?vy, d?Indy, Mass?, Massenet, M?hul, Piern?, Reyer, Saint- Sa?ns, and Widor. 162 Performing ensembles included the Concert Lamoureux, the Association artistique de Colonne, the Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire, the Soci?t? de musique de chamber pour instruments ? vents, the Op?ra-Comique, and the Op?ra. 163 Again, there were many programs of foreign and non-Western music. As mentioned 67 above, the Javanese musical exhibit captured the attention of many, including Debussy, Ravel, and Faur?. In addition, Russian music was of particular interest to these composers, where they heard music by Balakirev, Borodin, Glazunov, Glinka, Liadov, Mussorgsky, Rimsky-Korsakov, and Tchaikovsky. Several works for flute and soprano were written during the period of the Expositions, and their subject matter and themes reflect the influence of these Exhibitions. Works that may be categorized as oriental or exotic are found in the table below: TABLE 1 MUSIC FOR FLUTE AND SOPRANO ON ORIENTAL AND EXOTIC THEMES In Chronological Order by Date of Composition Composer Composer?s Dates Title Instrumentation Date of Composition KOECHLIN, Charles Louis Eug?ne 1867-1950 Le nenuphar, op. 13, no. 3 For flute, soprano, and piano 1897 H?E, Georges- Adolphe 1858-1948 Soir pa?n For flute, soprano, and piano 1898 DEBUSSY, Achille-Claude 1862-1918 Les chansons de Bilitis For 2 flutes, 2 harps, celesta, and narrator 1901 RAVEL, Maurice 1875-1937 "La fl?te enchant?e" from Sh?h?rzade For flute, soprano, and piano 1903 SACHS, L?o 1856-1930 Les nymphes (?cho d'H?llande), op. 188 For flute, soprano, and piano 1909 EMMANUEL, Maurice 1862-1939 Trois odelettes anacr?ontiques, op. 13 For flute, soprano, and piano 1911 GAUBERT, Philippe 1879-1941 Soir pa?en For flute, soprano, and piano 1912 DELAGE, Maurice 1879-1961 Quatre po?mes hindous For soprano, 2 violins, viola, cello, 2 flutes, oboe, 2 clarinets, and harp 1914 Composer Composer?s Dates Title Instrumentation Date of Composition 68 SCHMITT, Florent 1870-1958 Kerob-shal, op. 67 For soprano, flute, and orchestra 1919 DELAGE, Maurice 1879-1961 Sept ha?-ka?s For soprano, flute, oboe, clarinet, piano, and string quartet 1920-1925 RAVEL, Maurice 1875-1937 "Air de la princesse" from L'Enfant et les sortli?ges For soprano, flute, and orchestra 1920 TANSMAN, Alexandre 1897-1986 Huit m?lodies japonaises For soprano, flute and orchestra 1922 BONHOMME, M. T. n.d. Ballade anci?nne, op. 98 For flute, soprano, and piano 1923 PONIRIDY, Georges 1892-1982 Deux po?mes dans le style populaire grec For soprano, flute, clarinet, string quartet, and piano 1925 CR?VECOEUR, Louis Deff?s Joseph 1819-? Ha?-ka? d'occident For flute and soprano 1926 RAVEL, Maurice 1875-1937 Chansons mad?casses For voice, flute, cello, and piano 1926 These works reflect a general expansion in the cultural horizons of the nation as France began to show more appreciation for all aspects of human culture. By the Exposition universelle of 1900, most French people showed a readiness to listen to the music of other cultures and to tolerate the influence of non-Western nations. This is a decided shift from the nationalism of the previous generation. THE AVANT-GARDE From the caf?-concerts and the cabarets developed a type of chanson that would be known for its elements of pessimism and revolt. This satirical style of music would be the primary inspiration of the early vocal chamber works of Darius Milhaud (1892-1974) 164 Sowerwine, France Since 1870, 100. 165 Shattuck defines the origins of the avant-garde movement as beginning in 1863, with the beginning of the Salon des refus?s. Shattuck, The Banquet Years, 24. 166 Symbolism was a term adopted by Jean Mor?as (1856-1910) in his manifesto article of September 18, 1886, which described the rejection of the naturalist, parnassian, and decadent movements by young writers, notably Dujardin, Ghil, Kahn, Mor?as, Morice, Rett?, and Wyzewa. The group revolved around St?phane Mallarm? between 1885 and 1895, and the term symbolism grew to refer to developments in French poetics between Baudelaire and Val?ry, which were then assimilated in different forms and to different degrees by non-French literatures. Decadence was a late nineteenth-century phenomenon with its focal point in the Paris of the 1880s and 1890s. It appeared in literature and visual art as a regenerative revolt against the mediocrity of bourgeois consensus. With the help of large-scale printing and reproduction, the writers and painters of the decadent movement distributed their elitist ideology to the masses of a new consumer society. Sowerwine, France Since 1870, 96 69 and Francis Poulenc (1899-1963). These include Poulenc?s Rhapsodie n?gre (1917 version) for soprano, flute, clarinet, string quartet, and piano and Le bestiaire (1919) for soprano, flute, clarinet, bassoon, and string quartet; and Milhaud?s Machines agricoles, op. 56 (1919) for soprano, flute, clarinet, bassoon, violin, viola, cello, and bass and Catalogue de fleurs (1920) for soprano, flute, clarinet, bassoon, violin, viola, cello, and bass. These works reflected the efforts of a new avant-garde that emerged in Paris around 1890 and which rejected all notions of realism. 164 The avant-garde was not a new idea in France, growing out of the nonconformist tendencies of the romantic movement. 165 This movement produced a determined group of artists who maintained a belligerent attitude toward the world and a genuine sympathy for one another. The need for new expression gave rise to the decadents and the symbolists in poetry and in painting. 166 It surfaced in music through the influence of Erik Satie (1866-1925) who was a prominent personality in the caf?-concert venues of the Chat noir, the Lapin agile, and 167 Satie was an accomplished pianist who was engaged by various music halls to accompany singers and other entertainments. At the Auberge du clou he made the acquaintance of Debussy, who became a close friend. Apparently, it was Satie who suggested to Debussy that he take a subject from Maeterlinck for an opera, which may have resulted in the creation of Pell?as et M?lisande. Harding, The Ox on the Roof, 27. 168 These pieces show the effect of Satie?s research into Gregorian chant and his visits to the Exposition universelle of 1889, where he too was fascinated by Oriental music. Myers quotes Georges Auric who wrote that ?through these works, Satie gave expression to what was latent in the consciousness of the world in which he lived. Satie foreshadowed the lines on which modern harmony was going to be developed by Debussy and other twentieth-century composers.? Myers, Modern French Music, 114, and Ibid., 25. 169 Cocteau asserted that Satie gave comic titles to his music in order to protect his works from persons obsessed with the sublime. Myers, Modern French Music, 113. 70 the Montmartre cabarets. 167 He had already written the Sarabandes (1887), the Gymnop?dies (1888), and the Gnossiennes (1889), which, in their harmonies, anticipated the innovations credited to Debussy (such as sequences of unresolved chords of the ninth). 168 To this period belongs the kind of music that is popularly associated with him today, characterized by the musical eccentricities (at that time) of suppression of time and key signatures, the deletion of bar-lines, and the addition of a verbal running commentary superimposed upon the music. While the titles of his pieces were sarcastic and irreverent, the music itself is completely serious and straightforward. 169 During World War I, Satie made the acquaintance of Jean Cocteau, and is perhaps most well-known for his ballet Parade (1917), which was a collaboration with Cocteau (librettist), Piccaso, (set and costume design), Massine (choreography), and Diaghilev (director of the Ballet Russe). With its music-hall vulgarity and its mythologization of urban folklore, Parade was a radical departure from impressionism. Stravinsky, who witnessed the revival of Parade in 1920, later wrote in his autobiography: The performance gave me an impression of freshness and real originality. Parade confirmed for me still further my conviction of Satie?s merit in the part he had 170 Gillmor, Erik Satie, 211. 171 Harding, The Ox on the Roof, 36. An in depth discussion of symbolism, surrealism, and decadence, especially as these movements effected French literature, is found in Chapter 10. 172 The notoriety of Parade (due to vitriolic attacks in the press) brought Satie?s music to the attention of Blaise Cendrars, a Swiss-born poet and novelist who was associated with the cubist movement in painting. Cendrars organized a concert at a Montmartre studio in the rue Huyghens, where Satie played a duet version of Parade; poetry by Max Jacob, Apollinaire, Cocteau, and Cendrars was recited; and three young composers performed their own works. These composers were Georges Auric, Louis Durey, and Arthur Honegger. Soon, they were joined by Germaine Tailleferre (a convert of Cocteau), Francis Poulenc (newly released from the army), and Darius Milhaud (recently returned from Brazil). Thus, Les nouveaux jeunes began associating with Satie and each other, and Satie was christened their ?spiritual father.? Gillmor, Erik Satie, 211 and Cooper, French Music, 184. 71 played in French music by opposing the vagueness of a decrepit impressionism with a language precise and firm, stripped of all pictorial embellishments. 170 In program notes that were written by Guillaume Apollinaire, he made use of a newly created word to describe the production: le surr?alism. 171 At this performance were several French musicians of the next generation who were dazzled by Satie?s l?esprit nouveau and who began to meet at a painter?s studio on Montparnasse. 172 Satie called them the Nouveaux jeunes, but they became famous as Les six. The oldest in the group was Louis Durey (born in 1888). Arthur Honegger, Germaine Tailleferre (the only woman of the group), and Darius Milhaud (a Proven?al Jew) were all born in 1892. Georges Auric and Francis Poulenc were the youngest of the group, both born in 1899. Modeling themselves after Satie, they all aimed for the qualities of simplicity, terseness, and clarity in their music. They also intended, in the beginning, to shock a largely bourgeois audience out of its perceived complacency. Shock would become a crucial element in the l?esprit nouveaux and would remain a particularly vital component of art throughout the twentieth century. 173 Sixty years after the publication of Le coq et l?arlequin (1918) by Jean Cocteau, George Auric, in his preface, recalled meeting Poulenc: ?Increasingly we were convinced of the value of Parade, of the lesson Satie was teaching us through it. We used to discuss it every time we met, and a new admirer, Francis Poulenc, appeared to our great delight. A current of fresh air had just begun to blow over our little world.? Nichols, The Harlequin Years, 39. 72 Poulenc, especially, took whole-heartedly to this new aesthetic. 173 In his early works for flute and voice, Poulenc experimented with Satie?s ideas of nonsense syllables, simple melodies that imitated the contours and emotional quality of nursery tunes or music hall songs, and rhythms that were simplistic and included the primitive syncopations of the fashionable jazz works. His Rapsodie n?gre is an example, containing parallel rhythm and harmony for the accompaniment parts and nonsense syllables for the vocalist that have no pitch designations. Milhaud experimented with bi-tonality and polytonality in his Catalogue de fleurs, using complex harmonic procedures to set the text of a seed catalogue. Likewise, in his Machine agricoles, he set as his text a manual describing agricultural machines with an elaborate instrumentation. Performances of these and other works by Les six were first given at the Th??tre de Vieux-Colombier under the supervision of Satie. This new, unfamiliar music, with its ?wrong note? harmonies, crude dissonances, and carefully cultivated irreverence, scandalized their audiences at first. The significance of these works were soon clear, they overturned conventions and traditions to which serious music in France had always more or less conformed. Thus, they prepared the way for a break-through that ushered in new developments in French music. Literature and visual art would also be occupied with the erosion of realism and the desire to shock and appall late nineteenth-century French society. Joris-Karl 174 Sowerwine, France Since 1870, 97. 73 Huysmans (1848-1907) wrote several novels in this new style, including L?-bas (Down There, 1891), which involved Satanism and the ritual sacrifice of babies. St?phane Mallarm??s masterpiece L?Apr?s-midi d?un faune (A Satyr?s Afternoon, 1897) is an obscure and difficult poem that portrays a dream of desire which replaces the material world with a psychic one. By 1898, the poet Jean Mor?as (1856-1910) had published a ?manifesto? that used the term symbolism and applied it to poets such as Mallarm?, Verlaine, and Rimbaud. 174 The painter Odilon Redon (1840-1916) delighted in images of the grotesque and the sinister, including his lithography L?Araign?e (The Smiling Spider, 1885). By the 1880s, Georges Seurat (1859-1891) prepared for a complete break with realism by rejecting the use of line to define his subjects, instead using patches of color or dots. This pointillistic technique was taken up by several of his friends, including Camille Pissarro (1830-1903) and Paul Signac (1863-1935). A complete break came with the next generation of painters who responded to these new modes of perception. Henri Matisse (1869-1954) and Georges Braque (1882- 1963) became known as the fauves (wild beasts) because of their uncontrolled use of color and their representation of reality through color itself and not form. The young Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) was influenced by their work and accomplished a clear rupture with fixed, single perspective in his Les demoiselle d?Avignon (1907). Picasso began the cubist movement by visualizing his subjects from many different perspectives 175 Picasso would later declare that ?I paint forms as I think them, not as I see them.? Sowerwine, France Since 1870, 104. 176 The following is a short summary of the case: In December, 1894, Captain Alfred Dreyfus, an army staff officer of Jewish background, was convicted of selling French military secrets to the Germans, and, in January, 1895, he was sent into penal servitude for life on Devil?s Island. In the spring of 1896, Colonel Picquart, chief of the intelligence section of the French Army, raised questions about the validity of the evidence on which Dreyfus was convicted, but he soon found himself posted to North Africa. He was eventually dismissed from the Army. However, on January 13, 1898, Emile Zola began championing Dreyfus? cause. In an open letter published in the newspaper L?Aurore, Zola accused the French government of criminal conspiracy in the conviction of an innocent man. He attacked the government on the basis of prejudice, claiming that ?clerical passion? was behind the coverup. This ignited the classic French political and ideological struggle between the Right and the Left. The Dreyfus family found their cause being turned into a left-wing crusade, with the ?Dreyfusards? using the affair as a struggle against reaction, the church, and the aristocratic/military class. The ?anti-Dreyfusards? claimed it was a struggle against the forces undermining national unity and the great national institutions of the army and the church. They were convinced that a vast ?Jewish syndicate? was determined to free Dreyfus through bribery of politicians and judges, all with the support of the Germans. By 1898, the government was involved in the case, and the following years were filled with denunciations and accusations, charges and countercharges, and a tangle of legal maneuvers and political repercussions. There followed a wave of anti-Semitic riots in various large cities throughout France, as well as attacks against Jews in the press. In August and 74 and using geometric, abstract forms to govern the use of color. 175 The worlds of painting, literature, and music moved into what may be described as a modernist phase where the perceptions of the nineteenth century were discarded. The new world of the twentieth century would be inaugurated by war and would confirm to a new generation of artists that the values and styles of the past no longer made sense. THE DREYFUS AFFAIR No comment on the history of late nineteenth-century France would be complete without reference to the Dreyfus affair, a cause c?l?bre which divided families, terminated friendships, provoked riots and duels, toppled ministries, brought about the trial of Emile Zola for libel and forced his flight from France, involved the Church and the Army in charges of anti-Semitism, split the nation into two bitterly opposed camps, and resulted in a flood of anti-clerical legislation. 176 This sordid affair was symptomatic September of 1899, Dreyfus was given a new trial and was again found guilty of treason, but with ?extenuating circumstances.? He was granted a presidential pardon, however, in 1906, and the verdict of guilty against him was dismissed. Dreyfus was restored to his rank and in July, 1906, he was awarded the Legione d?honeur. Tombs, France 1814-1914, 462-468. 177 While the Dreyfus affair seemed to be a triumph of the ideal of individual rights, it has also been argued that the efforts of right-wing, anti-democratic, and anti-parliamentarist politicians fostered the birth of twentieth-century fascism. Popkin, A History of Modern France, 171. 178 Fulcher, French Cultural Politics and Music, 18. 75 of many of the controversies present in French life in the late nineteenth century. It touched upon explosive issues that had smoldered beneath the surface of French social life: class conflicts; the role of the Army in the government; anti-clericalism; anti-Semitism; corruption in high office; and the value of the individual in terms of the needs of the state. 177 One result of the Dreyfus case was the political triumph of the Dreyfusards, who instituted an elaborate program of anti-clerical legislation, including purges within the armed forces, as soon as the Dreyfusards came to power. The Dreyfus affair also occupied and polarized musicians, writers, and artists in France, many of whom aligned themselves politically as a result. The Dreyfusard?s Manifest des intellectuels was headed by prominent literary figures such as Anatole France, Marcel Proust, and Emile Zola. Among the other myriad signatories were well- known French composers, musicians, musical scholars, music historians, and critics of music, for instance, composers Alfred Bruneau and Charles Koechlin and music historians Lionel Dauriac and Henry Pruni?res. 178 Those who signed the opposing petition circulated by the Ligue de la patrie fran?aise (anti-Dreyfusards) were composers Pierre de Br?ville, Augusta Holm?s and Vincent d?Indy, opera director Albert Carr?, the critic Henri Gauthier-Villars, and the professor of music history at the Paris 179 Several composers hesitated to choose a side, but did sign the public petition circulated by the Comit? de l?appel ? l?union in favor of reconciliation of the two points of view. These included composers Gustave Charpentier, Claude Debussy, the music historian Julien Tiersot, and conductor Edouard Colonne. Ibid. 180 Ibid., 19. 181 Bruneau was a close friend and professional collaborator with Dreyfusard leader Emile Zola. d?Indy was a fervent Roman Catholic, admirer of Wagner, and anti-Semite. Myers, Modern French Music, 35-39. 76 Conservatoire, Louis Bourgault-Ducoudray. 179 History has recorded that the basis for the choice of side among French artists and intellectuals had to do with their social standing. 180 Those who wished to uphold positions of dominance in society or their professions (and consequently tradition) tended to be anti-Dreyfusards. In the world of art and music, this tended to include members of the Acad?mie, those who had attained official positions in the educational institutions of the day, or those who were recognized by society as established artists. Conversely, those who were outside the established society and who were not interested in preserving its traditions often tended to be in favor of Dreyfus. This led to a schism amongst musicians, artists, and writers. The leading figures on both sides of the affair (both of whom went on to make connections between political and artistic principals) were Alfred Bruneau (Dreyfusard) and Vincent d?Indy (anti-Dreyfusard). 181 d?Indy was particularly influential in the French music scene, where his bitterness toward the Republic escalated with the beginning of the Dreyfus Affair. This incident led him to merge his ideas for political reform with artistic reform. As a result, he would be one of the founders of the Schola Cantorum (1894), a school of music that would espouse 182 In 1892, d?Indy was named to an official commission that proposed a reform of the program of studies at the Conservatoire. The commission produced a detailed report that called for sweeping changes, such as the introduction of a class on the symphony, something that was not usually taught at the Conservatoire. These ideas (which were called ?Franckiste? due to their connection with the composer C?sar Franck) were shocking to some, given the relatively low status of symphonic music as compared to vocal music and opera, as reflected in the Conservatoire?s instruction. Fulcher, French Cultural Politics and Music, 24. 183 Born into an aristocratic family, he was raised by his paternal grandmother in the utopian ideals of the Saint-Simonian movement and with great admiration for Napol?on (his mother had died in childbirth). Her belief in a utopian socialism may well have influenced d?Indy?s attraction to the Ligue de la patrie fran?ais. Like the Saint-Simonians, the League believed in the social responsibility and the directive force of the intellectual and financial leaders of society, maintaining that such a hierarchy guaranteed order. It was also his grandmother who engaged private instruction in harmony and orchestration for d?Indy with Albert Lavignac (who would later go on to become one of the more noted professors at the Conservatoire and as a teacher of Claude Debussy). Fulcher, French Cultural Politics and Music, 21. 184 The Schola Cantorum was originally a school for the promotion and teaching of religious music, especially Gregorian chant. Charles Bordes, the choirmaster of Saint-Gervais and the director of Les chanteurs de Saint-Gervais, had the original idea to start the school. He soon enlisted the support of his friends Alexandre Guilmant and Vincent d?Indy. d?Indy was enthusiastic and saw the school as an opportunity to implement the reforms in education that he had proposed for the Conservatoire. Ibid., 26. 77 educational views that challenged the Conservatoire 182 and the Republican state, and whose views would become intertwined with the Ligue de la patrie fran?ais. 183 The Schola would advocate the teaching of religious music, which filled a gap in public music education at the time and which drew attention to the quality of music that was being performed in churches. 184 By 1897, the official curriculum of the Schola included a five- year course of study in music history, analysis, Gregorian chant, symphonic music, and chamber music. It was a radical departure from the Conservatoire tradition, which was oriented towards the needs of the lyric theaters and which stressed solf?ge, harmony, counterpoint, fugue, and composition. The success of the Schola acted as a catalyst for change at the Conservatoire. The ramifications of the Dreyfus debate amongst musicians was a struggle that played out in the educational and performance institutions of modern France. This struggle effected the composers of flute and voice music and will be 185 Jones, The Cambridge Illustrated History of France, 233. 186 Sowerwine, France Since 1870, 88. 187 As late as 1898, a chance colonial incident at Fashoda in the Sudan had nearly brought France into armed conflict with Britain. Ibid. 188 In one of the more surprising political reversals of the period, the Left began to move away from calls for revenge with Germany, while the Right developed a nationalistic ideology. This new patriotic Right developed a chauvinistic critique of corrupt centrist politics dominated (it was alleged) by Protestants, Jews, freemasons, and aliens. Tombs, France 1814-1914, 458-459. 78 explored more fully in Chapters 3 (Music Education in France) and 4 (Wagner). WORLD WAR I The disturbance of the Dreyfus affair appeared at a time when militarism, nationalism, and imperialism were all issues of tremendous importance, and enhanced the general importance of the armed forces throughout Europe. 185 Like the other great European powers, France had entered the race for overseas possessions after 1900, carving out an impressive empire in Asia and Africa. 186 French aims clashed with those of other nations, 187 however, and recurring international crises preceded the final crisis of World War I in 1914. By the turn of the century, too, there was a revived desire in France for revenge (la revanche) against Germany, focusing upon the loss of Alsace-Lorraine after the Franco-Prussian War. 188 This, along with the Franco-Russian alliance and the subsequent entente cordiale between Britain, France, and Russia, led to a steady arms build-up in these countries and in Germany. The assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne, and his wife in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, was enough to ignite a world war. 189 Sowerwine, France Since 1870, 109-110. 190 Of the more than 8 million men between the ages of 18 and 46 that were mobilized by France during the war, fully 63 percent were dead or mutilated by its end. During the war, marriage fell by 30 percent, and the rate of childbirth slowed dramatically. After the war, there were simply not enough men to re-establish the marriage and birth rate to pre-war levels. In addition, the infrastructure of the country was largely destroyed and the franc lost half its pre-war value. Ibid., 117-118. 79 Social divisions in France were temporarily blurred as French men and women gave their support to a war of revenge against Germany in August, 1914. But France would be sorely tested, for the war became a battle of attrition, and at home it brought unemployment, inflation, and enforced austerity on the civilian population. 189 The northeast region of the country (the battle zone) was the most affected, as the populations of whole towns were nearly wiped out. So great was the social, economic, and demographic harm caused by World War I 190 that, after 1918, the French prized security above all else, and made severe demands at the Versailles peace conference of 1919. Georges Clemenceau (1841-1929), prime minister since 1917, ensured that German reparations and the demilitarization of the Rhineland were elements of the peace settlement, along with the restoration to France of the Alsace-Lorraine. World War I brought about a drastic change in the amount of musical activity in Paris and, indeed, in all of Europe. At the outbreak of the war virtually all the large musical organizations in Paris shut down. The Op?ra and the Op?ra-Comique had no season at all in 1914. Two great concert organizations (previously rivals), the Soci?t? musicale ind?pendente and the Soci?t? nationale de musique, merged in 1915. The finest orchestras, the Concerts Lamoureux and the Concerts Colonne disbanded in 1914 and 191 As the established performing and educational institutions closed their doors during the war, other types of entertainment took their place. A rage for operetta seized the public imagination, and light works by Vincent Scotto and Raoul Moretti were produced at theaters, such as the Th??tre des bouffes-parisiens. The music hall also became a venue for musical entertainment, and popular singers such as Marthe Chenal (draped in the tri-color flag and singing the Marseillaise), Polaire, and Gaby Deslys took center stage. This was the beginning of a major shift in the musical life of Paris where popular singing and cabaret music were elevated to the same status that opera had occupied in the previous generation. Harding, The Ox on The Roof, 21-22. 192 Milhaud, Notes Without Music, translated by Donald Evans, 62. 193 Larner, Maurice Ravel, 155. 194 Nichols, The Harlequin Years, 30. 80 were not reformed until after the war as the Concerts Pasdeloup. 191 Musicians were also mobilized in the war effort in great numbers. As the Conservatoire began its academic year in the fall of 1914, most of the male pupils and teachers had gone to war. As Milhaud later remembered: I was rejected for military service on medical grounds and went back to Paris in December [1914]. Apart from Henri Cliquet, who was in the auxiliary services acting as a gardener at the Hospital of Versailles, and Honegger, who had been mobilized for only a few weeks in Switzerland, all my friends from the Conservatoire were at the front. 192 Ravel was eventually allowed to enlist in 1915 as a private soldier in the artillery and was later sent to the war zone at Verdun as an ambulance driver. 193 Albert Roussel, at age forty-six, joined up as a lieutenant in the transport division of the French Army. 194 Alb?ric Magnard was killed in the early days of the war and Andr? Caplet died in 1925 as a result of the complications from mustard gas. The effects of the conflict were felt for several years in the form of strikes and 195 What remained of the musical world of Paris had become hopelessly divided as a result of the Dreyfus affair and its aftermath. The division of musicians and musical organizations into ?progressive? and ?reactionary? groups was well entrench by 1914. Much of the controversy stemmed from the influence of German music and Wagner in particular. There was much resentment among younger French musicians towards the Soci?t? nationale de musique, which, under d?Indy?s headship, had been heavily weighted towards Germanic music and especially Wagner. After the start of the war, a violent reaction against Germany and its music surfaced among young musicians. They sought a pure form of French music that was untainted by Germanic influences. As a result of this pressure, d?Indy eventually stepped down as president of the Soci?t? national de musique (in 1917) and was replaced by Gabriel Faur?, with new committee members Ravel, Schmitt, and Vuillermoz. Duchen, Gabriel Faur?, 189-190. 81 problems of reorganization. 195 Composition was difficult yet artists struggled to produce works, even compositions of great variety for flute and soprano. Works that were written in the years leading up to World War I and during the war include L?o Sachs? (1856-1930) Les nymphes (?cho d'h?llande), op. 188 (1909) for flute, soprano, and piano; Maurice Emmanuel?s (1862-1938) Trois odelettes anacr?ontiques, op. 13 (1911) for flute, soprano, and piano; Philippe Gaubert?s (1879-1941) Soir pa?en (1912) for flute, soprano, and piano; Maurice Ravel?s (1875-1937) Trois po?mes de St?phane Mallarm? (1913) for soprano, 2 flutes [piccolo] 2 clarinets [bass clarinet], string quartet, and piano; Maurice Delage?s (1879-1961) Quatre po?mes hindous (1914) for soprano, 2 violins, viola, cello, 2 flutes, oboe, 2 clarinets, and harp; Francis Poulenc?s (1899-1963) Rhapsodie n?gre (1917) for baritone or soprano, flute, clarinet, string quartet, and piano; and Poulenc?s Le bestiaire (1918) for soprano, flute, clarinet, bassoon, and string quartet. These pieces embody the prewar/postwar dichotomy and seem to straddle two eras. First, they show the influences of the historical events and social trends that preceded this period, such as a fascination with exotic themes (as in the case of Sachs, Emmanuel, and Delage), experimentation with instrumentation (as in the case of Ravel, Delage, and Poulenc), the collaboration with contemporary French poets (as in the case 196 Ravel was so impressed by this piece that he wrote to Lucien Garban from the H?tel des cr?tes at the end of March: ?You must hear Stravinsky?s Rite of Spring. I really believe that the first night will be as important as that of Pell?as et M?lisande.? Larner, Maurice Ravel, 135-136. 197 Ravel did not know Pierrot lunaire at the time, but Stravinsky did. Stravinsky had been present at the 1912 premiere in Vienna and was particularly struck by Schoenberg?s instrumentation. It was after Stravinsky had heard Pierrot lunaire that he settled on his instrumentation (2 flutes, 2 clarinets, piano, and string quartet). Ravel?s instrumentation for Trois po?mes de St?phane Mallarm? is identical to Stravinsky?s Three Japanese Lyrics. Ibid., 136. 198 Ravel was aware that he was creating something quite unique that would shock French audiences. He proposed a ?scandal concert? to his friend Mme. Kahn-Casella (wife of the Italian composer Alfredo Casella and assistant to him as the Secretary General of the Soci?t? musicale ind?pendente) with a program including Schoenberg?s Pierrot Lunaire, Stravinsky?s Three Japanese Lyrics, and his own Mallarm? songs. 82 of Ravel), and the integration of caf?-concert elements (as in the case of Poulenc). In addition, these pieces herald the next generation of musical thinking which is heavily influenced by the music of Stravinsky, Schoenberg, and Satie and the writings of Cocteau and Apollinaire. Stravinsky?s influence was particularly strong in the case of Ravel and Delage (who was a private pupil of Ravel). Ravel and Stravinsky first met in 1910, when Stravinsky came to Paris for the premiere of The Firebird. Both men shared a love for the music of Mussorgsky, and when Stravinsky invited Ravel (and his mother) to spend a few months with him in Switzerland in the Spring of 1913, Ravel readily accepted. Here, Ravel first saw the score of Stravinsky?s Rite of Spring 196 and his Three Japanese Lyrics, as well as Schoenberg?s Pierrot lunaire. Ravel was so intrigued by the mixed instrumentation of the two works that he composed something similar in his own Trois po?mes de St?phane Mallarm? (1913). 197 In it, Ravel introduced techniques that were considered revolutionary at the time: no discernible melody (in the romantic sense) and no regular patterns, but a line that is determined by the natural rhythms and pitch inflections of the poetry. 198 Ravel pushed the limits of tonality in the harmony of the The performance did take place on January 14, 1914, however Pierrot lunaire was replaced on the program by Delage?s Quatre po?mes hindous. Ibid., 137. 199 In the early twentieth century, four men stand out as giants in French literature: Paul Claudel (1868-1955), Andr? Gide (1869-1951), Marcel Proust (1871-1922), and Paul Val?ry (1871-1945). About 1910, Guillaume Apollinaire (1880-1918) emerged as a particularly important figure in the avant-garde, dispensing with punctuation, exploring surrealist imagery, and creating his Calligrammes, a highly visual poetic format. Other leading poets of this era include Andr? Breton, the founder of the surrealist movement, Louis Aragon, and Paul ?luard. Sowerwine, France Since 1870, 161-163. 200 In his second collection of poems, Alcools (1913), Apollinaire begins the first poem with these lines: A la fin tu es las de ce mond ancien Berg?res ? tour Eiffel le troupeau des ponts b?le ce matin Tu en as assez de vivre dans l?antiquit? grecque et romaine [?Finally you are weary of that ancient world O Effiel tower shepherdess the flock of bridges is bleating this morning You have had enough of living in Greek and Roman antiquity?] Nichols, The Harlequin Years, translated by the author, 29. 201 Poulenc would later write: ?All I knew about Satie?s music, and I knew everything, seemed to me to signal a new direction in French music.? ?Satie?s influence on my music was profound and immediate.? Schmidt, Entrancing Muse, 37. 83 piece and wrote a scoring where the vocal line adopts the winding melody of the instrumental accompaniment, making the two voices one. Poulenc, on the other hand, fell under the influence of the writings of Apollinaire, setting Apollinaire?s first collection of poems, Le bestiaire ou cort?ge d?Orph?e (1911) to music in 1917. 199 Apollinaire advocated the abandonment of illusions in art and an appeal to honesty. 200 He used simple, direct language to come to terms with the complexities of the modern world. This appealed to Poulenc, whose introduction to Satie 201 as well as the music halls and cabarets of Paris had taught him a blunt, unadorned musical language that utilized the elements of surprise, simplicity, and popular music. The result was Poulenc?s Rhapsodie n?gre (1917) for baritone or soprano, 202 Bernard, Albert Roussel, 31. 203 Anti-German sentiment was so prevalent, both during and after the war, that former supporters of the music and compositional techniques of Wagner (such as Saint-Sa?ns, d?Indy, Charpentier, and Th?odore Dubois) would form a committee of the Ligue nationale pour la d?fense de la musique fran?ais. The Leagues stated aims were: ?By every means to expel and then hunt down the enemy; to prevent in future the recurrence of baneful infiltration. Even if there can be no question, for us and our young successors, of repudiating the ?classics?, which constitute one of the immortal monuments of humanity, it is our task to condemn modern PanGermanism to silence.?? Nichols, The Harlequin Years, 25. 84 flute, clarinet, string quartet, and piano; and Le bestiaire (1918) for soprano, flute, clarinet, bassoon, and string quartet. THE PERIOD BETWEEN THE TWO WORLD WARS Musical ideas changed rapidly during World War I and a number of previously revered composers including Camille Saint-Sa?ns (1835-1921), Gabriel Faur? (1845-1924), Vincent d'Indy (1851-1931), Andr? Messager (1853-1929), and Gabriel Piern? (1863-1937), were disdained by the new generation. Albert Roussel expressed these sentiments in a letter to his wife: All that will now belong to ?prewar things,? that is to say, things which will be separated from us by a wall, a veritable wall.?We are going to have to start living all over again, with a new conception of life, which is not to say that everything made before the war will be forgotten, but that everything made after it will have to be made differently. 202 There soon emerged a group of composers who felt a disregard for the nineteenth-century French traditions, especially the dominance of Wagner. 203 This group, under the influence of composer Erik Satie (1866-1925), included Louis Durey (1888-1979), Darius Milhaud (1892-1974), Arthur Honegger (1892-1955), Germaine Tailleferre (1892-1983), Francis Poulenc (1899-1963), and Georges Auric (1899-1983), as well as their appointed spokesman, Jean Cocteau (1889-1963). They began to 204 Cocteau explained the influence of Satie in this period of change in French music in his Le coq et l?arlequin: ?The profound originality of Satie gives young musicians a direction that does not force them to abandon their originality. Wagner, Stravinsky, even Debussy are alluring octopuses: he who approaches has trouble avoiding their tentacles. Satie offers an unmarked road where each composer can leave his own imprint? Satie taught his era an extremely audacious value ? simplicity.? Brody, The Musical Kaleidoscope, 29. 205 While these composers were friends and collaborators, most felt that the grouping of themselves as Les six was arbitrary. Milhaud expressed these sentiments, saying: After a concert at the Salle Huyghens, at which Bertin sang Louis Durey?s Images ? Cruso? on words by Saint-L?ger, and the Capelle Quartet played my Fourth Quartet, the critic Henri Collet published in Comoedia a chronicle entitled ?Five Russians and Six Frenchmen.? Quite arbitrarily he had chosen six names: Auric, Durey, Honegger, Poulenc, Tailleferre, and my own, merely because we knew one another, were good friends, and had figured on the same programs; quite irrespective of our different temperaments and wholly dissimilar characters. Auric and Poulenc were partisans of Cocteau?s ideas, Honegger derived from the German romantics, and I from Mediterranean lyricism. I fundamentally disapproved of joint declarations of aesthetic doctrines and felt them to be a drag, an unreasonable limitation on the imagination of the artist, who must for each new work find different, often contradictory means of expression; but it was useless to protest. Collet?s article excited such world-wide interest that the ?Group of Six? was launched, and willy-nilly I formed part of it. Milhaud, Notes Without Music, translated by Donald Evans, 97. 206 Zeldon, France, 1848-1948, 488. 85 articulate radical new ideas in French music in direct opposition to Wagnerism, impressionism, and realism. 204 This group of composers, who would later become known as Les Six, banded together to consolidate their efforts as musicians and, as a result, became good friends. 205 The period after World War I brought about a renaissance for Paris. In 1913 there were some 700 concerts in Paris; by the 1920s, there were as many as 1,880 concerts per year. 206 R?ne Dumesnil recalled this period as: Years of light-hearted celebration, when the new music sang to the syncopated rhythms of the triumphant dawn of peace regained.? Years varied and brief, when performances abounded as in no other time: the Russian ballet of Serge Diaghilev, the Swedish ballet of Rolf de Mar?, the characterizations of Ida Rubinstein, beautiful evenings at the Op?ra and the Champs-Elys?es when Dutch, 207 Dumesnil, La musique en France entre les deux guerres, 9-10. 86 German, Italian, and Spanish troupes passed through; innumerable new works and brilliant revivals, the invasion of jazz and Negro spirituals disseminated by recordings and radio in all their novelty.? The musical world fermented and agitated; a fever of research was seen in composers in quest of new forms: quarrels mounted, enormous disputes over "polytonality," the "return to Bach," and terms dynamisme and d?pouillement made snobs faint. ?Crazy years perhaps, but particularly fecund ones as well, which it would be unjust to condemn because we owe to them ?some great works conceived without any desire to please, which show at each rehearing that they have the power to last. 207 It was during this period of optimism and creativity that the great majority of the works for flute and voice were written. Between the years 1918 and 1940, forty-two works were flute and voice were composed, of the one hundred and fourteen works listed in the annotated bibliography. The table below lists these fourty-two works in chronological order. TABLE 2 WORKS FROM THE ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY WRITTEN BETWEEN 1818 AND 1940 In Chronological Order by Date of Composition Year Composer Title Instrumentation 1918 DUREY, Louis (1888- 1979) Images ? Cruso?, op.11 For soprano, flute, clarinet, celesta [or harp], and string quartet 1919 POULENC, Francis (1899-1963) Le bestiaire For soprano, flute, clarinet, bassoon, and string quartet 1919 MILHAUD, Darius (1892-1974) Machines agricoles, op. 56 For soprano, flute, clarinet, bassoon, violin, viola, cello, and bass 1919 SCHMITT, Florent (1870-1958). Kerob-shal, op. 67. For soprano and orchestra [containing flute] 1920 DELAGE, Maurice (1879-1961) Sept ha?-ka?s. For soprano, flute, oboe, clarinet, piano, and string quartet Year Composer Title Instrumentation 87 1920 MILHAUD, Darius (1892-1974) Catalogue de fleurs For soprano, flute, clarinet, bassoon, violin, viola, cello, and bass 1920 RAVEL, Maurice (1875-1937) "Air de la princesse" from L'Enfant et les sortli?ges For soprano and flute 1921 BERNHEIM, Marcel (n.d.) Clair de lune For soprano, flute, and piano 1921 POULENC, Francis (1899-1963) Quatre po?mes de Max Jacob, op. 22 For soprano, flute, oboe, bassoon, trumpet, and clarinet 1922 PILLOIS, Jacques (1877-1935) Chanson de Yamina For soprano, flute, and piano 1922 SAUVREZIS, Alice (1866-1946) La Chanson des soirs For soprano, flute, clarinet, bassoon, horn, trumpet, 2 violins, viola, cello, bass, and harp 1922 TANSMAN, Alexandre (1897-1986) Huit m?lodies japonaises For soprano and ensemble 1923 BONHOMME, M. T (n.d.) Ballade anci?nne, op. 98 For soprano, flute, and piano 1923 CRAS, Jean ?mile Paul. (1879-1932) Fontaines For soprano, flute, and piano 1923 DELAGE, Maurice (1879-1961) Trois Po?mes: L'aleuette For soprano, flute, and piano 1924 CAPLET, Andr? (1878-1925) Corbeille de fruits: ?coute, mon coeur For soprano and flute 1924 HONEGGER, Arthur (1892-1955) Chanson de Ronsard For soprano, flute, and string quartet 1924 ROUSSEL, Albert-Charles (1869-1937) Deux po?mes de Ronsard, op. 26, no. 1 and no. 2 For soprano and flute 1925 DELAGE, Maurice (1879-1961) Hommage ? A. Roussel For soprano, flute, and piano, a reduction by the composer from soprano and orchestra 1925 IBERT, Jacques (1890-1962) Deux st?les orient?es For soprano and flute 1925 LE FLEM, Paul (1881-1984) Cinq chants de cr?isade For soprano, flute, piano and harp 1925 PONIRIDY, Georges (1892-1982) Deux po?mes dans le style populaire grec For soprano, flute, clarinet, string quartet, and piano Year Composer Title Instrumentation 88 1925 RAVEL, Maurice (1875-1937) Chansons mad?casses For soprano, flute cello, and piano 1926 CR?VECOEUR, Louis Deff?s Joseph (1819-?) Ha?-ka? d'occident For soprano and flute 1926 DELANNOY, Marcel Fran?ois Georges (1898-1962) Trois histoires For soprano, flute, bassoon, and piano 1926 HONEGGER, Arthur (1892-1955) Trois chansons de la petite sir?ne For soprano, flute, and string quartet 1926 LAPARRA, Raoul (1876-1943) Bien loin d'ici For soprano, flute, and piano [or harp] 1927 BEYDTS, Louis (1895-1953) La fl?te verte For soprano, flute, and piano 1927 DELANNOY, Marcel Fran?ois Georges (1898-1962) Deux po?mes For soprano, flute, piano, and string quartet 1927 CARTAN, Jean (1906- 1932) Po?mes de Tristan Klingsor For soprano, flute, harp, and string quartet 1928 AUBERT, Louis-Fran?ois-Marie (1877-1968) L'Heure captive For soprano, flute [or violin], and piano 1928 CRAS, Jean ?mile Paul (1879-1932) La fl?te de Pan For soprano, pan flute [or piccolo], and string quartet 1928 PETIT, Raymond (b. 1893) Hymne For soprano and flute 1928 ROLAND-MANUEL, Alexis (1891-1962) Deux ?legies For soprano and flute 1930 IBERT, Jacques (1890-1962) Aria For soprano, flute, and piano 1930 IBERT, Jacques (1890-1962) Chanson du rien For soprano, flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, and horn 1931 DELAGE, Maurice (1879-1961) Deux fables de Jean de La Fontaine For soprano, flute, oboe, 2 clarinets, bassoon, horn, trumpet, piano, string quartet 1932 FROMAIGEAT, Ernst (1888-?) Petits po?mes d'extr?me-orient For soprano, flute, and piano 1932 PILLOIS, Jacques (1877-1935) Trois po?mes de Albert Samain For soprano, flute, and string quartet Year Composer Title Instrumentation 208 Milhaud, Notes Without Music, translated by Donald Evans, 94-95. 89 1933 MIGOT, Georges (1891-1976) Reposoir grave, noble et pur ? For soprano, flute, and piano [or harp] 1934 MIGOT, Georges (1891-1976) Deux st?les For soprano, flute, harp, celesta, double bass, and percussion 1937 B?SSER, Paul-Henri (1872-1973) Le seigneur vient dans le chemin For soprano, flute, cello, and harp This is a truly remarkable list in the depth and breadth of music written for flute and voice by a wide range of French composers utilizing unique combinations of instrumentation. These pieces for flute and voice were markedly different from the impressionistic works written prior to the war by composers such as Debussy and Gaubert. Darius Milhaud described the influences and the atmosphere of post-war France: I returned to a Paris jubilant with the victory of celebrations.?The nightmare of the war as it faded had given birth to a new era. Everything was changing, both in literature, with Apollinaire, Cendrars, Cocteau, and Max Jacob, and in painting; exhibitions followed close on one another; the Cubists were beginning to make names for themselves, and pictures by Marcel Duchamp, Braque, and L?ger were hung beside those of Derain and Matisse. In music, activity was no less intense. Reacting against the impressionism of the post-Debussy composers, what musicians asked for now was a clearer, sturdier, more precise type of art that should yet not have lost its qualities of human sympathy and sensitivity. Louis Durey and Poulenc had been added to the musicians I had known before the war. I met Poulenc at Ren? Chalupt?s while he was still in the army. He played us his Mouvements perp?tuels and sang the Bestiaire, which he had just completed. I thought that day of a saying of d?Indy concerning the development of music: ?French music will become what the next musician of genius wants it to be.? After all the vapors of impressionism, would not this simple, clear art renewing the tradition of Mozart and Scarlatti represent the next phase in the development of our music? 208 209 Apparently, Claudel was especially involved with the creation of music set to his verse. He personally supervised the work of any musician engaged in setting his texts to music, and both Honegger and Milhaud have described how the poet would show them exactly what kind of music he wanted at any given point in his text. According to Honegger, Claudel even indicated details of scoring. Myers, Modern French Music, 129. 210 During the post-war period, Roussel became the reigning elder statesman of French music. While Debussy, Faur?, Saint-Sa?ns, and Satie had died by 1929, and d?Indy and Ravel were both composing only intermittently, Roussel enjoyed a renaissance in his compositional ideas which was recognized in France and abroad. His works were performed throughout Europe and several premieres of his orchestral music occurred in the United States, under the baton of Serge Koussevitzky. His younger colleagues were unanimous in their admiration for the composer, and the memorial issue of the Revue Musicale contains tributes from composers such as Auric, Caplet, Delvincourt, Durey, Ferroud, Ibert, Milhaud, and Poulenc. 90 Several artistic movements influenced these composers in their production of music for flute and voice, such as futurism, fauvism, post-impressionism, modernism, and cubism. It was against this backdrop that members of Les six and others developed their close affiliations with the best French writers of the day. Milhaud, for instance, worked especially closely with Paul Claudel, and Claudel soon became the favorite author of this young generation of French composers. As well, composers set the texts of Apollinaire, Aragon, Cocteau, Eluard, and Val?ry. Poulenc eventually composed more than thirty songs to the poems of Apollinaire, as well as his opera-bouffe Les mamelles de Tir?sias. Honegger collaborated with Claudel in songs and choral works, in addition to his opera Antigone to a text of Cocteau. The situation had changed little from the days of the symbolists and the parnassians, only now instead of Mallarm?, Baudelaire, Henri de R?gnier, and Villiers de l?Isle-Adam, the musically minded writers who collaborated with French composers to produced a new generation of French songs were Claudel, Cocteau, Gide, Proust, Rivi?re, and Val?ry. 209 Albert Roussel had particularl influence over other French composers in the creation of the music for flute and soprano without accompaniment. 210 It was after Deane, Albert Roussel, 22-23. 211 Although Roussel studied at the Schola Cantorum under Vincent d?Indy, he did not follow the traditional path of his teacher, but rather, worked towards a means of personal expression that was musically unique. Roussel?s harmonic language is characterized by the use of altered chords, especially with the flat fifth, the substitution of the fourth for the third in chord structures, the avoidance of perfect cadences, and the preference for clear melodic lines and continuous rhythms. Roussel?s attraction to music of the east, especially Hindu music and dance, also to influenced his compositional style. These ideas led him to exploit oriental scales, bi-tonality, and rhythmic energy. While his music is primarily tonal, he allows himself a large range of chromatic substitutions within a tonal scheme. His chord structures are made more complex by the use of alterations and replacements, appoggiaturas, and auxiliary notes. In his phrase structure he uses both regular and irregular phrases, according to the dictates of the text and musical architecture. Deane, Albert Roussel, 26-34. 91 Roussel had written his Deux po?mes de Ronsard (April, 1924) that several others followed suit with works for the same instrumentation, including Caplet (in September, 1924), Ibert (in 1925), Cr?vecoeur (in 1926), Petit (in 1928), and Roland-Manuel (in 1928). Before Roussel, no French composer had written music for these two instruments alone. After Roussel, his work inspired five French pieces for flute and soprano in quick succession. His style of composition would also influence French composers for flute and voice with its originality and free treatment of harmony. 211 Bi-tonality in his music would be exploited by his younger contemporaries, such as Georges Auric and Darius Milhaud. He was also influential in his contributions to chamber music, including a Serenade (1925) for flute, violin, viola, cello, and harp, a string quartet (1932), a solo work for flute entitled Joueurs de fl?te (1924) for flute and piano, in addition to his numerous m?lodies. The influence of Maurice Ravel?s Trois po?mes de St?phane Mallarm? (1913) for soprano, 2 flutes [piccolo], 2 clarinets [bass clarinet], string quartet, and piano is also felt in these post-war compositions. As noted above, Ravel, along with Delage, Schoenberg, and Stravinsky were some of the first composers to experiment with works for voice, 212 It is likely that the leap from instrumental chamber works to instrumental chamber works including voice and flute was made with the help of chamber works such as Debussy?s Sonate pour fl?te, viola, et harpe, (1915), Ravel?s Introduction et allegro (1905 for flute, clarinet, harp, and string quartet), and Roussel?s Divertissement (1906 for flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, horn, and piano). Myers, Modern French Music, 82- 100. 92 flute, and chamber ensembles of mixed instrumentation. Fully half of the compositions above are such pieces, several of which favor the instrumentation of voice, flute, and string quartet. 212 During this period, the members of Les six began to distinguish themselves as composers of merit and to choose individual paths of development. Satie was revered as the father of this new group of musicians, including the last group of nouveaux jeunes, known as the ?cole d'arcuiel, including composers Henri Cliquet-Pleyel (1894-1963), Roger D?somi?re (1898-1963), Maxime Jacob (1906-1977), and Henri Sauguet (1901- 1989). Sauguet and, along with him, Henri Tomasi would be the next generation of composers to write music for flute and voice. WORLD WAR II The build up to World War II was felt throughout Europe in a series of disturbances and political events. Darius Milhaud later described the years leading up to 1940: The idea of war was increasingly becoming an obsession: for years it had never been completely absent from our thoughts.?From 1933 on, the obsession grew. I was present at a debate in the Chamber of Deputies after the remilitarization of the Rhine. Protests were made against the violation of the treaty and the threats that had been uttered, but no action was taken. One evening when we arrived in Paris from Aix, our rest was disturbed by the news-vendors shouting the news of the murder of Dollfuss. Then came the Abyssinian crisis, the slaughter of Abyssinia before the very eyes of the impotent League of Nations, whose sanctions were incapable of preventing the crimes of the monster in the Palazzo 213 Milhaud, Notes Without Music, translated by Donald Evans, 261-262. 214 The ?Maginot Line? consisted of a line of an elaborate series of towers equipped with artillery and linked by a railway to carry supplies between the fortaments. It had been proposed to parliament in 1930 by the then War Minister, Andr? Maginot, who gave his name to this concrete defensive structure. Unfortunately, the line was not completed due to financial constraints, and it ran from the Swiss border, stopping short of the city of Sedan (where the Germans had invaded and defeated France in 1870) and short of the border with Belgium (where the Germans had invaded France in 1914). Into this breech the German army proceeded again in 1940, and the invading force quickly drove towards Paris as the French army retreated in their path. Sowerwine, France Since 1870, 182-189. 215 Soldiers leaving their units, civilians, and refugees responded to the harshness of the German terms with mass panic. In addition to the French refugees were over 1 million refugees from Belgium and other countries overrun by the Nazis. Once in the Unoccupied Zone, they lived in squalor, camping in buildings, railway stations, or by the roadside. Newspapers were filled with notices seeking lost relatives. Sowerwine, France Since 1870, 190-191. 216 Apparently, the majority of the French thought the German victory inevitable and began to settle into a period of subjugation. Even Albert Camus and Simone de Beauvoir reacted in this way initially. Charles de Gaulle left France for London where he made his famous radio appeal to keep fighting. Ibid., 189. 93 Venezia. The Auschluss and the murder of Austria, with no one saying a word! The sinister sequence of events in the Sudentenland; the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia after Munich, and the war in Spain, a dress rehearsal for the Axis troops! The murder of Republican Spain. And yet life went on as before; it was still peacetime, was it not? There was one?s work to be done, one shut oneself up in it; what else was there to do in a world gone mad and caught in an iron grip that grew tighter day after day? One more turn of the screw, each day one turn more. 213 The fall of France came on June 14, 1940, after the Germans had overrun the Maginot Line and the Wehrmacht occupied Paris. 214 Marshal P?tain, now the head of the French government and 84 years old, suggested an armistice with Germany. The armistice obliged the French to hand over Jews and anti-Nazi refugees, as well as surrender the North of the country as an Occupied Zone (including Paris). Thus began the mass exodus of approximately 10 million people to the south of France, or the declared Unoccupied Zone. 215 The government established itself at Vichy, and the resistance rallied around their chosen spokesman, Charles de Gaulle. 216 217 Even in the occupied zone, the Germans left most daily administrative tasks to French citizens. Cultural life continued to flourish, despite a certain amount of censorship. For the French film industry, the period of World War II was considered a golden age, when competition from American-made films came to a halt. Even writers like Jean-Paul Sartre, who was later active in the Resistance, continued to publish and produce plays. Sartre was able to publish his major philosophical work, L?Etre et le n?ant (Being and Nothingness), in 1943. Popkin, A History of Modern France, 239-241. 218 Biographers of both Honegger and Poulenc describe their continued musical activity, along with active seasons at the Paris Op?ra, the Concert champ?tre, the concert hall Salle Gaveau, and the Th??tre des Mathurins. Concert series were given in honor of Fran?aix, Honegger, Messiaen, and Poulenc, and many of their works were mounted abroad at theaters in Zurich, New York, Basel, Brussels, and Vienna. Both Honegger and Poulenc wrote incidental music for film directors Jean Giraudoux and Alexandre Alexeieff, as well as theatrical productions. Schmidt, Entrancing Muse, 264-302 and Halbreich, Arthur Honegger, 162-191. 219 Ibid., 177-178. 94 During World War II, many artists left Paris to escape Nazi persecution and many of them never returned, but, with refugees from other parts of Europe, settled in the United States. This included Darius Milhaud (who settled at Mills College in California), Marcel Moyse (who escaped to the Unoccupied Zone and eventually emigrated to Vermont), and Jacques Ibert (who reached Antibes in 1940). Many artists fled to the Unoccupied Zone, including Maurice Delage and Marcel Delannoy. Others chose to remain in Occupied Paris, such as Arthur Honegger and Francis Poulenc. While the Nazi regime banned music that was considered ?degenerate,? including some French music, there still remained in Paris the remnants of a rather fertile concert life. 217 Indeed, Honegger and Poulenc reached what was the peak of their careers during the period between 1940 to 1944. 218 Others, however, did not escape the death camps. The end of the war saw the capture and death of the poet Max Jacob in Drancy and the composer Fernand Ochs? in Auschwitz. 219 Only four works for flute and voice were written during World War II by two 220 Grout, A History of Western Music, 5 th Edition, 694. 221 Renoir produced propaganda films for the popular front, including La vie est ? nous (1936, Life is ours), which were not widely distributed. Renoir?s widely seen commercial films were also shaped by the views of the poplar front. The plots of these films centered around the shared hopes and values upon which a new generation would build a coalition among the dispossessed and the decent middle classes fighting against fascism. Sowerwine, France since 1870, 172-173. 95 composers. These include two works by Henri Sauguet (1901-1989): Madrigal (1942) for soprano, flute, harp, violin, [or viola] and cello; and Beaut?, retirez-vous (1943) for soprano, flute, harp, viola, and cello; and two works by Henri Tomasi (1901-1971): Le chevrier (1943) for soprano, flute, viola, and harp; and La fl?te (1943) for soprano, flute, viola, and harp. While this dramatic downturn in the production of works for flute and soprano may be attributable to the changes brought on by World War II, other historical trends were also responsible. Technology played a large part in the changes in twentieth-century music. 220 Recording, radio, television, theater music, and especially film presented new frontiers for French composers. By the 1930s, film with sound was an exciting new medium for artists. The film director Jean Renoir (1894-1979), son of the impressionist painter Auguste Renoir, became particularly famous during World War II for his work, which focused on the social and political struggles of the day. 221 Musicians were especially taken with this medium. Composers such as Cartan, Durey, Honegger, Ibert, Milhaud, and Poulenc, who had previous turned their attention to works for flute and voice, now wrote larger works for ballet (including commissions by the Ballet Russe), for films, and 222 Some examples of French composers who wrote incidental music for film, stage, and dance are: Georges Auric, who wrote the score for Ren? Clair?s film A nous la libert?; Darius Milhaud, who wrote the score for Jean Renoir?s film version of Madame Bovary; in collaboration with Honegger and Roger D?sormi?re, Milhaud also composed the score for the film Cavalcade d?amour, Arthur Honegger, who offered his orchestral score Pacific 231 for a film about an express train; and Francis Poulenc who collaborated with Jean Anouilh to produce incidental music for Anouilh?s play, L?ocadia. Several French composers collaborated with Serge Diaghilev and the Ballet Russe to produce stage works, including Debussy, Milhaud, Ravel, and Stravinsky. Others collaborated with famed dancer Ida Rubinstein to produce ballets, such as d?Annunzio, Auric, Claudel, Debussy, Honegger, Poulenc, Ravel, Schmitt, and Stravinsky. Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 213-224. 223 Myers, Modern French Music, 120-133. 96 for incidental music for plays. 222 In addition, the new generation of French composers showed a renewed interest in opera. At the beginning of World War II, Henri Sauguet produced his opera Chartreuse de Parme (1939). Francis Poulenc wrote several operatic works, including Les mamelles de Tir?sias (1947), Les dialogues des Carm?lites (1957), and La voix humaine (1959). Jacques Ibert?s operatic output includes Laiglon (1937), Les petites cardinal (1938), and his radio opera Barbe-bleue (1943). Arthur Honegger is best known for his operas Judith (1926) and Jeanne d?Arc au b?cher (1938), while Marcel Delannoy?s Le poirier de Mis?re (1927) has not survived the intervening years. Perhaps the most prolific opera composer of this generation was Darius Milhaud, with over fifteen works to his credit. 223 Unfortunately, Honegger and Milhaud never wrote another piece for voice and flute with small chamber ensemble after their first two works in the early years after World War I. Neither did Cras, Delage, Delannoy, Ibert, Le Flem, Manuel-Roland, Petits, Pillois, Poulenc, Ravel, or Roussel. Indeed, it was more than ten years after the premieres of Rapsodie n?gre (1917) and Le bestiaire (1918-19) before Poulenc wrote his next great work for solo voice: Quatre po?mes (1930, Apollinaire). For solo voice, Poulenc was 224 Poulenc wrote over one hundred and fifty songs for solo voice and piano. Especially after 1934, when he began to play song recitals with the baritone Pierre Bernac, Poulenc steadily devoted himself to composing songs and song cycles. His songs set the poetry of Apollinaire, Cocteau, ?luard, Jacob, and Vilmorin. About these poets, Poulenc said: ?I feel musically at ease only with poets I have known.? Nichols, ?Francis Poulenc,? from the New Grove Twentieth-Century French Masters, 214-215 225 Jones, The Cambridge Illustrated History of France, 276. 226 de Gaulle struggled to assert his authority as leader of the provisional government of the French Republic while Roosevelt remained hostile to him. The allies landed in Normandy on June 6, 1944, but de Gaulle had been left out of the planning of the invasion. The United States was still planning to install an allied military government in France, but de Gaulle skillfully outmanoeuvred both Roosevelt and Churchill by landing his own occupying force at Bayeux, and installing in each liberated town a Resistance leader. Resisters soon rose up in Paris, and it was a Free French army division that led the Allied army into Paris on August 24, 1944. While this forced the Allies to recognize de Gaulle?s government, he still faced threats from communists and resistance fighters. The Allies finally recognized de Gaulle?s government on October 23, 1944. Sowerwine, France Since 1870, 222-227. 227 Sowerwine, France since 1870, 222-227. 97 quite prolific. 224 POST-WORLD WAR II Pablo Picasso, who spent the war years in Paris, described his existence there, saying: ?There was nothing else to do but work seriously and devotedly, struggle for food, see friends quietly, and look forward to freedom.? 225 These hopeful sentiments were soon lost as liberated France struggled to form a government. 226 The process of establishing the new, Fourth Republic, was bitter and divisive, and this Republic soon settled into a round of parliamentary wranglings which recalled the stalemates and compromises of the Third Republic. 227 Politics were also increasingly poisoned by the bitter colonial conflicts in Indo-China and Algeria. As the French writer Simone de Beauvoir described it: ?No serenity was possible. The war was over: it remained on our 228 Jones, The Cambridge Illustrated History of France, 276. 229 Trials of leading figures such as Laval (sentenced to death) and P?tain (imprisoned for life) were the beginning of a consensus of the French people to reject the leaders and institutions that had led the country to catastrophe in 1940 and during the war. The leading Vichy officials, taken to Germany in the last months of the war, were brought back to France and tried. Outrage at the way many leading industrialists had willingly worked for the Germans led to the expropriation of a number of large companies, such as the Renault auto company and the coal mines in Northern France. A spontaneous show of revenge broke out across France in the first month or two after the Liberation. Women who were said to have cavorted with Germans were paraded publicly with shaven heads, sometimes naked. Many men were beaten or killed and, in the name of the resistance, summary executions were carried out. This went on for several years between 1942 and 1945 before the government took control of these purges and set up formal court proceedings. Sowerwine, France since 1870, 228-229. 230 Resistance intellectuals divided over the ethics and politics of the trials; Camus, Deb?-Bridel, and Claude Morgan arguing for the necessity of a purge, and Mauriac and Paulhan warning against the use of scapegoats. Ibid., 244-247. 231 Apparently, the prevalence of myths, judgements, and deconstructions of the war period in all branches of history, literature, music, and film during the 1970s and 1980s led Henry Rousso to discern a permanent syndrome de Vichy. The New Oxford Companion to Literature in French, edited by Peter France, 583. 98 hands like a great unwanted corpse, and there was no place on earth to bury it.? 228 The revelations of Nazi atrocities and concentration camps, confirmed by the Russian arrival in Auschwitz in January 1945, brought home the enormity of the Holocaust and the depravity of the Vichy collaborators. A purge of those who had aided the Germans was demanded by de Gaulle and the Resistance. 229 The significance of words and music under the Occupation and the fierce struggle for cultural legitimacy gave the purge of writers a central place in the retributive justice of the Liberation. 230 Most artists and intellectuals justified their continued activity under the Occupation as defying Germany with French Culture. However, the schism created between collaborators and resistors would last for decades to come. 231 The war created a kind of intellectual and artistic vacuum where all lines of communication with the past for French musicians had, in a sense, been cut off. The 232 Myers, Modern French Music, 152. 233 Very few operas have been produced in France since World War II, and only two between 1960 and 1970. Myers, Modern French Music, 187. 234 Ohana wrote several pieces that feature the zither. Myers, Modern French Music, 173. 235 This breakdown in ?melodic? musical writing for the voice probably began with the introduction of vers libre, where a composer tried to be scrupulously faithful to the author?s text by manipulating the vocal line. Some examples of this style of writing for voice are Ravel?s Histoire naturelles, Satie?s Socrate, and Schoenberg?s Pierrot lunaire. Ibid., 189. 99 moral and psychological repercussions of war left their mark on all the nations involved. Rollo Myers describes the development of French music in the aftermath: These war years ? and, in the case of France, the Occupation ? must be held responsible for certain deviations and distortions in the arts and a deliberate cult of eccentricity and sensationalism, sometimes pushed to extremes which have no artistic justification whatever. In the case of music the tendency in some quarters is to do everything possible to dehumanize and de-personalize it by the substitution wherever possible of mechanical sound devices, such as electronic vibrations or magnetic tapes of artificially distorted sounds (concrete music) to take the place of instruments or the natural human voice. Some composers leave everything to chance or to the computer; some would reduce music to a haphazard succession of isolated sounds, or even to silence. 232 In this environment, vocal and instrumental chamber music were rapidly abandoned. The next generation of French composers, such as Olivier Messiaen (b. 1908), Maurice Ohana (b. 1914), Henri Duttilleaux (b. 1916), Maurice Jarre (b. 1924), and Pierre Boulez (b. 1925), wrote large works for the orchestra and for electronic instruments, but no works for the operatic stage. 233 These composers were fascinated with percussion and other exotic instruments. 234 Works that have been written for voice have completely revolutionized vocal techniques, and the characteristic tendency has been to discourage pure singing. Instead, the voice part is one of rhythmic recitation. 235 236 Rostand, French Music, 144. 100 The five years following the war saw the last gasp of French music for flute and voice. Five works were written which harkened back to the harmonic and melodic ideas and procedures of the pre-war era: Louis Beydts? (1895-1953) Chansons pour les oiseaux (1948) for soprano and small chamber orchestra including flute and Trois m?lodies (1947) for flute, soprano, and piano; Jean Yves Daniel-Lesur?s (1908-2002) Quatre lieder (1947) for soprano, flute, violin, viola, cello, piano, and harp; Georges Migot?s (1891-1976) Six t?traphonies (1946) for soprano, flute, violin, and cello; and Florent Schmitt?s (1870-1958) Quatre monocantes, op. 115 (1949) for soprano, flute, violin, viola, cello, and harp. These works cannot be identified with a particular ?school? or ?group.? Indeed, the lack of a system is the characteristic feature of each piece. These composers have become known in retrospect as ?the Independents.? 236 Their works are a conglomeration of the influences of the preceding fifty years. World War II not only hampered and paralyzed a music life in Paris which had been exciting, controversial, and multifaceted; it also brought an end to international exchanges and artistic cross collaborations. As one result, Paris ceased to be the world capital of great art. Artists, writers, and musicians no longer flocked to live there. While there had been some revival of the performing arts since 1940, French novelists, playwrights, painters, composers, and film makers have been unable to return Paris to its former position of cultural preeminence. France as the undisputed leader in the creative arts seems to have passed on to elsewhere. 101 The reasons for this decline are many. A period of rapid industrial and social change had diverted the nation's energies elsewhere, and the technocratic ethos had damaged creativity. The rise of a consumer oriented society and the waning of the old ideologies of the left caused many thinkers and artists to feel empty and bewildered. After World War II, other nations emerged as the pre-eminent centers of music education and culture. As a result, the great performers were no longer ensconced in the French capital; nor did musicians feel they must conquer Paris to gain legitimacy. New York and Los Angeles emerged as international centers of creative activity after the war, and American composers took up the repertoire for voice and flute as a mode of artistic expression. After 1950, three pieces for voice and flute were written by the composers Pierre Boulez, Jean Fran?aix, and Andr? Jolivet. Other than these pieces, music in this form by French composers largely came to a halt. 237 Hervey, Saint-Sa?ns, 12. 102 CHAPTER 3 MUSIC EDUCATION IN FRANCE The path: Study at the conservatory; entry into competition for the Prix de Rome. The first prize would be secured after several attempts and it entitled the winner to a state-subsidized, two-year period of leisurely study at the French Academy in Rome, and an additional year in Vienna. After returning to Paris, the laureate would seek to make a debut on the stage, where impresarios rarely took a chance on unknown talent. 237 ?Camille Saint-Sa?ns 238 The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2 nd edition, vol. 18, 110-111. 103 The development of French music for flute and voice could not have taken place without the free intercourse of composers with one another to share ideas. The rise of centralized music education in France, especially in Paris, was an essential ingredient in the development of chamber music for flute and voice. The connection of composers to one another, as well as to instrumentalists and vocalists of the day, began at the Conservatoire and the Schola Cantorum. This chapter on music education in France from 1850 to 1950 will touch on the history of the educational institutions that developed during this period as well as the teachers and educational lineage of the composers for flute and voice. This information demonstrates that most French composers of the period studied with one another and many musicians had the same teacher who disseminated ideas about music to them. Therefore, each generation of composers was influenced by their elder colleagues through educational institutions, mentorships, or professional collaborations. The result was a sharing of musical ideas that would lead many French composers to explore the same themes, texts, and genres. THE CONSERVATOIRE With the establishment of the Conservatoire nationale de musique et de d?clamation in Paris in 1795 (which would later include many provincial branches), music education in France increased dramatically in significance. The number of teachers grew within a decade from 70 to 115 and the number of students to nearly 600. 238 By the 239 In 1851, The school enrolled 509 students, including 295 men and 214 women. The school admitted approximately sixty percent of the students that applied. Irvine, Massenet, A Chronicle of His Life and Times, 10. 240 Without a sacred music tradition of their own, the average Frenchman experienced a period of musical deficiency during the nineteenth century with only military bands and male chorus societies in most of the provincial regions. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2 nd edition, vol. 6, 315. 241 In 1792 Bernard Sarrette, a captain in the National Guard, founded the ?cole de musique de la garde nationale to provide music education to the children of military personnel and veterans and to supply wind players for the grand revolutionary f?tes. Later, this school became the Conservatoire and was a practical training school that ?conserved? the music of the French nation. The Conservatoire was the first modern institution of its kind, organized on a national basis with a secular (anticlerical) curriculum. It soon emerged as the model for all subsequent conservatoires in the West. Ibid. 104 mid-nineteenth-century, new laws had been enacted to eliminate sex discrimination, making the school co-educational. 239 For several years preceding the creation of the Conservatoire nationale, suppression of the acad?mies and guilds during the Revolutionary era had brought about great upheaval in traditional musical life. 240 While the Conservatoire de Paris began as a school to educate the children of former military personnel and veterans, it soon developed into a highly selective institution, limited to the most gifted musicians, or to students who were able to gain the support of a faculty member for entry into the school. 241 Both the Conservatoire and the Op?ra thrived under the financial support of the government. Classes training instrumentalists and singers were offered, as well as courses in music theory, composition, and music history. The Paris Conservatoire was also part of an ambitious scheme devised by the revolutionary authorities to install music schools throughout France. By 1826, schools in Lille and Toulouse became officially connected with the Paris Conservatoire. By the end 242 Many sources attest to the dominance of the Conservatoire in music education during this time, including Nichols, The Harlequin Years, Myers, Modern French Music, Salazar, Music in Our Time, Hill, Modern French Music, and The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2 nd edition, see Conservatories (vol. 6) and Paris educational institutions (vol. 19). 243 Panseron eventually became professor of singing and of harmony at the Conservatoire. 105 of the nineteenth century, the Paris Conservatoire dominated musical life in France. 242 As a result, almost all the young, gifted musicians in the country eventually made their way to Paris to begin their formal musical training, including nearly every French composer of music for flute and voice. FRENCH COMPOSERS AND THEIR TEACHERS The centrality of the Paris Conservatoire as a training ground for musicians of its nation is exceptional. In few other countries has one institution dominated musical development to quite the same effect. The course of French music may be traced, to a notable extent, by the premi?re prix winners in composition at the Conservatoire. Below is a chronology of composers cited in this work who studied at the Conservatoire, as well as their teachers (dates indicate the year each musician began their studies at the Conservatoire): TABLE 3 Conservatoire Students Year Composer Teachers 1796 Jean-Louis Tulou Jean-Georges Wunderlich (Flute) 1799 Louis Drouet Etienne-Nicholas M?hul and Anton Reicha (Composition) 1804 Auguste Panseron 243 Andr? Gr?try (Composition) Conservatoire Students 244 Mass? won the Premiere Prix in solf?ge, piano, harmony, and fugue. He eventually won the Prix de Rome. 245 Bizet was later to be on intimate terms with Hal?vy?s family, marrying Hal?vy?s daughter, Genevi?ve. 106 1824 Adolphe Adam Henry Lemoine (Piano), Anton Reicha (Counterpoint), Fran?ois-Adrien Boieldieu (Composition) 1827 Charles Gounod Antoine Reicha, Fromental Hal?vy, Henri Berton, Jean Fran?ois Le Sueur, and Ferdinando Pa?r (Composition) 1828 F?licien David Antoine-Fran?ois Marmontel (Composition), Fran?ois Benoist (Organ), F?tis (Counterpoint) 1829 Louis Lacombe Pierre-Joseph-Guillaume Zimmermann (Composition) 1834 Victor Mass? 244 Fromental Hal?vy (Composition) 1839 ?douard Lalo Fran?ois-Antoine Habeneck (Violin), Julius Schulhoff (Piano), Louis Cr?vecoeur (Composition) 1840 Henri Alt?s Jean-Louis Tulou (Flute) 1847 L?o D?libes Tariot (Solf?ge), Fran?ois Benoist (Organ), Adolph Adam (Composition) 1848 Georges Bizet 245 Antoine-Fran?ois Marmontel (Piano), Pierre Zimmerman (Solf?ge), Fran?ois Benoist (Organ), Fromental Hal?vy (Composition) 1848 Camille Saint-Sa?ns Fran?ois Benoist (Organ), Fromental Hal?vy (Composition) 1853 Louis Di?mer Antoine-Fran?ois Marmontel (Piano), Ambrose Thomas (Composition), Fran?ois Benoist (Organ) 1859 Benjamin Godard Henri Reber (Composition) 1861 Jules Massenet Ambroise Thomas (Composition) 1871 Paul Dukas Th?odore Dubois (Composition) Conservatoire Students 246 Gustave Doret conducted the first performance of Debussy?s Pr?lude ? l?apr?s-midi d?un faune, on December 22 and 23, 1894, by the Soci?t? Nationale de Musique. 247 Schmitt was a life long friend to Maurice Ravel, whom he had met in Faur??s composition class. He also studied the flute with Jean Gay, a friend of Koechlin. 248 In 1896, Th?odore Dubois replaced Ambroise Thomas as the Director of the Conservatoire. When Jules Massenet resigned following this appointment, Gabriel Faur? was appointed to replace him as teacher of composition. 107 1872 Claude Debussy Albert Lavignac, Emile Durand, and Ernest Guiraud (Composition) Louis Bourgault-Ducoudray (Music History) 1877 Melanie Bonis C?sar Franck (Composition and Organ), Ernest Guiraud (Harmony) 1879 Erik Satie Taudou (Harmony) and Georges Mathias (Piano) 1880 Maurice Emmanuel Th?odore Dubois (Composition), L?o D?libes (Composition), Louis Bourgault-Ducoudray (Music History) 1887 Gustave Doret 246 Th?odore Dubois and Jules Massenet (Composition) 1887 Louis Aubert Antoine-Fran?ois Marmontel, Albert Lavignac, Louis Di?mer, and Gabriel Faur? (Composition) 1889 Henri B?sser Ernest Guiraud, Charles Gounod, and Jules Massenet (Composition) 1889 Florent Schmitt 247 Th?odore Dubois (Harmony), Andr? G?dalge (Fugue), Jules Massenet (Composition), Gabriel Faur? (Composition), Albert Lavignac (Composition) 1890 Charles Koechlin Taudou (Harmony), Jules Massenet (Composition), Andr? G?dalge (Counterpoint), Louis Bourgault-Ducoudray (Music History), Gabriel Faur? (Composition) 248 1891 Maurice Ravel Emile Pessard (Harmony), Gabriel Faur? (Composition), Andr? G?dalge (Counterpoint) Conservatoire Students 249 Milhaud later became a professor of composition at the Conservatoire. 250 Among his fellow students were Georges Auric, Jacques Ibert, Darius Milhaud, and Germaine Tailleferre, all of whom would become his close friends and would influence his compositional style. 251 Daniel-Lesur became the professor of counterpoint at the Schola Cantorum in 1935 and remained there for twenty-nine years. He served as the Director there during the last seven years of his tenure. 108 1893 Philippe Gaubert Claude-Paul Taffanel (Flute), Raoul Pugri (Harmony), Xavier Leroux (Harmony), Charles Lenepveu (Composition) 1896 Andr? Caplet Xavier Leroux (Harmony), Charles Lenepveu (Composition), Paul Vidal (Accompanying) 1899 Paul Le Flem Albert Lavignac (Composition) 1903 Raoul Laparra Andr? G?dalge, Gabriel Faur?, Albert Lavignac, and Louis Di?mer (Composition) 1909 Georges Migot Charles-Marie Widor (Composition), Vincent d'Indy (Orchestration), Maurice Emmanuel (Music History) 1909 Darius Milhaud 249 Berthelier (Violin), Paul Dukas (Orchestration), Xavier Leroux (Harmony), Charles-Marie Widor (Fugue), Andr? G?dalge (Counterpoint) 1910 Jacques Ibert Emile Pessard (Harmony), Andr? G?dalge (Counterpoint), Paul Vidal (Composition) 1911 Arthur Honegger 250 Andr? G?dalge (Counterpoint), Charles-Marie Widor (Composition), Vincent d'Indy (Conducting), Maurice Emmanuel (Music History) 1919 Jean Yves Daniel- Lesur 251 Jean Gallon (Harmony), Armand Fert? (Piano), Georges Caussade (Counterpoint) Conservatoire Students 252 Rivier would later become deputy professor of composition at the Conservatoire. 253 During the 1930s, Tomasi was among the founders of a contemporary music group called ?Triton? along with Prokofiev, Poulenc, Milhaud, and Honegger. 254 There were seven Conservatoire teachers of singing at this time including: Italian singers Filippo Falli, Marco Bordogni, and Michele Giuliani; Parisian singers Louis-Antoine-?l?onore Ponchard, Auguste Mathieu Panseron, and Laure-Cinthie Montalant Damoureau; and Louis-Benoit-Alphonse R?vial from Toulouse. Irvine, Massenet, A Chronicle of His Life and Times, 11. 109 1922 Jean Rivier 252 Georges Caussade (Counterpoint), Maurice Emmanuel (Music History), Jean Gallon (Harmony) 1927 Henri Tomasi 253 Philippe Gaubert (Composition) In 1850, the Conservatoire was under the direction of Daniel-Fran?ois-Esprit Auber (1782-1871), a composer who turned out numerous light op?ra comiques between 1811 and 1869. He was in a position to influence the curriculum at the school and during his tenure, the training of musicians at the Conservatoire (in the early- to mid-nineteenth century) focused mainly on operatic music and on singing. 254 By 1850, this all-embracing predilection for opera had brought about a striking neglect of the advanced study of instruments and of other instrumental forms. Although there were sporadic efforts to reform the curriculum during this time to emphasize other musical genres, these efforts were defeated by the faculty, which included mainly opera composers (Adam, David, Gounod, Gr?try, Hal?vy, Mass?, Massenet, and Thomas, among others). The Conservatoire remained oriented toward the needs of the lyric theaters, giving a practical emphasis in their teaching to solf?ge and harmony. Because the repertoire of these theaters centered on the music of the nineteenth 255 Fulcher, French Cultural Politics and Music, 27. 256 The Prix de Rome was a prize awarded annually by the French government, through competitive examination, to students of the fine arts. It entitled them to four years of study at the Acad?mie de France ? Rome. The prize was open to all French painters, sculptors, architects, engravers, and musicians between the ages of fifteen and thirty who had completed work at the ?cole des beaux-arts or elsewhere. It was originally instituted by Louis XIV in 1666 for the purpose of enabling talented artists to complete their education by study of classical art in Rome. A music prize was added in 1803. Many other awards for composition were instituted during this time, including: the Prix Cressent (opera composition); Prix Rossini (lyrical or sacred composition); Prix Mombinne (Op?ra-comique); Prix de Saussay (librettos); Prix Nicolo (vocation composition); and the Prix Chartier (chamber music). However, the Prix de Rome remained the 110 century, the Conservatoire placed little value on music history or the performance of works from the past. 255 It is no surprise then, that composers (and Conservatoire trained students) Auguste Panseron (1795-1859), and F?licien David (1810-1876), and Victor Mass? (1822-1884) wrote works for flute, soprano, and piano that were excerpted from their operas. David's first opera, La perle du Br?sil, in particular was extremely popular, amassing sixty-eight performances in the 1852-1853 season. For this opera, his romance Charmant oiseaux (1851) for flute and soprano was written. Panseron was, himself, a teacher of singing as well as a composer, and he served as an accompanist at the Op?ra- Comique. He wrote many operas, French romances, and songs for flute, soprano, and piano. Victor Mass? (1822-1884) was also a successful opera composer in his own right, and followed this trend in 1853 with his piece, Au bord du chemin, air du rossignol for flute and soprano. THE PRIX DE ROME AND THE MUSIC FOR FLUTE AND VOICE Talented composers who were trained at the Conservatoire competed for the Prix de Rome, 256 which was awarded annually from 1803 until 1968. The jury included the six most coveted award. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2 nd edition, Vol 12, 101. 257 A trial exam took place on the first Saturday in May and consisted of two works: a fugue for voice in at least four parts (the subject of which was given at the beginning of the exam); and a choral work in four voices with orchestral accompaniment (the text of which was given at the beginning of the exam). Contestants were allowed to compose for six days, at the end of which time, six candidates were chosen for the final test. The final exam consisted of composing a scene for two or three unequal voices on a lyrical subject with two or three characters. The text was dictated at the beginning of the test, and the scene had to have parts in the style of a solo or melodic aria for each character, as well as a duet or trio. Recitatives for arias were to be included and an instrumental introduction was required. The contestants had twenty-five days in which to complete the score (this was changed to thirty days in 1898). The compositions were performed with piano accompaniment and the contestants were free to chose their vocalists and to perform the accompaniment themselves. Final judgement was made by majority vote of the members of the Acad?mie. Esser, ?The Relationship of the Composer with the Conservatoire de Paris and the Music Establishment in France in the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries,? 9-10. 111 members of the Acad?mie des beaux arts, most of whom were Prix de Rome winners themselves. Winners spent four years living and working at the Villa Medici, sending their work back to Paris where it would be performed by Conservatoire musicians in public concerts. This prize immediately conferred a degree of recognition upon the young composers who won it and many of these former winners also became professors of music at the Conservatoire. As a result, their students were well placed to win future prizes and for their works to be accepted by the Op?ra. The requirements of the examination for the Prix de Rome consisted of compositions for voice. 257 As a result, the prize created circumstances for students at the Conservatoire and elsewhere that predisposed them to choral and operatic music. Several composers of flute and voice music were winners of the Prix de Rome including Auguste Mathieu Panseron (1813), Georges Bizet (1857), Jules Massenet (1863), Georges H?e (1879), Claude Debussy (1884), Florent Schmitt (1900), Andr? Caplet (1901), and Raoul Laparra (1903). Panseron, Bizet, Massenet, and H?e were able to satisfy both the conditions of academic and professional success, their careers consisting mainly of 258 In fact, many notable French composers (whose works are still in the standard repertory today) were not winners of the Prix de Rome, including Emmanuel Chabrier, Paul Dukas, C?sar Franck, Vincent d?Indy, Edouard Lalo, Jacques Offenbach, Camille Saint-Sa?ns, and Erik Satie. A complete list of Prix de Rome winners between 1850-1950 is found in Appendix V. 259 Faur? was so decisive in his reformation of the Conservatoire that he was nicknamed ?Robespierre? by several professors. He acted to end doubtful practices at the school, such as hopeful students taking private lessons from Conservatoire professors in advance of entrance examinations, and he set about to reform the repertoire that was studied at the school, substituting Monteverdi?s Orfeo for Meyerbeer?s Robert le diable and J. S. Bach fugues for Moscheles concertos. Faur? specifically addressed excesses in operatic performance: ? ?the corruptions which, in the name of tradition, are inflicted [on masterpieces] by the caprice or bad taste of certain performers. At the Conservatoire we should ignore these traditions and the prime duty of our professors should be to make sure that scenes from opera or op?ra comique are performed not as they are sung in the theater but, strictly, in accordance with the composer?s written intentions.? Nichols, The Harlequin Years, 182. 112 operatic output. However, the Prix de Rome was by no means an indicator of historical longevity. Some notable composers for flute and voice who were not winners of the Prix de Rome were Maurice Delage, Gabriel Faur?, Charles Gounod, Arthur Honegger, Francis Poulenc, Maurice Ravel, and Albert Roussel. 258 REFORM AT THE CONSERVATOIRE It was not until Gabriel Faur? became director (1905-20), himself a composer mainly of solo vocal and instrumental works, that non-operatic interests received equal opportunities for training at the Conservatoire. 259 Some of the changes that were instituted at Faur??s behest effected the curriculum and teaching at the school. Faur? was the first to separate the study of counterpoint and fugue from that of composition and to mandate the study of music history. He liberated vocal students from the obligation of choosing pieces from the repertoire of Paris? two leading opera companies (the Op?ra and the Op?ra-Comique) and stipulated that the first year students should concentrate on 260 Duchen, Gabriel Faur?, 154-156. 261 Debussy?s Rhapsodie for clarinet is among these works. As well, these concours pieces, as they have come to be known to flutists, are now in the standard repertory for flutists, and were written by composers such as Enescu, Faur?, Ganne, Gaubert, and Taffanel. Apparently, this broadening of the repertoire was officially ordered in a ministerial letter to Faur? when he took over as director. Ibid. 262 A list of these works with instrumentation, is found in Table 2. 113 exercises. 260 He expanded the repertoire that was studied and performed (Wagner was still forbidden at the Conservatoire in 1905) and commissioned new pieces from leading composers as set works for instrumental exams. 261 These changes would have far reaching consequences for the Conservatoire, for music education in France, and for French music in general. Gradually, instrumental music rose in prominence while opera receded. French music history became a subject of study and inspiration for modern composers. Experimentation and originality replaced romantic conventionalities. Debussy, along with Schmitt, Caplet and Laparra, were Prix de Rome winners who became the sources of originality and individualism in music, forging a path away from opera. It is after 1900 that Conservatoire graduates such as Louis Aubert, Henri B?sser, Andr? Caplet, Jean Yves Daniel- Lesur, Gustave Doret, Maurice Emmanuel, Arthur Honegger, Jacques Ibert, Charles Koechlin, Raoul Laparra, Paul Le Flem, Georges Migot, Darius Milhaud, Maurice Ravel, Jean Rivier, Erik Satie, Florent Schmitt, and Henri Tomasi wrote works for flute and soprano that were conceived as chamber music. 262 This substantial change came about as a direct result of the change in teaching methods at the Conservatoire. 263 Other students of the school included Alexandre Georges, Claude Terrasse, and organists L?on Bo?llmann, Albert P?rilhou, and Eug?ne Gigout. The ?cole Niedermeyer was largely responsible for the revival of French sacred music and for the cultivation of organ masters and organ playing in France. Nichols, The Harlequin Years, 178. 114 With the broadening of musical life in the Parisian public through the salons and the musical soci?t?s, there came a general movement toward a more liberal musical education. By the early twentieth century, the Conservatoire embraced the genres of vocal music, chamber music, and symphonic music, as well as opera. Two other musical teaching institutions competed with the Conservatoire: the ?cole Niedermeyer and the Schola Cantorum. Pressure from Schola founder Vincent d?Indy and ?cole Niedermeyer founder Louis Niedermeyer would eventually be partially responsible for reforms that took place at the Conservatoire. THE ?COLE NIEDERMEYER In 1853, Louis Niedermeyer (1802-1861), a musician and educator with an enthusiasm for religious music and the inexhaustible treasures of plainchant, founded the ?cole de musique classic et religieuse [School of Classical and Religious Music]. Despite Niedermeyer's initial ambitions for the school, its scope soon enlarged to include a general survey of French musical literature. Camille Saint-Sa?ns (1835-1921) became an indefatigable teacher at the school. His most famous pupils were Gabriel Faur? and Andr? Messager. 263 During the second half of the nineteenth century, the ?cole introduced musical training that encompassed a broader comprehension of music: it trained many organists and ma?tres de chapelle who took up appointments in the large regional cathedrals. It 115 also became a source of inspiration for a more widespread study of religious music, instigating tremendous zeal for archeological research in music during the second half of the nineteenth century. An important student at the ?cole de musique classic et religieuse, also known as the ?cole Niedermeyer was: TABLE 4 ?cole Niedermeyer Student Year Composer Teachers 1854 Gabriel Faur? Cl?ment Loret (Organ), Louis Dietsch (Harmony), Xavier Wackenthaler (Counterpoint), Louis Niedermeyer (Piano), Camille Saint-Sa?ns (Piano and Composition) In Faur??s case, this exposure to the modal and contrapuntal thinking of the sixteenth-century choral masters (such as Josquain, Palestrina, and Bach) left an indelible mark on his music and his teaching. Later, as director of the Conservatoire, he was in a unique position to influence the course of French music. His study of composition with Saint-Sa?ns influenced him to revalue instrumental music and works for solo voice. The reforms he instituted at the Conservatoire came directly from his experiences at the ?cole. This change in emphasis from operatic music to vocal chamber music brought an outpouring of music for flute, soprano, and piano in the last decades of the nineteenth century. Faur??s Nocturne, op. 43, no. 2 (1886) for flute, soprano, and piano was a catalyst for this genre. Several composers wrote pieces mimicking this instrumentation, 264 Because Vincent d?Indy had studied composition with C?sar Franck, many at the Conservatoire felt these ideas to be ?Franckish.? Probably because of his adherence to the ideas and methods of Richard Wagner, Franck was ostracized from the musical establishment. (Wagner was suspect in France following the Franco-Prussian War.) Despite Franck?s stature as a composer, he was engaged at the Conservatoire to teach only organ, not composition. Soon, Franck and his followers began to criticize the Conservatoire as an institution and to condemn the official course of study. Fulcher, French Cultural Politics and Music, 22. 265 Ibid., 24. 266 Apparently, the Schola itself was Bordes?s idea. At the time of its founding, Bordes was the choir-master of Saint-Gervais and the director of a performing group, Les chanteurs de Saint-Gervais, which specialized in 116 including Louis Di?mer?s (1843-1919) S?r?nade (1884), Benjamin Godard?s (1849- 1895) Lullaby (1891), Charles Koechlin?s (1867-1950) Le nenuphar, op. 13, no. 3 (1897), Georges H?e?s (1858-1948) Soir pa?en (1898), Andr? Caplet?s Viens! Une fl?te invisible soupire (1900), and L?o Sachs? (1856-1930) Les nymphes, op. 188 (1909). Many of these composers studied composition with Faur? at the Conservatoire. THE SCHOLA CANTORUM In 1892, the Director of the Beaux-Arts, Henri Roujon, named Vincent d?Indy to a body of officials who were selected to propose reforms to the program of studies at the Conservatoire. The commission produced a detailed report that called for far-reaching changes, including the introduction of a class on the symphony (which had traditionally not been taught at the Conservatoire). These ideas were shocking to some, given the relatively low status of symphonic music in relation to operatic music, as reflected in the Conservatoire?s course of instruction. 264 As a result, funding to implement these recommendations was denied by the government, and the report came to naught. 265 One result of all this activity was the founding of the Schola Cantorum in 1894 by Charles Bordes (another gifted pupil of C?sar Franck), 266 Alexandre Guilmant, and performing Gregorian chant. Bordes soon enlisted the collaboration of his friends and colleagues Guilmant and d?Indy. d?Indy saw this as an opportunity to implement the reforms in education that he had proposed for the Conservatoire. Fulcher, French Cultural Politics and Music, 26. 267 Ibid. 268 Many composers made distinctive contributions to the historical and critical aspects of music and to biography. Among them are Camille Belaigue, Adolphe Boschot, Robert Brussel, Alfred Bruneau, M.D. Calvocoressi, Gaton Carraud, Andr? Coeuroy, Jules Combarieu, Claude Debussy, Paul Dukas, Jules ?corcheville, A. Gastou?, Henri Gauthiers-Villars, Paul Huvelin, Hugues Imbert, Vincent d'Indy, L. de la 117 Vincent d'Indy. The stated goals of the school were the revival of the Gregorian tradition in the performance of plainchant, the restoration of the church music of the Palestrina period, the creation of a modern literature of religious music in France, and an enlargement of the organists' repertoire. The Schola also took up the anti-Dreyfus ideals of its founders and patrons (including the Comtesse de Loynes). This provided the school with a base of support and a substantial audience that was receptive to the school?s ideas. 267 In 1896, the school became known as the ?cole de chant liturgicale et musique religieuse [School of Liturgical Chant and Religious Music]. Bordes died in 1909 and Guilmant in 1912. At that point, d'Indy took charge of the organization and the policies of the Schola. Partially in reaction to the emphasis on performance at the Conservatoire, the Schola began placing particular stress on music history and the evolution of religious music. Its aim was now to produce students who were not so much experts in the technical aspects of their art (instrumental performing or composing) but were masters of the musicology and the successive phases of musical thought over many centuries. The ?cole Niedermeyer and the Schola ignited an interest among French musicians in rediscovering their national music history. 268 As a result, there was an Laurencie, Jean Marnold, Camille Mauclair, Marc Pincherel, Henri Pruni?res, Alexis Roland-Manuel, Romain Rolland, Camille Saint-Sa?ns, G. Samazeuilh, Boris de Schloezer, Georges Servi?res, Julien Tiersot, L?on Vallas, L. Vuillemin, and ?mile Vuillermoz. These musicians beaome the next generation of faculty members at the Conservatoire and the Schola Cantorum. Cooper, French Music, 60-77. 269 This research and study of the past manifested itself in a number of ways. A selective list includes: (1) From 1850 to 1860, the Benedictine monks at the Abbey of Solesmes began investigations of Gregorian plainchant that resulted in the publication of several important books of historical information and music; (2) during the 1880s, M. Henri Expert, a pupil at the Niedermeyer School, uncovered valuable historical documents, among them an anthology of the French masters of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries; (3) Charles Bordes published collections of Basque folk songs, of French primitive religious masters, and the choruses of Cl?ment Jannequin, a sixteenth-century pioneer of descriptive music; (4) Pierre Aubry and Julien Tiersot did important work in their catalogs of the songs of the troubadours and the trouv?res and the early French folksongs; (5) Henri Guy, professor at the University of Toulouse, made an able study of Adam de la H?le and his Le Jeu de Robin et Marion; (6) Vincent d'Indy revised and published works by Monteverdi, Rameau, and Destouches, among others, for historical concerts at the Schola; (7) Alexandre Guilmant, in collaboration with Andr? Pierro, published the archives of French organ masters from the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; and (8) Saint-Sa?ns began editing the complete works of Rameau, with the aid of other prominent musicians of the era. Ibid. 118 awakening of scholarship and curiosity in France regarding historical research in music. 269 In addition to the work of musicians, the support of various publishing houses in France at the time made possible the dissemination of this work to the public through performance of these works and the availability of sheet music for purchase and study. These organizations included: Choudens et Cie, E. Demets, Durand et Cie, Enoch et Cie, E. Froment, J. Hamelle, Georges Hartmann, Heugel et Cie, Z. Mathot, Rouart-Lerolle et Cie, and Maurice S?nart. With the wide dissemination of the French music of the past and the knowledge of French music history, many French composers of the late-nineteenth and early- twentieth centuries began to incorporate the ideas and themes of the past into their new works. Some examples were: song settings of the texts of sixteenth-century French poets by composers such as Faur?, Debussy, and Duparc; a renewed interest in French folksong by composers such as d'Indy, Ravel, Delage, and Roussel; the composition of homages to 270 By 1902, d?Indy had invited Roussel to teach the counterpoint class. Roussel?s students included Var?se, Satie, Le Flem, Raugel, and Roland-Manuel. He was also a mentor to a number of other composers, such as Bouslav Martinu, Conrad Baeck, and Jean Cras. 119 fifteenth- and sixteenth-century French composers; and the rediscovery of vocal chamber music from the renaissance. These characteristics are indicative of the music written for flute and voice by these composers. Charles Bordes, as noted above, was a student of C?sar Franck, and the Schola Cantorum was guided in spirit by Franck's esthetic ideals. The following composers of flute and voice music attended the Schola Cantorum (dates indicate the year each musician began their studies at the Schola): TABLE 5 Schola Cantorum Students Year Composer Teachers 1894 Albert Roussel Vincent d?Indy (Composition) 270 1903 Paul Le Flem Vincent d?Indy (Composition), Albert Roussel (Counterpoint), Am?d?e Gastou? (Plainsong) 1905 Alexis Roland-Manuel Albert Roussel (Composition) 1905 Erik Satie Albert Roussel (Composition), Vincent d?Indy (Composition) In 1901, Debussy pioneered music for flute, soprano, and chamber ensemble with his Les chansons de Bilitis (1901) for 2 flutes, 2 harps, celeste, and voice. While this piece was a direct outgrowth of the shift in educational emphasis at the Schola and the Conservatoire, Debussy also chose to experiment with narration for the voice, rather than singing. There followed a veritable explosion of chamber works featuring flute and voice 271 Apparently, Delage became close friends with the poet L?on-Paul Fargue and the painters Francis de Marliane and Paul Sordes. These men were part of a young artistic circle known as Les apaches, and Delage was invited to become a member of the group. It was through this group that Delage met Ravel, who seems to have been taken with the young composer?s talent. Thomas, Three Representative Works of Maurice Delage: A Study of Style and Exotic Influence,? 14-16. 120 in the years that followed. Most significantly were Ravel?s ?La fl?te enchant?e? from Sh?h?rzade (1903) and Trois po?mes de St?phane Mallarm? (1913), and Maurice Delage?s (1879-1961) Quatre po?mes hindous (1914). Ravel, who had studied composition with Faur? at the Conservatoire, in turn became the mentor and teacher to Delage. 271 Ravel introduced Delage to Claude Debussy, Florent Schmitt, and Igor Stravinsky, all of whom collaborated prior to World War I. They each wrote works for flute, soprano, and chamber ensemble that were premiered by the Soci?t? musicale ind?pendente. These works were Ravel?s Trois po?mes de St?phane Mallarm? (1913), Delage?s Quatre po?mes hindous (1914), Stravinsky?s Three Japanese Lyrics (1914), Florent Schmitt?s Kerob-shal (1919), and Delage?s Sept ha?-ka?s (1920) The first three works employ nearly the same instrumentation. M?lanie Bonis (1858-1937) also wrote pieces for flute, soprano, and small chamber groups, such as Le ruisseau, op. 21, no. 2 (for soprano, flute, oboe, clarinet, cornet, harp, string quartet, and bass) and No?l de la vierge Marie, op. 54, no. 2 (for soprano, flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, harp, string quartet, and bass). As well, Louis Durey (1888-1979) wrote his Images ? Cruso?, op. 11(1918) for soprano, flute, clarinet, celeste [or harp], and string quartet. OTHER COMPOSERS OF MUSIC FOR FLUTE AND VOICE The composers who did not study formally at the Conservatoire, the ?cole 272 ?About 1900, the nucleus was formed of a group of enthusiastic devotees of the arts who were to call themselves the apaches. The name was coined by Ricardo Vi?es, and rather curiously it refers to underworld hooligans. To some extent the young men considered themselves artistic outcasts S constantly defending what they considered to be important, whether or not the public agreed.?With the distaff element strictly excluded, the group met far into the night, discussing painting, declaiming poetry, and performing new music. The coterie met fairly regularly until the outbreak of World War I.? Among the members of the group were the poets Tristan Klingsor and L?on-Paul Fargue, painters Paul Sordes and Edouard Benedictus, the writer Abb? L?once Petit, the conductor D?sir?-Emile Inghelbrecht, the decorator Georges Mouveau, pianists Marcel Chadeigne and Ricardo Vi?es, and the composers Andr? Caplet, Maurice Delage, Manuel de Falla, Paul Ladmirault, Florent Schmitt, and D?odat de S?verac. [Maurice Ravel was also a member of the group].? Orenstein, Ravel: Man and Musician, 28-29. 273 Duparc would call Cras his ?Spiritual Son.? 121 Niedermeyer, or the Schola Cantorum often studied with composers and performers of the day who had attended these institutions. C?cile Chaminade (1857-1944), for example, whose parents objected to having her attend the Conservatoire, studied privately with Conservatoire professors Felix Le Couppey, Antoine-Fran?ois Marmontel, Savard and Benjamin Godard. Georges H?e (1858-1948), who was encouraged by Charles Gounod (1879), studied counterpoint with Emile Paladilhe and organ with C?sar Franck. Francis Poulenc (1899-1963) studied piano in 1914 with Ricardo Vi?es, who introduced him to Georges Auric, Erik Satie, and Manuel de Falla. Later, around 1921, Poulenc studied composition formally with Charles Koechlin. World War I, combined with the death of Poulenc's parents, kept him from a formal education at the Conservatoire. As noted above, Maurice Delage studied composition with Maurice Ravel on a private basis in 1902, and through him was introduced into Les apaches, an important avant-garde group of French artists. 272 Jean Cras (1879-1932) studied composition almost daily with Henri Duparc at the turn of the century 273 and while this was the only formal training Cras received, it led to a life-long friendship. Henri Sauguet (1901-1989) came to Paris in 1923 and was mentored 274 Austin, Henri Sauguet: A Bio-Bibliography, 3-11. 122 by Darius Milhaud. As a result of his connections with Milhaud, Sauguet heard the French premiere of Schoenberg?s Pierrot lunaire (conducted by Milhaud) and was introduced to Charles Koechlin and Erik Satie. Both of these musicians served as his teachers, andSatie introduced Sauguet to Serge Diaghilev, who commissioned a piece from Sauguet for the Ballet Russe. 274 TABLE 6 Notable French Composers who Studied Privately away from the Established Schools Place of Study Composer Teachers Bordeaux Louis Beydts Fernand Vaubourgoin (Composition) Paris C?cile Chaminade Felix Le Couppey (Composition), Antoine-Fran?ois Marmontel (Composition), Benjamin Godard (Composition) Paris Jean Cras Henri Duparc (Composition) Paris Marcel Delannoy Arthur Honegger (Mentor), Jean Gallon (Harmony), Andr? G?dalge (Counterpoint), Alexis Roland-Manuel (Orchestration) Paris Louis Durey L?on Saint-Requier (piano, solf?ge, harmony, counterpoint, and fugue) Paris Georges H?e Charles Gounod (Mentor), Emile Paladilhe (Counterpoint), C?sar Franck (Organ) Paris Francis Poulenc Ricardo Vi?es (Piano and Mentor), Charles Koechlin (Composition) Notable French Composers who Studied Privately away from the Established Schools 123 Paris Henri Sauguet Darius Milhaud (Mentor), Paul Combes (Organ), L?on Moulin (Composition), Canteloube (Composition), Charles Koechlin (Composition) Poland Alexandre Tansman ??d? Conservatory The result of this largely centralized music education in France during this period led to a condition of enormous significance for the development of French music: nearly every composer in Paris either studied with, or was directly influenced by, other French composers. An intricate and historically rare cross-pollination occurred amongst an unusually large number of gifted musicians, one that led to a generous sharing of ideas and the development of certain common themes within the main currents of French music. These themes and ideas are seen in the music for flute and voice as it evolved throughout the century. Below are a few examples of these connections: < In the mid-nineteenth century, composers, such as Mass?, David, Thomas, and Adam ,wrote music for flute and voice that was extracted from their operas, the dominant musical form of the day. < They also were occupied with bird song themes, and their text settings and musical devices reflected this interest. < Composers, such as Gounod, Saint-Sa?ns, Gaubert, Godard, and Faur?, wrote pieces for flute and voice on pastorale and religious themes, almost always accompanied by piano. < After 1870, composers, such as Debussy, Ravel, Delage, Emmanuel, and 124 Fromental, wrote works for flute and voice that incorporated French folksong and themes of exoticism, and they utilized modes and pentatonic scales in the construction of their pieces for flute and voice. < The composers mentioned above, along with Jean Cras and Daniel- Lesur, experimented with various instrumentations and wrote pieces for flute, voice, and chamber ensembles modeled after composers such as Arnold Schoenberg and Igor Stravinsky. < Composers such as Caplet, Roussel, Roland-Manuel, and Ibert wrote works for flute and voice with no accompaniment, incorporating contemporary techniques for the flutist. < Koechlin, Milhaud, Honegger, and Poulenc all introduced polytonality into their works for flute and voice. These are only a few examples of the educational and artistic connections that influenced the writing of these French composers. Other intersections will be explored in the chapters that follow. 275 Rolland, Musicians of Today, 252-53. 125 CHAPTER 4 WAGNER Wagner's influence considerably helped forward the progress of French art and aroused a love for music in people other than musicians. And by his all-embracing personality and the vast domain of his work in art, [he] not only engaged the interest of the musical world, but that of the theatrical world and the world of poetry and the plastic arts. One may say that from 1885, Wagner's work acted directly or indirectly on the whole of artistic thought, even on the religious and intellectual thought of the most distinguished people in Paris. 275 ?Romain Rolland 276 Grout asserts that a sense of pride in language and in literature in the music of Wagner was one of the elements that formed part of the national consciousness that led to German unification (something that Hitler later exploited, along with Wagner?s anti-Semitic leanings). While Wagner did not cultivate a musical style that was ethnically German, he nevertheless searched for a native voice, an important aspect of nationalism. Grout, A History of Western Music, Fifth Edition, 665-666. 277 These composers, as well as French composers, began employing their native folksongs and dances or imitating their musical character to develop a style that had a recognizable ethnic identity. Many countries in eastern Europe, along with England, France, the United States, and Russia felt the dominance of German music and found it a threat to native expressions of musical creativity. Grout, A History of Western Music, Fifth Edition, 666. 126 WAGNER AND NATIONALISM The idea of nationality in music, in other words, music that expresses nationalistic or national characteristics by the deliberate cultivation of folk elements or by the dramatization of heroic episodes in a country's history, is a comparatively recent one and is exemplified in the music of Wagner. 276 The extraordinary upsurge of musical activities of every kind in Germany and Austria seem to mark the beginning of a new era in music with the emergence of three composers: Beethoven, Haydn, and Mozart. These composers were followed by Schubert, Schumann, and Wagner, making the supremacy of German music in Europe something that remained virtually unchallenged for nearly two hundred years. However, by the mid-nineteenth century, the first attempts to break away from the influence of Germany were seen in Bohemia in the works of Bedrich Smetana (1824-1884) and Antonin Dvorak (1841-1904); in Hungary in the music of Franz Liszt (1811-1886); and in Russia by the "Group of Five." These composers, and others, deliberately set out to found a nationalistic school to counteract what they considered to be the harmful influence of Germanic music. 277 278 It is Mend?s who points out to French musicians that Wagner's aesthetic theories are more valuable to them than his music: A great name awaits the French musical genius who first soaks himself in the musical and poetic legends and songs of our race and at the same time assimilates all those points of Wagnerian theory which are compatible with the French genius, for he, alone or with the help of a poet, will rid our opera of the mass of outmoded and ridiculous shackles which now hold it in thrall. He will achieve an intimate unity between poetry and music, for the sake of the drama and not for mere brilliance. The poet in him will boldly reject literary ornament, the musician all those vocal and symphonic beauties, which can hinder the flow of dramatic emotion. He will reject recitatives, airs, strettos, even ensembles, unless these are demanded by the dramatic action, to which everything must be sacrificed. He will break the back of the old four-square melody and his melody?without becoming Germanized?will stretch out unbroken, following the poetic rhythm. Cooper, Modern French Music, 45-46. 279 Wagner was the first musician who suggested to Vincent d'Indy that the music of Meyerbeer had suppressed the cultivation of French poetry and folk song. Thus, it is Wagner who preaches musical nationalism to his French admirers, beginning in them a new enthusiasm for their own French legends and music, not for the Germanic tales, which were national inspirations to Wagner. Ibid. 280 Both Satie and Cocteau wrote vitriolically against Wagner and his music. Debussy and Ravel both consciously avoided composing in the ?Wagnerian style.? Nichols, The Harlequin Years, 19. 127 In France, the struggle to develop a uniquely French style of artistic expression was bound up with the music and the theories of Wagner. He would become the idol of the symbolist school of poetry, led by St?phane Mallarm? and Catulle Mend?s. In French music, however, Wagner was seen both as a savior and a demon. 278 Wagner mania engulfed Paris during the 1880s, and there were real enthusiasts amongst French musicians, such as Chabrier, Chausson, Duparc, and d?Indy. 279 However, postwar developments in French music demonstrate that composers were driven by a desire to react against Wagner and his musical theories. 280 The development of this musical nationalism in France and its effects on the compositions for flute and voice is the subject of this chapter. 281 The composer Victorin de Joci?res wrote the following recollections of the premiere in his Notes sans port?es for the March 1, 1898 edition of Revue Internationale de Musique: All Paris was there: The world of arts, of literature, the aristocracy, the world of finance, and the critics. Behind the scenes the Princess Metternich, declared protective of the novel composer, waited expectantly. In the first box sat Auber, wearing an indifferent air and accompanied by his two inseparable female aides-de-camp, Edile Ricquier and Dameron; Berlioz sat laced tightly into his redingote, his neck imprisoned inside a tie of black silk, in the fashion of 1830, his head looking like a bird of prey, his huge forehead under a shock of gray hair, his eyes with their piercing gaze. Fiorention, critic from the Constitutionnel, caressed, with a fat prelate?s hand, the opulent beard that extended down to this white waistcoat. In the orchestra seats, Gounod, whose Faust had just created such a sensation, chatted with conductor Carvalho. Blond Reyer, who had [to date] produced but a short one-act op?ra comique, a ballet sacountala, conversed with his friend and collaborator Th?ophile Gautier of the leonine mane and flowing beard. Azevedo, the intractable critic of L?Opinion Nationale, less grimy than usual, alternately cleaned his nails and his teeth with a penknife. Deep in the pit stood Hans van B?low, fervent apostle of the new Messiah; he had rehearsed the chorus for a month in the Salle Beethoven. [He was] accompanied by his young wife Cosima, Liszt?s daughter, who ten years later would divorce B?low to marry the author of Tristan und Isolde. Professors from the Conservatoire, Ambroise Thomas, Carafa, and Elwart were also there. Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 36. 282 Chapter 2 contains a listing of these works. 128 WAGNER IN PARIS In 1860, the first performance of excerpts from Der fliegend holl?nder, Tristan, and Lohengrin were given in Paris. 281 By 1861, the French version of Tannh?user had been produced by Pierre Dietsch and by 1869, Rienzi was produced by Jules Pasdeloup. Parisians were overwhelmed by the profound and deeply embedded sensuality and the gorgeous sonorities of Wagner's music. However, at the same time French composers such as Adam, Alt?s, David, Panseron, and Mass? were still writing music for flute and voice in the Italian vocal style. 282 This would all change in 1870, when Wagner's pamphlet Eine kapitulation: lustspiel in antiker manier, a parody of the French besieged by the Germans and later 283 Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 45. 284 In 1876, Pasdeloup?s performance of the Funeral March from G?tterd?mmerung at the Cirque d?hiver provoked a violent anti-Wagner demonstration. Pasdeloup, thereafter, refrained from playing Wagner?s music until 1879. Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 47. 285 Hill, Modern French Music, 8. 129 condemned to suffer under the Commune, was published in France. 283 It generated a tremendous amount of political rancor, and Wagner quickly fell from grace among French audiences and musicians. After the Franco-Prussian War ended with the German acquisition of the Alsace-Lorraine, many Frenchmen felt a strong revulsion toward Wagner and all things German. 284 Indeed, these events were catalysts for the establishment of the Soci?t? nationale de musique fran?ais, a concert society dedicated to the cultivation and performance of French music. Prior to 1870, music by Bellini, Meyerbeer, and Rossini had dominated the Op?ra and music by Beethoven, Haydn, Mendelssohn, Mozart, and Weber had dominated the Conservatoire. The stated aims of the Soci?t? nationale de musique fran?ais were as follows: ?The proposed purpose of the Society is to aid the production and popularization of all serious works, whether published or not, by French composers.? 285 The altruistic unanimity of the members brought about the cultivation of works by such diverse French composers as Chabrier, Chausson, Debussy, Dukas, Gounod, Franck, d?Indy, Lalo, Lekeu, Magnard, Ravel, and Saint-Sa?ns. Yet, France would not ignore Wagner indefinitely and many French composers 286 This included Emmanuel Chabrier, Claude Debussy, Henri Duparc, Alphonse Duvernoy, Gabriel Faur?, Judith Gautier, Ernest Guiraud, Vincent d?Indy, Antoine Lascous, Catulle Mend?s, Gabriel Monod, Camille Saint-Sa?ns, and the artist Henri Fantin-Latour. On his return to Paris, Fantin-Latour began working on lithographs meant to convey his impressions of the Bayreuth festival. Saint-Sa?ns, meanwhile, wrote five articles on the subject for l?Estafette. Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 47. 287 The New Oxford Companion to Literature in French, Edited by Peter France, 788-789. 130 traveled to Bayreuth to study Wagner's music firsthand. 286 These musicians were enthralled by the expressive force of the music, the glamour of his orchestral sonorities, the logic underlying much of his dramatic procedure, and the comprehensive vitality of the composer's intellectual and philosophical views. Not only did his ideas influence musicians, but also writers and philosophers. By 1885, the political furor that surrounded the composer had dissipated and that year the journal Revue Wagn?rienne was founded in Paris. Its contributors included Charles Baudelaire (1821-1867), Joris-Karl Huysmans (1848-1907), St?phane Mallarm? (1842-1898), Catulle Mend?s (1841-1909), Stuart Merrill (1863-1915), Jean Richepin (1849-1926), ?douard Rod (n.d.), Paul Verlaine (1844-1896), and Jean-Marie-Mathias- Philippe-Auguste, comte de Villiers de l'Isle-Adam (1838-1889), as well as other poets and writers. 287 Members of a group of painters known as Les nabis (The Prophets), which included Pierre Bonnard, Aristide Maillot, Denis Ranson, Odilon Redon, S?rusier, F?lix Valloton, Jan Verkade, and ?douard Vuillard, were followers of the Wagnerian idea of the total artwork. Les nabis focused most of their attention on the landscape but their format tended to be an intimate, spiritually infused mode of post-impressionism. Like many artists of the day, they also took interest in other image-based work, such as 288 Lockspeiser, Debussy, 37-39. 289 Ibid. 290 Cooper, French Music, 55-58. 131 decorative arts of all kinds and such forms as posters, magazine covers, and covers for concert and theater programs. While this fashion held sway, all the arts, and even philosophy, were studied from the Wagnerian viewpoint. In French literature, poets such as R?ne Ghil (1862-1925) sought to develop a new theory of poetic expression through a technique he described as verbal instrumentation. 288 As well, two major developments of the symbolist period, vers libre [liberal verse] in poetry and monologue int?rieur [monologue of the interior] in fiction may be traced to Wagner's theories of the contiguity of the arts. 289 Many French poets believed this idea to be similar to the Baudelairean idea of correspondences. In art, this theory of correspondences led to powerful statements of anti-naturalism, especially in the paintings of Gauguin and Van Gogh. In the theater, Wagner's emphasis on mysticism and ritual caused many French writers to experiment in all aspects of stage-craft. The result were works such as Maurice Maeterlinck's Pell?as et M?lisande and Paul Claudel's T?te d'or. While this devotion to Wagner among writers and painters barely outlived the closing of the Revue Wagn?rienne after just three years of publication, the composer's musical influence persisted almost to the end of the nineteenth century. 290 PRO-WAGNER FACTIONS IN FRANCE 291 Cooper, French Music, 62-63. 292 d?Indy?s music is an interested melding of Wagnerian procedures and French nationalistic elements. He was drawn to the study of plain-chant, to the counterpoint of the sixteenth century, to seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Italian and German pioneers in the sonata form, to the fugue style of Johann Sebastian Bach, and to the variation forms of Beethoven. He was a disciple of Wagner and yet a faithful student of Franck. While he did write chamber music (including a work for flute, strings, and harp) in addition to his large dramatic works, he never wrote music for flute and voice. Hill, Modern French Music, 110-120. 293 D?Indy was eventually seen as a reactionary by his fellow musicians, with his worship of all things Wagnerian and his devotion to music of the ancient past. At the Schola Cantorum, (as is seen in Chapter Three) he developed a curriculum that was the antithesis of that at the Conservatoire, emphasizing musical 132 Wagner's lasting influence in France can be discerned from the two musical factions that developed in response to his music. One was pro-Wagnerian, led by students of C?sar Franck, principally Vincent d'Indy; the other, which gathered around Claude Debussy, was nationalistic in its orientation, and anti-Wagner. It would be this anti- Wagner faction that would be particularly interested in composing chamber music for flute and voice. Vincent d'Indy studied at the Conservatoire, where he took lessons in piano and harmony. He became acquainted with Henri Duparc in 1869 who furthered d'Indy's awareness of the works of Wagner and introduced him to Franck. 291 In time, d'Indy became one of Franck's most industrious pupils, and by 1872 he began studying organ with Franck at the Conservatoire. He also studied with Liszt and was at Bayreuth in 1876 to witness the first performance of the four full operas that make up Der Ring des Nibelungen. In addition, d'Indy was an early member of the Soci?t? nationale and eventually became its president. 292 As noted in the previous chapter, he was on the commission to revise the curriculum at the Conservatoire in 1892, though members of the faculty overthrew this group. 293 forms of the past rather than championing the procedures of the present. Cooper, French Music, 55-75. 294 Wagner had expressed his anti-Semitic beliefs in his prose text Judaism in Music and his similar social analysis in Art and Revolution. It is probably not a coincidence that d?Indy, who himself had expressed anti- Semitic views, chose Wagner as the musical model for his new school. d?Indy hoped to renew lyric drama after an epoch of what he termed ?Italo-cosmopolite-juda?que? influences in French opera. Fulcher, French Cultural Politics and Music, 66-67. 295 Hill, Modern French Music, 119. 296 Emmanuel Chabrier (1841-1894) emerged as a pioneer in a more progressive type of French music while continuing to work under the influence of Wagner. His music can be startlingly original, often showing a wholesale disregard for convention and a fearless self-assertion. His highly unconventional piano pieces belonged to no school and seemed to be free and unfettered expressions of his personality. In this way, Chabrier was a transitional figure in French music from the imitation of Germanic models to the Gallic expressions of Faur? and Debussy. Ironically, Chabrier began his career as a lawyer and spent fifteen years in the Ministry of Interior. During this period, he met and formed friendships with the Parnassian poets Fran?ois Copp?e (1842-1908), Jean Richepin (1849-1926), Jean, comte de Villiers de l'Isle-Adam (1838-1889), and, especially, Paul Verlaine (1844-1896). Chabrier had a genuine appreciation of the works of ?douard Manet, Claude Monet, Auguste Renoir, and Alfred Sisley, and he acquired many their paintings. His musical qualities may have, in fact, emerged from his understanding of the complex, conceptually challenging developments that were taking place in poetry and painting in Paris in the final decades of the nineteenth century. Chabrier is the first French composer for whom the relationship between the arts was a source of inspiration. In this respect, he was a forerunner of Debussy, whose association with artists in fields other than his own would prove particularly fruitful. As a composer, Chabrier formed intimate friendships with musicians Vincent d'Indy, Henri Duparc, Gabriel Faur?, and Andr? Messager. He remained a fervent admirer of C?sar Franck and of Wagner, especially after a hearing of Wagner's Tristan and Isolde in 1879. Myers, Emmanuel Chabrier and His Circle, 122-145. 133 As a result of this humiliating setback, d'Indy established his own school, the Schola Cantorum, with Charles Bordes and Alexandre Guilmant, musicians who were also disciples of Franck and followers of the methods of Wagner. 294 He wrote an authoritative biography of Franck, a life of Beethoven, and continued his studies of the music of Bach, Beethoven, Brahms, Mendelssohn, Weber, Schumann, and Wagner. As a composer, he clung to the cyclical treatment of the sonata form as taught by Franck. 295 He kept his own list of French composers who, like himself, were influenced by the Wagnerian style, including Georges Bizet, Pierre de Br?ville, Alfred Bruneau, Emmanuel Chabrier, 296 Gustave Charpentier, Ernest Chausson, Paul Dukas, Henri Duparc, C?sar 297 Some of the strongest anti-German sentiments among French composers are to be found in Debussy?s letters. Lockspeiser, Debussy, 283. 134 Franck, Charles Gounod, ?douard Lalo, Alb?ric Magnard, Victor Mass?, Ernest Reyer, Guy Ropartz, Camille Saint-Sa?ns, Ambroise Thomas, and G.M. Witkowski. Because Wagner?s musical philosophy did not advocate chamber music, the majority of French composers who wrote for flute and soprano were anti-Wagnerians. However, several of the composers listed above wrote music for flute and voice in the Wagnerian style. This includes the spiritual and lyrical works of Bizet and Gounod. Georges Bizet?s (1838-1875) Agnus dei for flute, soprano, and piano [or organ] and Charles Gounod?s (1818-1893) S?r?nade (Quand tu chantes), Barcarolle: o? voulez-vous aller?, O l?g?re hirondell? [Little Swallow], and Pri?re du soir, all for flute, soprano, and piano [or organ] are written in the German romantic style. Other examples of Wagner?s influence can be seen in Paul Dukas?s (1865-1935) Songs for soprano, flute, horn, and piano; ?douard Lalo?s (1823-1892) Chant de Breton, op. 31 for flute, soprano, and piano; and Jules Massenet?s (1842-1912) ?l?gie: O doux printemps d'autrefois for flute, soprano, and piano. DEBUSSY AND THE ANTI-WAGNER FACTIONS The nationalistic faction was led by Claude Debussy, who had made two trips to Bayreuth himself and, by 1889, felt only disillusionment with German romanticism. 297 Debussy realized that the German tradition was too thoroughly imbued with its own character and Wagnerian music traits. Therefore, Wagner's music could only have a narrow appeal, beyond the reach of a wide French audience. Debussy concluded that the 298 Debussy believed that the native tradition in France had been lost with Rameau, and he blamed Gluck for filling French music, especially in the theater, with banalities and vocal artifice. Lockspeiser, Debussy, 38- 42. 299 Historian Paul Landormy described the French musical scene in the late eighteen-seventies and early eighteen-eighties: ?Those were the days when admiration for the last quartets of Beethoven, the works of Wagner and the quintet and quartet of Franck knew no bounds. Feelings were violent in a way that was altogether romantic. Such were the enthusiasms of the time and the state of delirium in which people listened to music.? Cooper, French Music, 56. 135 music served only the purposes of Wagner himself. Consequently, Debussy pushed for the rediscovery of sixteenth- and seventeenth- century French music, a music that he believed had developed prior to the dominance of Germanic models and which had been composed without the infusion of foreign sentiments. 298 This shift was already taking place in French painting (impressionism and post-impressionism) and poetry (symbolism). Thus, Debussy's attitude coincided with a general course of opinion that was moving further and further from the Germanic concept of music, which had been present in French music since Beethoven's fashionability earlier in the century. 299 Debussy followed the model of Gabriel Faur?, and began composing songs to the texts of French poets such as Verlaine (Ariettes, 1888) and Baudelaire (Cinq po?mes de Baudelaire, 1890). In 1902, the premiere of Pell?as et M?lisande, accompanied by a mood of tremendous emotional excitement, was a catalyst for a contentious public discourse regarding the essential nature of the theater. Later, it would be seen as the true beginning of an anti-Wagner movement in France. According to Romain Rolland: Pell?as et M?lisande of M. Debussy seemed to announce, in 1902, the date of the true emancipation of French music. From that moment, French music felt itself definitely freed from its apprenticeship and set out to found a new art which 300 Salazar, Music in our Time, 178. 301 Ibid., 185. 302 Austin, Music in the 20 th Century, 27. 303 Salazar, Music in our Time, 181. 136 should reflect the genius of the race with more flexibility than Wagnerian art. 300 Romain Rolland also described Debussy's pioneering change in musical construction: From the point of view of the stage, Pell?as et M?lisande is quite opposed to the ideal of Bayreuth. The vast, almost unlimited proportions of Wagnerian drama, its compact structure, the tension of will which supports these enormous works from beginning to end, their ideology frequently developed at the expense of the action and even of the emotion, are all as far as possible from the French taste for clear, logical, and sober action. The little scenes of Pell?as et M?lisande are brief and well knit; each of them marks without insistence a new stage in the evolution of the drama, and have an architecture totally distinct from the Wagnerian theater. 301 Because both music and music pedagogy in Europe had been so dominated by the Germans and Austrians, many musicians in France reacted by emphasizing all the more emphatically their own national traits. Debussy wrote in 1909: Since those student days, I have tried to slough off all I was taught. I have tried not to react against the influence of Wagner. I have simply given full play to my nature and temperament. Above all, I have tried to become French again. 302 And: Without denying his [Wagner's] genius, one may say that he put the final mark of punctuation to the music of his time, more or less as Victor Hugo absorbed all previous poetry. We must, then, look apr?s Wagner, not d'apr?s Wagner. 303 Sympathizing more with Debussy than with d'Indy were many contemporary French composers and their students who came after them, including Louis Aubert, Andr? Caplet, Rogert Ducasse, Gabriel Faur?, Jean Hur?, Charles Koechlin, Maurice 137 Ravel, and Florent Schmitt. Around 1900, several of these composers followed Debussy?s example in writing for flute and voice. These include Andr? Caplet?s (1878-1925) Viens! Une fl?te invisible soupire (1900) for flute, soprano, and piano; Cecile Chaminade?s (1857-1944) Portrait (Valse chant?e) (1904) for flute, soprano, and piano; Claude Debussy?s (1862-1918) Les chansons de Bilitis (1901) for 2 flutes, 2 harps, celesta, and narrator; Gustave Doret?s (1866-1943) Mirage (1903) for flute, soprano, and piano; Georges H?e?s (1858-1948) Soir pa?n (1898) for flute, soprano, and piano; Charles Koechlin?s (1867-1950) L'Album de Lilian, op.139, no. 6, Skating-Smiling (1901) for flute, soprano, and piano and his L'Album de Lilian, op.139, no. 7, En route vers le bonheur (1901) for flute, soprano, and piano; Albert Moutoz?s (n.d.) Stances ? une Marguerite, op. 3 (1900) for flute, soprano, and piano; and Maurice Ravel?s (1875-1937) "La fl?te enchant?e" from Sh?h?rzade (1903) for flute, soprano, and piano [transcribed from the orchestra by the composer]. These works express the new French aesthetic of clean, economical musical writing. They feature the flute as an equal partner to the soprano and employ French poetry for their texts. FAUR? AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF FRENCH M?LODIE Faur?, like other French composers, traveled to Cologne in 1878 to hear Rheingold and Walk?re and to Munich the next year, where he heard the whole Das Ring des Nibelungen. What was unusual in Faur?'s case was that his musical development seems to have hardly been affected by his exposure to Wagner's music. Unlike his contemporaries, he kept to smaller forms and began writing songs to the lyrics of French 304 Duchen, Gabriel Faur?, 75-77. 305 Ibid., 105-108. 306 Larner, Maurice Ravel, 49-50. 138 poets such as Charles Baudelaire, Th?ophile Gautier, and Victor Hugo. By 1887, he wrote his first songs to texts by Paul Verlaine, whose poetry would be Faur?'s chief inspiration for many years. 304 His songs were characterized by their simplicity. He avoided Franck's chromaticism, opting instead for rapidly shifting harmony and rhythmic detail. His song cycle La bonne chanson (Verlain, 1892) represent a pinnacle in French song writing of this period. 305 They are typified by cascades of piano arpeggios beneath a soaring vocal melody, slowly pulsing simple chords in slower movements, harmonies that incorporate chromatic slides and modulatory implications, and a fluidity and seamlessness that mimics the renaissance contrapuntalists (who Faur? admired). Frenchmen never left off composing songs, of which there exist many fine, although little known, examples from Berlioz to D?libes. But the chanson of Faur?, as a prelude to those which Debussy would compose on texts of some of the same poets, created a new form for French music. Faur?'s student, Maurice Ravel, was influenced by Faur?'s setting of French text, which emphasized the natural accents of the language over that of the melody. 306 As a result, Ravel developed his stage works with an increasing emphasis on outline and accents in the declamation. Opera, as well as song, now became a musical work based on language, while the instrumentation took a more subordinate role, providing simple harmonization and a lyric atmosphere for the stage action. Ravel's L'Heure espagnole is 307 Ravel latter said that his experience with Renard?s Histoires naturelles prepared him for his operatic setting of the prosaic text of Franc-Nohain?s L?Heures espagnole. Larner, Maurice Ravel, 96. 308 Joseph P?ladan (1859-1918) was a writer who caused something of a sensation in the literary world with the publication of his novel Le vice supreme. P?ladan was the head of the Rosicrucian movement in France and had appointed himself the high priest or S?r of the Rose-Croix du temple et du graal. P?ladan?s main subject as a writer appears to have been the reconciliation of the Occult with orthodox religion. In 1886, he 139 this type of theatrical piece: in its brevity, sprightliness, and freedom of expression it brings to the stage the atmospherics of the type of pianistic-vocal music suggested by the writing of Jules Renard. 307 Here, Ravel combined his experiments with the musicality of the French language with the melodic and rhythmic motifs of popular Spanish song. L'Heure espagnole had much in common with his setting of F?tes galantes (Verlaine, 1907) with its natural observation of the inflections of spoken dialogue and provocative dance rhythms. Ravel's interest in the natural inflections of language to determine rhythm and melodic shape would influence him in his music for flute and voice. SATIE AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF A FRENCH STYLE The early works of Erik Satie, particularly his 3 Sarabandes (1887) and 3 Gymnop?dies (1888), also demonstrate a conscious effort to break away from the romantic teachings of the Schola Cantorum and of Wagner. About the relationship between Debussy, Wagner, and his own work, Satie wrote: Debussy's aesthetic is connected with symbolism in several of his works; it is impressionist in his work as a whole. Please forgive me ? am I not a little the cause of this? So they say. Here is the explanation. When I first met him, he was all absorbed in Mussorgsky, was searching avidly for a path not easy to find. In this search I was far ahead of him: the prizes of Rome or other cities did not impede my progress, since I carry no such prize on my person or on my back, for I am a man of the race of Adam (of Paradise) who never carried off any prize ? a lazy fellow, no doubt. I was just then writing the Fils des ?toiles, on a text of Jos?ph P?ladan, 308 and I explained to Debussy the need for a Frenchman to give offered Satie the post of official composer to the Rose-Croix organization, which Satie accepted. By 1892, Satie had a falling out with P?ladan and broke away from the group officially through a letter addressed to the Editor of the Parisian review Gil Blas. Myers, Modern French Music, 112. 309 Austin, Music in the 20 th Century, 163. 310 Myers, Modern French Music, 114. 140 up the Wagnerian adventure, which did not correspond to our natural aspirations. And I made him note that I was not at all anti-Wagner, but that we ought to have a music of our own ? without sauerkraut, if possible. Why not use the means of representation introduced to us by Claude Monet, C?zanne, Toulouse-Lautrec, etc.? Why not transpose these means musically? Nothing simpler. Aren't these all expressions? 309 The means that Satie used to established a truly French style of composing was characterized by such eccentricities as the suppression of time and key signatures as well as bar-lines, the addition of verbal commentary superimposed upon the music, and humorous titles to his pieces. The music itself created a new aesthetic for the twentieth century, one of quietude, precision, acuteness of auditory observation, gentleness, sincerity, and directness of statement. Satie's Socrate (1917), a musical setting of selected passages from the Dialogues of Plato, is an example of this type of composition. According to historian Rollo Myers, Satie gave expression to what was latent in the consciousness of the world in which he lived; he anticipated the tastes and styles of a coming generation of French musicians. 310 WORLD WAR I, COCTEAU, AND LES SIX During World War I, the French banned German music, perhaps as a result of a series of articles by Camille Saint-Sa?ns that appeared in l'Echo de Paris under the title 311 Brody, The Musical Kaleidoscope, 58. 312 Myers, Modern French Music, 118. 313 This group of composers was given the name Les six by the music critic Henri Collet, following a concert on April 5, 1919 at the Salle Huyghens in which music by all six composers was featured on the program. Collet?s review was entitled Les cinq russe, Les six fran?aise et Satie and was followed by another, with the headline Les six fran?ais. His journalistic instincts had led him to dub the group in a manner similar to the loose-knit ?Russian Five,? Balakirev, Cui, Borodin, Mussorgsky, and Rimsky-Korsakov. Myers, Modern French Music, 102. 141 "Germanophilie." 311 The composer urged French musicians to return to a French music untainted by Wagnerism, echoing the fierce nationalistic rhetoric of the ars gallica movement of the 1870s. Writer Jean Cocteau, in his pamphlet Le coq et l'arlequin (1919), commended to the next generation of French composers the example of Erik Satie: Debussy missed his way because he fell from the German frying pan into the Russian fire. Once again the pedal blurs rhythm and creates a fluid atmosphere congenial to shortsighted ears. Satie remains intact. Hear his Gymnop?dies, so clear in their form and melancholy feeling. Debussy orchestrates them, confuses them and wraps their exquisite architecture in a cloud. Satie speaks of Ingres: Debussy transposes Claude Monet ? la Russe. 312 Soon, French composers were writing crude melodies, with square rhythms, and the atmosphere of circus bands, all tempered with elements of jazz and polytonal discord. During this period, works were composed such as Milhaud's Le boeuf sur le toit, and Cocteau's Les mari?s de la tour Eiffel for which all of the composers of Les six wrote music. By 1918, the group of composers known as Les six, 313 Georges Auric, Louis Durey, Arthur Honegger, Darius Milhaud, Francis Poulenc, Germaine Tailleferre, and 314 To their surprise, the composers who had been known as Les nouveaux jeunes became, almost overnight, Les Six. Yet their notoriety contradicted their real relationships. They were even less closely knit than the five Russians who had inspired the nickname. The links that bound them were purely those of friendship, time, and circumstance. Their tastes and inclinations were wholly different. Honegger?s models were the German romantics; Milhaud drew upon southern French lyricism; while Durey persisted in his allegiance to Ravel and Debussy. Auric and Poulenc alone were wholehearted in their support of Cocteau?s ideas, while Germaine Tailleferre seemed simply ready to adopt the prevailing course. Myers, Modern French Music, 102-134. 315 Ibid., 117-118. 316 Debussy, he warned, had escaped the allures of Wagner, but not that of the Russians. Stravinsky was tainted, his music visceral, burdened by the mysticism of the theater. Wagner, however, was the greatest enemy, Cocteau argued: his long, boring operas had been a drug to French musicians. Consequently, the new French music needed to strip itself of all foreign influences: "Enough of clouds, waves, aquariums, water sprites and night scents; we need down-to-earth music, everyday music." Harding, The Ox on the Roof, 66. 317 Ibid. 142 their promoter, Jean Cocteau, began to dominate the musical scene of Paris. 314 Cocteau and the poet Blaise Cendrars founded ?ditions de la Sir?ne, and its first publication was Le coq et l'arlequin. This collection of epigrams and aphorisms gave Les six an aesthetic doctrine: "The essential tact is daring." 315 Cocteau was an outspoken advocate of all his enthusiasms, which included a rejection of the music of Wagner, as well as that of Debussy and Stravinsky. 316 Cocteau believed that art should be pared down; reduced to its essentials: "A poet always has too many words in his vocabulary, a painter too many colors on his palette, a musician too many notes on his keyboard." 317 Ever the promoter of the new, he hailed Erik Satie as the master of this new style, an artist who dared to be simple. Cocteau felt that the time had come to reject the ambiguities and subtleties of impressionism. Satie would thus become the hero of French music for the next generation of composers. His 143 stage work Parade (1917), based on a scenario by Cocteau, with scenery and costumes by Picasso, became the model for the new aesthetic, embracing the techniques of the music hall and the caf?-concert as appropriate settings for the return to an authentic French music. But the origins of this essentially French entertainment reached back to the eighteenth century, through Faur? to the French chanson. Almost all the members of Les six wrote compositions for flute, voice, and chamber ensemble that reflect the sentiments of Cocteau and the musical thinking of Satie. As can be seen below, the pieces were written in quick succession of one another. TABLE 7 Music for Flute and Voice by Members of Les Six Composer Composer?s Dates Title Instrumentation Year Written POULENC, Francis 1899-1963 Rhapsodie n?gre (1917 version) For baritone or soprano, flute, clarinet, string quartet, and piano 1917 DUREY, Louis 1888-1979 Images ? Cruso?, op. 11 For soprano, flute, clarinet, celesta [or harp], and string quartet 1918 POULENC, Francis 1899-1963 Le bestiaire For soprano, flute, clarinet, bassoon, and string quartet 1919 MILHAUD, Darius 1892-1974 Machines agricoles, op. 56 For soprano, flute, clarinet, bassoon, violin, viola, cello, and bass 1919 MILHAUD, Darius 1892-1974 Catalogue de fleurs For soprano, flute, clarinet, bassoon, violin, viola, cello, and bass 1920 POULENC, Francis 1899-1963 Quatre po?mes de Max Jacob, op. 22 For soprano, flute, oboe, bassoon, trumpet, and clarinet 1921 HONEGGER, Arthur 1892-1955 Chanson de Ronsard For soprano, flute, and string quartet 1924 HONEGGER, Arthur 1892-1955 Trois chansons de la petite sir?ne For soprano, flute, and string quartet 1926 318 Vincent d?Indy?s opera Fervaal (1889-95) and Ernest Reyer?s opera Sigurd (1883) are both unperformed and virtually unknown today. 144 These pieces, especially those by Milhaud and Poulenc, incorporate elements of sarcasm (Milhaud set a catalog of agricultural machines, ironically, for performance at the Salle Agriculteurs), whimsy (Milhaud set the text of a seed catalog), the absurd (Poulenc set the made-up text ?Honolulu?), polytonality (as seen in the Catalogue de fleurs), as well as experimentationwith instrumentation (all the works use some combination of strings and winds along with flute and soprano) and harmony. Embracing Satie?s teaching about musical economy, the works by Honegger are approximately two minutes long. The absurdist poetry of Max Jacob is an ideal text for Poulenc?s setting, where he substitutes the trumpet for the traditional woodwind quintet instrumentation (which contains french horn). For the new generation of composers, those coming of age in the early decades of the twentieth century, the Wagnerian doctrines were no longer practical or even particularly useful. Meanwhile, attempts by d'Indy and Ernest Reyer to bring Wagnerian dramas to the French stage were entirely unsuccessful. 318 In the end, Wagner's influence proved most compatible with symphonic forms as practiced by nineteenth-century pro-Wagnerians such as Hector Berlioz, Henri Duparc, C?sar Franck, Ernest Guiraud, Franz Liszt, and Camille Saint-Sa?ns. The composers of the next generation, including Roger Ducasse, Paul Dukas, Alb?ric Magnard, Maurice Ravel, Albert Roussel, Florent Schmitt, and D?odat de S?verac (all contemporaries of Debussy) found the theater to be 145 an enormous dead weight from which they were set free by pure instrumental or vocal music. While the concept of a total integration of music and text became a dominant idea in the French musical psyche, the symphony, the art song, and chamber music (all fed by the same ideals) would become art forms distinct from opera and diverse enough to alter the landscape of classical music. By 1950, Germanic music was no longer the dominant force is Western music. The influence of Wagner in France began as a conversion of the major French composers to his style of writing. But, by the end of the century, Wagner's music would serve as a catalyst for a wave of French nationalism that would change the style of French music to a Gallic expression that was uniquely its own. French composers for flute and voice explored this new tonal language and nationalistic themes in their works as a result of these changes. CHAPTER 5 EXOTICISM: THE INFLUENCE OF LE JAPONISME AND L'ORIENTALISM In the time of Louis XIV, we were Hellenistic; today we're Orientalists. We are now in a position to know the entire Orient, from China to Egypt. The result is that the Orient, its thought and image, have become sort of a preoccupation to which I unconsciously submitted. Oriental colors are imprinted in our dreams. Hebrew, Turkish, Greek, Persian, Arabic, and Spanish, for Spain is still the 319 From the preface of Orientales by Victor Hugo. Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, translated by the author, 69. 146 Orient, it's half-African and Africa is half-Asiatic, inhabit our thoughts. 319 ?Victor Hugo 320 Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 60-65. 147 A significant portion of the music for flute and voice employ texts and musical devices that are exotic in nature. An examination of the period shows that many of these composers engaged in international travel, that they were influenced by the music they heard from the Orient at the Paris Expositions universelles, and that they were drawn to the exotic writings of contemporary French poets. The result was an exploration that resulted in an explosion of pieces for flute and voice that attempted to imitate the music of other cultures. THE NEAR EAST Interest in "exotic" cultures, which had surfaced here and there in French musical compositions as early at the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, now bloomed in the 1850s as an infatuation with these distant cultures. In France, interest in the Near East was awakened by Napol?on's 1798 campaigns in Egypt and Palestine. His army was accompanied by a multitude of scientists, writers, artists, and archeologists, who returned to Paris with statuary, sculptural fragments, sketches of the pyramids, drawings of the desert, tall tales, and descriptive travelogues, all of which opened up a new and exciting world to the European, and especially the French, public. 320 Prior to that time, only classical scholars who had read Herodotus and Strabo and a handful of intrepid travelers had any real knowledge of ancient Egypt or the Middle East. In the wake of Napol?on's campaign, new books and journal articles abounded, bringing the secrets of the Orient to 321 Voyage in Lower and Upper Egypt by Baron Denon and Descriptions of Egypt by Edmond Jomard, both came out between 1809 and 1813, to mention just two. Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 60-65. 322 In music, precedents for the incorporation of orientalism or the exotic were already fairly well established. Mozart, for example, had written Die entf?hrung aus dem serail in 1782. Indeed, French operas and ballets had made use of faraway locations among their settings, as well as impersonations of non-western characters. These effects can be found in the works of Jean-Baptiste Lully (1632-1687), Andr? Campra (1660-1774), and Jean-Philippe Rameau (1683-1763). Turkish characters, plots, and settings, as well as the use of percussion instruments such as tambourines, cymbals, and triangles, were examples of the infusion of musically exotic elements. Salazar, Music in Our Time, 160. 323 During the same period, the incorporation of Turkish clothing was a cue that the sitter was cosmopolitan and well traveled in the work of even the most accomplished portraitists. By the 1760s, Turkish and Middle Eastern clothing had become a fad among women of the upper classes. Salazar, Music in Our Time, 160. 148 the average Frenchman. 321 Music was not the only art form affected by this great wave of interest. Rossini composed L'Italiana in Algeri in 1813 and Il turco in Italia in 1814; Victor Hugo wrote the poems of Les orientales in 1816; Delacroix's painting Algerian Women in Their Harem, one of his many North African works, was exhibited in 1834; and Ingres began painting the ambitious, multi-figured Turkish bath in 1852; and. 322 During the last decades of the eighteenth century, this exoticism was especially influenced by an interest in Turkish subject matter, which flourished in the works of Austrian composers Christoph Willibald von Gluck, Franz Joseph Haydn, and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. 323 By 1850, French composers had become enthusiastic in their response to these developments taking place across the culture, and these elements infiltrated their orchestral works, operatic works, and m?lodie. F?licien David (1810-1876), a romantic contemporary of Berlioz, introduced orientalism into the French concert hall with his symphonic ode Le d?sert. Composed and performed in 1844, before Liszt had begun his series of symphonic poems, the work 324 While there, he wrote Brises d'orient, a limpid piano piece that he developed through improvisation. Hagan, F?licien David, 45. 325 Hervey, Saint-Sa?ns, 18-20. 326 The French used the term orientale to describe the music not only of the Far East, but also of India, Persia (now Iraq), Turkey, Arabia (now Saudi Arabia), Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco. Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 64. 149 contains a vocal line with orchestral accompaniment. He collaborated with the poet Auguste Colin on the text. Earlier, David had traveled to Constantinople and Cairo in March, 1833, returning to Paris in February, 1835. 324 Camille Saint-Sa?ns (1835-1921) also traveled extensively, visiting the Canary Islands, Algiers, and Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). His use of exoticism appears in his operas (including La princess jaune, and Samson et Delila) and in his various instrumental genres. 325 Exotic plots, characters, and settings found their way into any number of French operas. George Bizet's Les p?cheurs de perles (1863), L?o D?libes's Lakm? (1883), and Jules Massenet's H?rodiade (1888) were all examples of operatic orientalism. 326 Albert Roussel (1869-1937) was influenced by Indian culture after a tour to India and Southeast Asia in 1909. Afterward, he composed two major works based on his experiences there: the orchestral work Evocations (1910-11) and the opera-ballet Padm?vat? (1914-18). In addition, the "Krishna" movement of his Joueurs de fl?te (1924) for flute and piano is based on elements drawn from Indian music. Ravel wrote several pieces for flute and voice, demonstrating his own interests in exoticism, including Sh?h?rzade (1903), L'Enfant et les sortli?ges (1920), and Chansons mad?casses (1925-26). Maurice Delage visited India in 1912 and composed four works 327 Not only did Ravel hear the Javanese gamelan orchestra, but also the music of the Russian Five. After hearing Rimsky-Korsakov?s Capriccio espagnol (1887), he remained a lifelong admirer of the composer. Brody, The Musical Kaleidoscope, 85-89. 328 Chabrier?s Espa?a (1883) and Habanera (1885) also had an impact on Ravel, which can be seen in the succession of works he wrote in the Spanish vein. Larner, Maurice Ravel, 93-102. 329 Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 86-89. 150 between 1912 and 1935 with Indian features: Quatre po?mes hindous (1913); Ragamalika (1914); "Danse," from Contrerimes (1932); and Trois chants de la jungle (1935). FOLK IDIOMS Ravel was also fascinated by folk idioms, making use of folksong and folk materials early in his career while he was still studying with Faur? at the Conservatoire. The Paris International Exhibition of 1889, which brought a wide variety of non-Western music to Paris, seems to have made an indelible impression upon Ravel 327 and, as a result, he wrote pieces based on folksong settings. These include Cinq melodies populaires greques (1904-06), Chansons populaire (1910), and Deux melodies hebra?ques (1914). He also wrote a number of pieces based on folk idioms: Sit?s auriculaires (1895-97), Rapsodie espagnole (1907-08), L'Heure espagnole (1907-09), Vocalise - etude en forme de habanera (1907), and Don Quichotte ? Dulcin?e (1932-33). 328 Debussy was also in attendance at the Paris International Exhibition of 1889, and it was there that he heard the authentic music of the East for the first time. 329 He was especially drawn to the Javanese village set up on the Esplanade des Invalides. There, one could hear the famous gamelan orchestra that accompanied the Javanese dancers, or 330 Debussy chose Hokusai?s The Wave, a now famous colored woodblock print, for the front cover of the first edition of his orchestral work La Mer (1903-05). He learned about Hokusai, a major figure among the many great Japanese printmakers of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, through his friendship with sculptress Camille Claudel, who apparently owned a number of Japanese objects. Brody, Paris, The Musical Kaleidoscope, 64. 331 In Paris, art nouveau?s most enduring influence can be found at the m?tro [subway] entrances, which were designed by Hector Guimard. Sowerwine, France Since 1870, 102-105. 151 Bedayas. Debussy was fascinated, as many other musicians have been, by the manner in which the Javanese musicians made use of all aspects of their instruments. He was also captivated by the extraordinarily rich and subtle rhythms, the harmonies, and the tonalities of which the drums and wooden percussion instruments were capable. This was his introduction, outside of textbooks at least, to the pentatonic scale, the basis of much Oriental music. As he listened to Chinese and Annamite (Vietnamese) orchestras, as well as the Spanish, Hungarian, and others still closer to home, the experience was profound and would continue to influence his musical thinking to one degree or another in years to come. 330 Debussy chose the exotic text Les chansons de Bilitis (1901) as the inspiration for songs for voice and piano as well as a chamber piece featuring flute and narration soon after his experience at the International Exhibition. LE JAPONISME Le japonisme was a related movement to exoticism that inspired its own responses. Another movement, art nouveau, which was a cousin to Le japonisme, had its greatest influence on the graphic arts, book design, pottery, and architectural ornamentation. 331 Baudelaire, Champfleury, Fantin-Latour, and Valloton all became promoters of Japanese art in France. The jewelry, glass, and ceramics of Lalique owed its 332 Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 63. 333 French artists were fascinated by the Japanese handling of spacial description, which utterly contradicted the European attachment to perspectival space. The Japanese were frankly uninterested in this highly artificial organization with space, and its influence is obvious in the impressionists, for example the works of Whistler, Gauguin, Van Gogh, and Toulouse-Latrec. Ibid. 334 Pierre Loti?s novel, Madame chrysanth?me (1888), was the inspiration for both Madame chrysanth?me and Madama Butterfly. Thomas, ?Three Representative Works of Maurice Delage: A Study of Style and Exotic Influence,? 45. 335 Stravinsky dedicated each movement to a composer friend: ?Akahito? to Maurice Delage; ?Mazatsumi? to Florent Schmitt; and ?Tsaraiuki? to Maurice Ravel. All three dedicatees themselves composed music that demonstrated an interest in orientalism. 152 inspiration to Le japonisme. 332 In addition, the influence of Japanese art came through the multi-color woodblock prints, called ukiyo-e, which existed almost exclusively in the visual arts. 333 The movement affected a handful of French composers following the Paris Expositions universelles. One of the first was Camille Saint-Sa?ns with his one-act opera La princesse jaune (1872). Andr? Messager's opera Madame chrysanth?me (1893) was constructed around a plot similar to Puccini's Madama Buttterfly. 334 In it, Messager endeavored to evoke an oriental atmosphere through musical elements, including the use of the pentatonic scale and imitation of the koto, a Japanese stringed instrument. Stravinsky was in Paris when he wrote a composition for soprano and chamber ensemble entitled Three Japanese Lyrics (1912) for flute, soprano, and chamber ensemble, using texts by Japanese poets from the eighth and ninth centuries, 335 the first golden age of Japanese court poetry. These poems were collected in the Man'yoshu, or The Anthology of Ten Thousand Leaves, a formative work in Japanese literature. Maurice Delage visited 336 Apparently Delage studied Japanese and may have had a basic ability to read and write the language. Thomas, ?Three Representative Works of Maurice Delage,? 46. 153 Japan in 1912 and composed his Sept ha?-ka? (1924) for flute, soprano, and chamber ensemble based upon the brief, seventeen syllable poetic form known as haikai, a more traditional transliteration of the now familiar haiku. 336 He also wrote a vocal composition entitled In morte di un Samura? (1950) for voice and orchestra. A complete list of works for flute, voice, and ensemble on oriental and exotic themes is contained in Table 1. In all there are sixteen works that span the time period 1897 to 1926. As we have seen in previous chapters, all of these composers were acquainted with one another through educational and social collaborations. 337 Hall, Famous French Salons, 288. 154 CHAPTER 6 THE SALONS AND THE INTERACTION BETWEEN MUSICIANS, ARTISTS, AND WRITERS The salon of Madame de Stael is a mirror which represents the history of the times. What one sees there is as instructive as many books, and gayer than many comedies.?It is life, it is intellect that shines here, the illuminations of genius. 337 ?M.A. de Gustine 338 A number of common themes attracted painters, musicians and writers, including scenes of nature and the seasons, children and their games, the caf? and the cabaret, the circus, Iberia, orientalism, Wagnerism, and the hommage or tombeau (composing in the style of an earlier master). Painters did portraits of musicians while musicians wrote songs to the lyrics of the poets. Artists occasionally married into the families of other artists. A natural process of collaboration developed in France, generating a rare outburst of creativity in the arts. Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 111. 339 Hall, Famous French Salons, preface. 155 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE FRENCH SALON Paris, at the end of the nineteenth century, was a place where an extraordinary exchange of artistic ideas was taking place in the salons. These were places where poets ardently discussed and even sometimes wrote music, where musicians attended literary events, and where poetry aspired to express the meaning of life. This hotbed of creativity, which launched many famous collaborations between musicians, writers, artists, dancers, and actors also produced some of the seminal works of the nineteenth century and became a common way of working well into the twentieth century. 338 The French salons of the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries were among some of the most renowned social gatherings of the Western world. According to Evelyn Hall: The salon, as an institution, is wholly and exclusively French. The practical mind of England always wants to be doing. The mind of France is more easily content to talk. In its salons it talked to some purpose. They were the forcing-houses of the Revolution, the nursery of the Encyclopedia, the antechamber of the Acad?mie. Here were discussed Free Thought and the Rights of Men, intrigues, politics, science, literature. Here one made love, reputations, bon-mots, epigrams. Here met the brilliancy, corruption, artificiality of old France, and the boundless enthusiasms which were to form a new. 339 340 The first true salon was created at the H?tel de Rambouillet by the woman known as ?la divine Arth?nice,? or the marquise de Rambouillet. Apparently, she received her guests lying in bed and seated them in the ruelle, the space between the bed and the wall. This term came to designate any salon assembly. Salons were also referred to by the day of the week on which they met. (St?phane Mallarm??s weekly ?Tuesday evenings? is an example of this usage.) The New Oxford Companion to Literature in French, edited by Peter France, 737-738. 341 The conversational style ? a blend of wit, elegance, and oral brilliance ? was first concocted in the salon and has often been considered the essence of the French style. The salons became the center of defining and diffusing that which was intrinsic to French culture. These gatherings ushered in the period often considered the golden age of French culture (1650-1789). Ibid. 342 Kale, French Salons, 2-3. 156 In Paris, these assemblies began to gain prominence shortly before the Revolution. 340 One of the defining features of the French salon was that it was presided over by women (at least initially). These gatherings gave conversation an extraordinary new prominence. As a result, these French salons treated conversation as a fine art. 341 Salon sociability was resilient. During the stormy one-hundred years of this study, the salon was more or less constant in some form or other. As a gathering place for the upper classes, the salons were extremely flexible, changing their size, function, and guest list to suit the social, cultural, and political considerations of their time. 342 In the late-nineteenth century, salon gatherings retained their character from the time of the Revolution. These assemblies were organized and dominated by women of the aristocratic elite who convened social gatherings in their homes, ideally fusing political debates by the most educated minds with rigorous philosophical discussions. Women such as Madame R?camier, Madame de Sta?l, and Madame de S?vign? were all examples of such salonni?res. Comtesse de Bassanville gave the following description of the salon of princesse Catherine de Bagration: 343 Kale, French Salons, 6-7. 344 Ibid., 165-170. 345 Duchen, Gabriel Faur?, 85-89. 157 With all the diverse personalities who came in and out of the salon of Madame Bagration like shadows, one could not find a particular physiognomy there. The princess loved noise, commotion, and newcomers; hence the innumerable transformations that her house underwent. One day, it was a political salon; the entire diplomatic corps could be seen there, distinguished foreigners, men of state, indeed even princes and ministers, and, according to a rumor circulating quietly, the soul of Metternich, although absent, animated this lavish residence. Then, all of a sudden, one heard only laughter, song, joyous outbursts to the accompaniment of a grand orchestra; and charming young women, smiles on their lips and brightness in their eyes, crowded in to replace the grave serious men, brilliant in their attire, dripping with diamonds in order to seek out the pleasure of a ball.? Later, another complete change occurred: the orchestra went silent, the echoes of the h?tel ceased to reverberate with bursts of joy, and one heard only verse more or less well rhymed, prose more or less well written; literature had replaced pleasure, the bluestockings, the fashionable women. 343 By the early-twentieth century, salon assemblages had shed their preoccupation with politics and had, instead, become gathering places for like-minded artists and aristocrats. 344 At the homes of artistically inclined wealthy patrons, such as Winnaretta Singer (later the princesse de Polignac), countesse Greffulhe; or more middle-class gatherings, such as Marguerite Baugnies, creative and talented artists, musicians, and writers (many of whom were friends and colleagues) were able to enhance their contacts. 345 Sometimes their own artistry was also deepened through the stimulating effects of discussion with other artists and cultured individuals. These artists had the chance to hear the latest music and poetry and to discuss the latest artistic trends. It was these types of links that made the salon world so important to French musicians and that linked together much of the art, literature, and music of Paris at the turn of the nineteenth 346 At the time, composers Daniel-Fran?ois Auber (at the Conservatoire) and Luigi Cherubini (at the Op?ra) were in command at important Parisian musical institutions. David could have heard Berlioz's music in the concert hall or seen Victor Hugo's Cromwell and Hernani at the theater. Hagan, F?licien David, 1-12. 347 George Sand introduced David to Balzac, Baudelaire, Chateaubriand, Dumas p?re, Musset, and Nerval. Apparently, their ideas regarding the solemn singing of the people and the importance of the modalities of popular music in the musical culture of a nation inspired much of his operatic and choral writing. Ibid., 115- 116. 158 century. COMPOSERS OF FLUTE AND VOICE MUSIC AND THE SALONS F?licien David, one of the earliest composers in the period covered by this dissertation, entered the musical society of Paris through the salons, making connections with established writers, artists, and musicians there. David had come to Paris in 1830 under the patronage of an uncle. 346 Soon after arriving in Paris, David had an interview with Cherubini, who sent him to a Conservatoire subordinate for lessons. Not long after, he made the acquaintance of the artist Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres (1780-1867), who presented him to composer Daniel-Fran?ois Auber (1782-1871). Subsequently, David became Auber's prot?g?e. By the time David was twenty-one, he had joined Enfantin and the Saint-Simonian movement, attending their salon gatherings. At these meetings, he was introduced to composers Hector Berlioz, Raymond Bonheur, Franz Liszt, opera star Adolphe Nourrit, writer Charles-Augustin Sainte-Beuve, and romantic moralist ?mile Souvestre. Later, his friendship with George Sand would catapult him into the rarified circles of the literary elite. 347 This, coupled with his musical contacts, provided David with an entr?e to the operatic stage in Paris, for which he wrote his opera La perle de 348 Pauline Viardot was the daughter of the celebrated tenor Manuel Garcia and the sister of the famed soprano Maria Malibran. She studied voice with her father and subsequently received vocal training from her mother, lessons in piano from Meysenberg and Liszt, and lessons in composition from Reicha. She married Louis Viardot, the director of the Th??tre-Italien in Paris, where she had a notable success in her debut as Desdemona in 1839. She created the role of Fid?s in Meyerbeer?s Le proph?te (1849) and that of Sapho in Gounod?s opera of the same name (1851). Through her efforts, the music of Gounod, Massenet, and Faur? was given a wide hearing in Paris. Fitzlyon, The Price of Genius, 1-13. 349 Augier became the librettist of Gounod?s opera Sapho (1851), which was commissioned by Viardot and was a vehicle for her. De Bovet, Charles Gounod, 85-89. 350 Hervey, Saint-Sa?ns, 2-3. 159 Br?sil (1851) containing an aria for soprano and flute. Charles Gounod, who also wrote several pieces for flute and voice, was introduced to the Paris social scene through the salon of Pauline Viardot (1821-1910). 348 Viardot?s dynamic soir?es attracted the greatest musicians and writers of the age, including Hector Berlioz, Frederic Chopin, Franz Liszt, Alfred de Musset, George Sand, and Ivan Turgenev (Viardot?s lover). Viardot introduced Gounod to these artists along with the musical power brokers of the op?ra. She secured Gounod?s operatic debut in Paris through her connections with Nestor Roqueplan at the Op?ra, even going so far as to introduce Gounod to librettist Emile Augier at her salon. 349 After this entr?e into Parisian musical society, Gounod wrote many operas (including his now famous Faust), songs, and works for flute, soprano, and piano, including S?r?nade (Quand tu chantes) (1866), Barcarolle: o? voulez-vous aller? (n.d.), O l?g?re hirondell? (1887), and Pri?re du soir (n.d.) as a result of his associations with Viardot and other singers. Camille Saint-Sa?ns was a prodigy who awakened the admiration of the French painter Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres (as David had done some years earlier) when Saint-Sa?ns was only seven years old. 350 While Saint-Sa?ns was making his entrance into 351 Other composers of the day made similar contact with writers and artists who influenced their musical life. Louis-Charles-Bonaventure-Alfred Bruneau (1857-1934) was one of the first composers of opera whose work absorbed the tenants of the naturalist movement that dominated literature at the time. The turning point in his career came in the form of his friendship with the novelist Emile Zola, whom he met in the salon of Marguerite de Saint-Marceaux. Bruneau became a disciple of the novelist, adopting naturalism as the foundation of his dramatic principles. The result was a succession of operas with plots drawn from Zola's works or with texts by Zola. In fact, all of Bruneau?s operas were based on Zola?s novels or libretti written specifically for the composer. Bruneau discarded the mythological or romantic subjects currently in operatic literature and replaced them with the dramas of contemporary interest, in which action and psychological development were brief, tense, and persuasively truthful. He wanted to do away with the empty conventions which had dominated French opera for so long and employ a musical style suitable to the features of his plots. The New Oxford Companion to Literature in French, edited by Peter France, 121. 160 Parisian society he met librettist Louis Gallet early in his career in the salons, along with musicians Georges Bizet, Charles Gounod, Franz Liszt, Anton Rubinstein, and Richard Wagner, as well as the painter Henri Regnault. Gallet had provided librettos to George Bizet, Charles Gounod, and Jules Massenet. Inspired by the current vogue for all things oriental, Saint-Sa?ns and Gallet decided to set the Japanese tale La princesse jaune (1872). Saint-Sa?ns also met prominent authors at the salon of princesse Mathilde, Napol?on's niece and cousin of Emperor Napol?on III. At her home on the rue de Courcelles Saint-Sa?ns spent time with Jules Barbier, Michel Carr?, Alexandre Dumas p?re et fils, Gustave Flaubert, Edmond and Jules Goncourt, Victor Hugo, and Charles- Augustin Sainte-Beuve. 351 Saint-Sa?ns? m?lodie for flute, soprano, and piano entitled Une fl?te invisible (1887) is set to the poetry of Victor Hugo. Likewise his piece, Le bonheur et chose l?g?re, for flute, soprano, and piano (n.d.) is set to the lyrics of Jules Barbier and Michel Carr?. Saint-Sa?ns introduced Gabriel Faur? into Parisian society in 1872 through the salon of soprano Pauline Viardot, whose weekly soirees by then included the Russian 352 The princesse Edmond de Polignac was born Winnaretta Singer, American heiress to the Singer sewing machine fortune. She cultivated a lively salon at her home in Paris and commissioned works from many composers, including Manuel de Falla, Gabriel Faur?, Francis Poulenc, Maurice Ravel, Igor Stravinsky, and Germaine Tailleferre. She became especially linked with Faur?, who dedicated his songs ?Mandoline? and ?Green? to her. Duchen, Gabriel Faur?, 84-88. 353 Ibid. 354 Wineretta Singer?s marriage to the prince de Scey-Montb?liard was dissolved in early 1892, due to her preference for other women. Robert, comte de Montesquiou and the countesse Greffulhe later introduced Singer to the prince de Polignac, who was many years her senior and himself a homosexual. By all accounts their marriage was amicable, and they had a shared passion for culture, especially music. Duchen, Gabriel Faur?, 86-87. 355 Apparently, the cycle was also inspired by Faur?'s love for Emma Bardac (later, Debussy's second wife), who participated in the collaboration by singing through each song as it was written and suggesting changes to the composer. Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 149. 161 writer Ivan Turgenev, French writers Gustave Flaubert, Ernest Renan, and Georges Sand, and the left-wing politician and historian Louis Bland. Faur? frequented many salons, particularly those of comtesse Greffulhe, Madeleine Lemaire, and the princesse de Polignac. 352 At the home of Madame de Saint-Marceaux, amid a congenial atmosphere of musicians, writers, and artists (who caricatured the musicians as they performed), Faur? often presided at the keyboard. Among the guests on any given evening, one might encounter writers Pierre de Br?ville, the young Colette, and Marcel Proust, musicians Claude Debussy and Vincent d'Indy, or composer/conductor Andr? Messager. 353 Faur??s salon associations influenced him toward the direction of French m?lodie. He began collaboration with symbolist Paul Verlaine in late 1891, at the behest of princesse de Scey-Montb?liard (later the princesse de Polignac). 354 He eventually composed the song cycle La bonne chanson (1892), setting nine of Verlaine's twenty-one poems. 355 Faur? also set poems by the Parnassian and symbolist poets, Th?ophile Gautier and 356 In the early 1860s, a group of poets known as the Parnassians formulated a reaction against romanticism, and many members were associated with La Revue Fantaisiste, the journal founded by Catulle Mend?s. The group, which included Charles Baudelaire, Th?odore de Banville, and Sully-Prudhomme, among others, took as their motto a theme propounded by Victor Cousin in his Cours de Philosophie at the Sorbonne in 1818: ?Art for art?s sake.? 357 Larner, Maurice Ravel, 54. 358 A Ravel Reader, 4. 162 Leconte de Lisle. 356 Indeed, his song for flute, soprano, and piano, Nocturne, op. 43, no. 2 (1886), was composed to the poetry of symbolist Villiers de l'Isle Adam. Faur?, in turn, introduced Maurice Ravel into the salon of Madame de Saint- Marceaux in 1898. According to Ravel?s biographer Gerald Larner: Success at the musical evenings of the formidable Madame de Saint-Marceaux, wife of a fashionable sculptor, was almost as important in establishing a composer?s reputation as favorable reviews in the newspapers. The Saint- Marceaux house, not far from Faur??s home in the boulevard Malesherbes, was open to musical guests after dinner on Wednesdays, when formality was discouraged but any hint of a whisper during the musical performances severely frowned upon. It was here that Ravel first met Colette, future librettist of L?enfant et les sortil?ges? 357 Apparently, Ravel participated in the informal performances of contemporary music and, on one occasion, improvised at the piano as the young American dancer, Isadora Duncan, performed interpretive dances. 358 PARISIAN SALONS AT THE TURN OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY The salon of Madame Ren? de Saint-Marceaux (1850-1930) was one of the most highly regarded musical salons in Paris at the turn of the century. Marguerite de Saint-Marceaux, known to her close friends as Meg, was an accomplished singer and 359 Nichols, The Harlequin Years, 199. 360 Kahan, Music?s Modern Muse, 121. 163 pianist. From 1875 until 1927 she ritually received at her home, every Friday evening, artists, musicians, writers, and dancers, most especially young and upcoming talents. Musicians Alfred Cortot, Claude Debussy, Manuel de Falla, Gabriel Faur?, Reynaldo Hahn, Giacomo Puccini, Maurice Ravel, and Ricardo Vi?es, along with writers Colette and her husband Willy, Pierre Lou?s, and Gabrielle d'Annunzio were among the regular or occasional guests invited to her residence at 100, boulevard Malesherbes. During World War I, Madeline Milhaud reminisced about these meetings: Fridays gained in distinction what they lost in social brilliance.?Composers were more welcome than ever. On February 7, 1917, Roussel came to play his still unpublished opera Padm?vat? in front of Messager, who was being reluctant to put it on at the Op?ra, and on February 3, 1920, Falla played his Sombrero de tr?s picos which was being produced by Diaghilev and his Nuits dans les jardins d?Espagne. On January 14, 1921, Ravel played La valse on two pianos with Jacques F?vrier and accompanied Claire Croiza in Sh?h?razade, and on May 18, 1927, he played Ma m?re l?oye with Marguerite Long. That same evening, the young Poulenc, probably introduced by his teacher Ricardo Vi?es, played Napoli and risked singing his Chansons gaillardes. 359 The princesse de Polignac (Winnaretta Singer, 1865-1943) convened another influential salon during the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries. Her assemblies in St-Leu-la-For?t were frequented by artists, musicians, writers, and performers alike, including Jean Cocteau, Colette, Serge Diaghilev, Manuel de Falla, Wanda Landowska, Claude Monet, Francis Poulenc, Marcel Proust, Erik Satie, and Igor Stravinsky, among others. 360 The music room in the de Polignac h?tel particulier on the avenue Henri Martin was large enough to hold full-scale concerts. However, Winnie (as she was 361 Apparently, the princess held a concert rendition of Rameau?s Dardanus as well as the first performance of Alb?niz?s Iberia in her salon. She was instrumental in the establishment of the Ballet Russe in Paris, holding their first performances at her home in 1909. She also commissioned and premiered such works at Stravinsky?s Renard and Oedipus rex, Satie?s Socrate, Falla?s El retablo de maese Pedro, Tailleferre?s Piano Concerto, and Milhaud?s opera Les malheurs d?Orph?e, among others. Nichols, The Harlequin Years, 199-201. 362 de Cossart, Une am?rican ? Paris, 131. 363 Aaron Copland?s As It Fell Upon a Day for flute, soprano, and clarinet was also performed at the princesse de Polignac?s home. Kahan, Music?s Modern Muse, Appendix A. 164 known to her friends) preferred chamber music and would commission and premiere many new chamber works from French composers of the day. 361 According to Michel de Cossart, she turned to the idea of chamber music during World War I, when she realized that France was turning away from large musical works: ?not only because of increasing economic problems [but] because of their all-too Germanic character. Also, as a fervent admirer of baroque music, Winnaretta thought it would be a profitable exercise to study its musical structures afresh. So she decided to try this out by asking various composers to write short orchestral works which could be played by small groups of around twenty musicians. She hoped that, once the war was over, she would be able to have the works she had commissioned played in her music room. 362 In this atmosphere of musical cultivation, French composers socialized with other leading performers of the day and heard one another?s latest works. It was in the salon of the princesse de Polignac that several works for flute and voice were performed, including Poulenc?s Cinq po?mes de Max Jacob (June 15, 1932); Faur??s Nocturne (June 17, 1933), and Roussel?s Rossignol, mon amour from Deux po?mes de Ronsard (February 7, 1936). 363 These works and others were performed by the leading sopranos and flutists of the day, including sopranos Claire Croiza, Madeleine Grey, Suzanne Peignot, Marie Blanche de Polignac, Germain Sanderson, Ninon Vallin, and flutists 364 Ibid. 365 Elisabeth, comtesse Greffulhe was a renowned beauty and the uncontested queen of the salons of the Faubourg Saint-German. At her salon on 10, rue d?Astorg, she regularly entertained the cream of Parisian society in the arts, sciences, and politics. The comtesse was a cousin of Robert, comte de Montesquiou and was in love with him throughout her life (although her love does not appear to have been returned). She was a patron of the Ballets Russes and promoted many artists including Moreau, Rodin, and Whistler. She probably inspired the character of the duchesse de Guermantes in Marcel Proust?s A la recherche du temps perdu. Kahan, Music?s Modern Muse, 56-59. 366 La Revue Blanche was an important periodical associated with symbolism and other modern literary movements of late-nineteenth-century France. Founded in 1889, it published the writings of Mallarm?, Henri de R?gnier, and others, with Debussy serving as its music critic and the young L?on Blum writing theatrical and literary reviews. The New Oxford Companion to Literature in French, edited by Peter France, 695. 367 Given the close relationship between literature and music during this period, the French art song, or m?lodie, reached its apogee in the hands of composers such as Emmanuel Chabrier, Ernest Chausson, Claude Debussy, Henri Duparc, Gabriel Faur?, and ?douard Lalo. The texts of a number of French poets, including Guillaume Apollinaire, Th?odore de Banville, Charles Baudelaire, Th?ophile Gautier, Andr? Gide, Victor Hugo, Alphonse de Lamartine, Leconte de Lisle, Alfred de Musset, Paul Verlaine, Arthur Rimbaud, and Jean-Marie-Mathias-Phillipe-August, comte de Villiers de l'Isle-Adam, among others, continued to inspire and stimulate the musical imagination of French composers of m?lodie. A complete 165 Gaston Blanquart, Rogert Cortet, Philippe Gaubert, G?rard Masson, Ernest Millon, and Ren? le Roy. 364 From these contacts through the salons, it is not surprising that several French composers went on to create works for specific artists that they had met (and heard perform), as well as composing works for the same instrumentations and in the same genres. In the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries, other salons developed in Paris which would make significant contributions to the arts. From 1890 to early 1900, some of Elizabeth, comtesse Greffulhe's (1860-1952) regular visitors were Gabriel Faur?, Robert, comte de Montesquiou, and Marcel Proust. 365 During the same years, almost all the young writers in Paris came to Pierre Lou?s's home, particularly those who wrote for La Revue Blanche, 366 along with Lou?s's close friend, the composer Claude Debussy. 367 study of French m?lodie is found in Chapter 9. 368 It is in her studio that Mme. Madeleine Lemaire begins by reuniting a few of her brotherhood and her friends.?And when the princess of Wales, the empress of Germany, the king of Sweden, the queen of the Belgians came to Paris, they requested permission to visit the studio of Mme. Lemaire who could not dare to refuse them entry. Her friend princess Mathilde and her pupil princess d?Arenberg also come from time to time.? But little by little we learn that some small reunions have taken place in the studio where, with no prior preparation, with no pretensions of a soir?e, each of the invitees, ?working at his trade,? and giving of his talent, the small intimate entertainment had included attractions that the most brilliant galas could never hope to assemble together. Because R?jane, who happened to be there by chance at the same time as Coquelin and Bartet, had a desire to perform a sketch with them, Massenet and Saint-Sa?ns were brought to the piano and Mauri even had danced. Le Figaro, May 11, 1903. 369 Misia Godebska was an active patroness of the arts in her own right. She was a noted beauty and was painted many times by artists such as Bonnard, Renoir, Toulouse-Latrec, and Vuillard. She was an early patron of Diaghilev and the Ballet Russe and assisted Ravel in negotiations over the writing of Daphnis et Chlo?. Misia presided over a glittering salon that included artists such as Colette, Jean Cocteau, Coco Chanel, St?phane Mallarm?, Francis Poulenc, Marcel Proust, and Igor Stravinsky. Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 310-311. 166 From around 1890 to 1914, the Godebski's salon included Ravel, the members of Les Apaches (Andr? Caplet, Maurice Delage, Marcel Delannoy, Manuel de Falla, Paul Ladmirault, Florent Schmitt, and D?odat de S?verac), Andr? Gide, Paul Valery, and the painters Pierre Bonnard and Odilon Redon. Madeleine Lemaire's home was also a lively salon, where, around 1900, writer Marcel Proust, artists Edgar Degas and Auguste Rodin, pianist Alfred Cortot, composers Reynaldo Hahn, D. E. Inghelbrecht, Jules Massenet, and Camille Saint-Sa?ns, dancer Isadora Duncan, and patrons Robert, comte de Montesquiou and the comtesse Greffulhe were all frequent visitors. 368 The Godebski family (Xavier Cyprien or ?Cipa,? 1874-1937; his wife Ida, 1872- 1935; Cipa?s sister Misia, 1872-1950; 369 and their children Mimie and Jean) were close friends with Maurice Ravel, taking him into their country home after the death of his father. The family was extremely artistic and held Sunday evening soir?es at their 370 Cipa had given support to Toulouse-Latrec, who painted his portrait. Ravel later dedicated his Sonatine (1903-1905) to Cipa and Ida. He also wrote his piano two hands version of Ma m?re l?oye for Mimie and Jean. Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 145. 371 During the mid-nineteenth to early-twentieth centuries, musicians, artists, and writers made some forays into the arts of their peers. For example, Claude Debussy and Gabriel Faur? both sketched their contemporaries, as did Camille Saint-Sa?ns. Erik Satie became a master of calligraphy; Edgar Degas and ?douard Manet both wrote music as young men, and Jacques-Emile Blanche studied piano, playing a passable Bach. Pierre Bonnard, ?douard Manet, and Toulouse-Lautrec all decorated sheet music covers for their musician friends, while many artists were inspired by the music dramas of Richard Wagner. Henri Fantin-Latour and Odilon Redon were just two of the artists who depicted characters or scenes from Wagner's operas in their works. Baudelaire, Mallarm?, and Verlaine, whose careers together cover the decisive period from 1850 to the early twentieth century, all stressed an active interrelationship between all the arts, with the importance and supremacy of music over all the other arts. Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 136-155. 167 apartment in the rue d?Ath?nes. Regular visitors to their salon evenings were writers Jean Cocteau, L?on-Paul Fargue, Andr? Gide, and Paul Val?ry; painters d?Espagnat, La Fresnaye, and Valentine Gross; and musicians Georges Auric, Alfredo Casella, Maurice Delage, Manuel de Falla, Darius Milhaud, Alexis Roland-Manuel, Albert Roussel, Erik Satie, Florent Schmitt, Igor Stravinsky, and Ricardo Vi?es. 370 French composer Ernest Chausson attracted an extraordinary number of artists to his salon evenings, including artists Albert Besnard, Eugene Carriere, Edgar Degas, ?douard Manet, Odilon Redon, and Pierre-Auguste Renoir; the sculptor Auguste Rodin; writers Maurice Bouchor, Colette, Andr? Gide, Henri Gauthier-Villars, St?phane Mallarm?, Camille Mauclar, and Henri de Regnier; musicians Raymond Bonheur, Emmanuel Chabrier, Henri Duparc, Gabriel Faur?, Cesar Frank, Vincent d'Indy, Charles Koechlin, Alb?ric Magnard, and Guy Ropartz; conductor Camille Chevillard; and critic Sylvio Lazzari. 371 Several works for flute and voice were written as a result of these associations between French composers and writers. Debussy?s friendship with Pierre Lou?s 372 Debussy met poet Pierre Lou?s around 1893. Lou?s was then beginning to attract attention in Parisian literary circles. Despite the disparity in their ages (Debussy was thirty-one and Lou?s only twenty-two at the time of their first meeting) they soon became close friends and remained so for the next twelve years. They had much in common temperamentally and shared the same predilection for rare and precious objects and sensations. Lockspeiser, Debussy, 62-64. 373 Les fantaisistes were a group of poets who came together around 1911 and worked toward a light, tender, sometimes mocking poetry. This group included the poets Jean-Marc Bernard, Tristan D?r?me (pseudonym of Philippe Huc), Jean Pellerin, and Jean-Paul Toulet. The New Oxford Companion to Literature in French, edited by Peter France, 298. 168 prompted him to set Lou?s?s Les chansons de Bilitis for 2 flutes, 2 harps, celesta, and narrator in 1901 (at Lou?s?s request). 372 Maurice Emmanuel, who frequented the same salons as Debussy and who was extremely interested in ancient French history, wrote his Trois odelettes anacr?ontiques, op. 13 for flute, soprano, and piano, to the poetry of medieval poets R?my Belleau and Pierre de Ronsard in 1911. Ravel benefitted from his salon associations with Colette and Tristan Klingsor, writing pieces for flute and soprano based on their writings: "Air de la princesse" from L'Enfant et les sortli?ges (1920) by Colette; and "La fl?te enchant?e" from Sh?h?rzade (1903) by Tristan Klingsor. The young Francis Poulenc (1899-1963) also wrote music for flute, soprano, and chamber ensemble based on the poets he had met and admired, including Le bestiaire (1919) from poetry by Guillaume Apollinaire and Quatre po?mes de Max Jacob, op. 22 (1920) from poetry by Max Jacob. Alexis Roland-Manuel also wrote a piece for flute and soprano entitled Deux ?legies (1928). In this work, he combined the poetry of the early French poet Francois Maynard and the fantaisistes poet Jean Pellerin (1885-1921), whom he had met through Tristan Klingsor. 373 OTHER GATHERINGS OF ARTISTS AT THE TURN OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 374 Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 310-311. 375 Debussy was twenty-five years old when he returned to Paris in 1887, following a period of time spent in Rome as a result of winning the Prix de Rome. It was a time of literary and artistic ferment and Debussy found himself stimulated by the variety of ideas that were openly discussed. He dabbled in Wagnerism and also followed the English Pre-Raphaelites, the Russian Five, and Edgar Allan Poe, who had a wide French readership after the translation of his works into French by Charles Baudelaire. There were also the symbolists poets, the most important and influential group with whom he would become associated. St?phane Mallarm? was the guiding spirit of this literary movement, and he had rallied around him like-minded writers such as Jules Laforgue, Pierre Lou?s, Henri de R?gnier, and Paul Verlaine, while the painters in the group included Odilon Redon and James McNeil Whistler. The young Debussy met them all at the famous Tuesday gatherings in Mallarm?'s flat in the rue de Rome. The friendships and acquaintances he made in these distinguished circles had a profound influence on his artistic development. During the 1890s, as Debussy began to frequent many salon gatherings, he subsequently conceived the idea of creating a style of music similar to the methods of impressionism in painting and symbolism in literature. By avoiding academic or traditional conventions, by relaxing some of the familiar indications of tonality, and by using harmony largely as a means of colorist effect, he obtained results strikingly analogous to those of poetry and painting. The first work in which Debussy attempted this revolutionary procedure was the now-famous Pr?lude ? l'apr?s midi d'un faune, which was suggested to him by Mallarm?'s poem of the same title and 169 The Parisian salons played a crucial role in bringing together the musicians, artists, writers, poets, and critics of the day. In the caf? atmosphere of turn-of-the-century Paris, musicians, artists, dancers, and writers were in frequent contact with each other. They socialized and introduced one another to their artist friends. Soon they began convening their own social gatherings outside of the official salons, even establishing artistic groups of their own. Since the mid-1880s, the symbolist poet St?phane Mallarm? had been gathering about him poets, musicians, painters, literary critics, and musicians. 374 Mallarm?'s Tuesday evening receptions in his home, which began in 1880 and lasted over a decade, took on such significance that everybody of any importance in the artistic avant-garde felt distinguished by admission there. These meetings attracted an astonishing variety of artists from several generations, various schools of thought, and various movements. A partial list includes Jacques-Emile Blanche, Claude Debussy, 375 Edgar Degas, Paul was composed in 1892. Debussy's next major work in this form was the opera Pell?as et M?lisande, based upon Maeterlinck's play of the same name. It was produced in 1902 at the Op?ra-Comique and caused a sensation, ultimately being acknowledged as the most notable musical event since the premiere of Wagner?s operas in Paris. Lockspeiser, Debussy, 68-78 and Brody, The Musical Kaleidoscope, 52. 376 Apparently, apaches was the name given to low-life criminals in the late 1880s and 1890s in Paris. These wretched individuals were brought to the attention of the public through the songs of caf? singer Aristide Bruant (1851-1925), whose hit song ?A Biribi? referred to the disciplinary corps in North Africa where recalcitrant army recruits were sent to break their spirit. Many became apaches as a result of the harshness of the conditions there. There also seems to have been a homosexual connotation to this term for the artists. Many of the members of the group were homosexuals and felt themselves to be outcasts from society, constantly defending their artistic ideas. Sowerwine, France since 1870, 97. 377 Tristan Klingsor was the pseudonym of L?on Leclerc, an art critic and poet. He worshiped Wagner, and the development of his nom de plum came about as a combination of two of Wagner?s operatic characters: Tristan, from Tristan und Isolde, and Klingsor, from Parsifal. Some of Klingsor?s poems reveal a 170 Gauguin, ?douard Manet, Stuart Merrill, Claude Monet, Berthe Morisot, Edvard Munch, Odilon Redon, Auguste Renoir, Arthur Rimbaud, F?licien Rops, Paul Verlaine, Gustave Viel?-Griffin, and James Abbott McNeill Whistler. During these assemblies, there were readings of poems and the issues of the moment were freely discussed, whether the principles of symbolism or of impressionism. MAURICE RAVEL AND LES APACHES As a result of his salon activities, Ravel became intimate with a large group of writers and artists. About 1900, he was instrumental in the formation of a group of enthusiastic devotees of the arts who were to call themselves Les apaches. The name was coined by Ricardo Vi?es and referred to underworld hooligans. 376 The apaches were fervent supporters of new music and attended many performances of new works by French composers. This group met fairly regularly until World War I, discussing painting, declaiming poetry, and performing new music. Among the members of the groups were poets Tristan Klingsor 377 and L?on-Paul Fargue, the painter Paul Sordes, the Wagnerian source of inspiration; he also wrote musical compositions. The New Oxford Companion to Literature in French, edited by Peter France, 422-423. 378 A Ravel Reader, edited by Arbie Orenstein, 4. 171 writer Abb? L?once Petit, the conductor D?sir?-Emile Inghelbrecht, the decorator Georges Mouveau, pianists Marcel Chadeigne and Ricardo Vi?es, and composers Andr? Caplet, Maurice Delage, Marcel Delannoy, Manuel de Falla, Paul Ladmirault, Florent Schmitt, and D?odat de S?verac. The group met at the home of painter Paul Sordes on the rue Dulong, at the home of Tristan Klingsor on the avenue du Parc Montsouris, and later at Maurice Delage's studio in Auteuil. It would be difficult to capture the excitement of these meetings. L?on- Paul Fargue wrote: Ravel shared our predilections, our weaknesses, our manias for Chinese art, Mallarm? and Verlaine, Rimbaud and Corbi?re, C?zanne and Van Gogh, Rameau and Chopin, Whistler and Val?ry, the Russians and Debussy. 378 Several works for flute and soprano resulted from these associations. Probably the most direct connection was between Ravel and Maurice Delage. Both worked in the same vein shortly before World War I, composing two similar pieces within a year of one another: Trois po?mes de St?phane Mallarm? (1913) for soprano, 2 flutes [piccolo], 2 clarinets [bass clarinet], string quartet, and piano by Ravel; and Quatre po?mes hindous (1914) for soprano, 2 violins, viola, cello, 2 flutes, oboe, 2 clarinets, and harp by Delage. Ten years later, Ravel collaborated with Evariste Parny to write the Chansons mad?casses (1924) for flute, soprano, cello, and piano, with Luc-Albert Moreau illustrating the music for Durand (the lithograph is still printed in the current Durand Edition). 379 Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 97-102. 172 Other works for flute and soprano by members of the group include Andr? Caplet?s Corbeille de fruits: ?coute, mon coeur (1924) for flute and soprano, with poetry by Rabindranath Tagore; Maurice Delage?s Deux fables de Jean de La Fontaine (1931) for soprano, flute, oboe, 2 clarinets, bassoon, horn, trumpet, piano, string quartet, with poetry by Jean de la Fontaine; Hommage ? A. Roussel (1925) for soprano, flute, and piano, with poetry by Ren? Chalupt; Sept ha?-ka?s (1920-1925) for soprano, flute, oboe, clarinet, piano, and string quartet; and Trois po?mes: L'aleuette (1923) or flute, soprano, and piano, with poetry by Guillaume de Salluste du Bartas; and Marcel Delannoy?s (1898-1962) Trois histoires (1926) for soprano, flute, bassoon, and piano, with poetry by Jean Mor?as; and Deux po?mes (1927) for soprano, flute, piano, 2 violins, viola, and cello, with poetry by Andr? Germain. LES SIX AND THEIR COLLABORATORS The next generation of French composers was also closely associated with the writers and artists of their day. By the early 1900s, the formality of the salons was being replaced by the informality of the recital halls, dance halls, caf?s, and restaurants as gathering places for artists. 379 While the group of Les six seems to have been formed overnight, it took over three years for all the members to gather together and be recognized. The singer Jane Bathori, through her performances at the Th??tre du Vieux-Colombier, was instrumental in performing the music of these composers 380 A full discussion of Jane Bathori and her influence on the musical life of the day is found in Chapter 11: The Rise of the Great Sopranos. 381 Robert, Louis Durey, 28-31. 173 together. 380 One of the members of Les six, Louis Durey, described their interactions: Jane Bathori, the great singer who premiered or interpreted, so to speak, all the contemporary vocal music, without expecting anything in return, put her immense talent at the service of youth. She opened to us the doors of the Th??tre du Vieux-Colombier, which she had rented to make music there. All our first works were born there. It became a habit to see our names united on the same programs. It was only later, when Henri Collet decided to select and count us ?that the name Groupe des six was born and became known. To tell the truth, the particular selection by the critic had substance behind it, despite a few omissions. For not only did we group ourselves on concert programs ?but there was something else as well. One might say we were inseparable. Every Saturday, invariably, we gathered at Darius Milhaud's to make music, try our latest efforts, and exchange our ideas. We dined together at a modest restaurant in Montmartre, then we loved to join the crowd, which, between the place Blanche and the place Pigalle, paraded past the fair booths. We saturated ourselves in the different tunes of the merry-go-rounds which poured their cacophonous floods upon us, and that perhaps had an influence on our first polytonal research. We loved going to the Circus M?drano nearby, seeing the first great American films, hearing the first manifestation of jazz. These tastes were reflected in our music of the time.? But if the fight against the two fronts, impressionist and romantic, which represented the past to us, and the search for a sparer and more accessible style preoccupied us, one should not conclude that this would necessarily bring us toward a common aesthetic on all points, or toward some uniform means of expression. All of this was only a frame upon which each one of us wove the fabric of his own personality. And it is without a doubt this great diversity within unity, the junction of our six very different natures, of our characters which contrasted to the point of opposition, which gave to the group its richness, permitted its development, and assured its renown beyond French borders. 381 Arthur Honegger was introduced into the musical soir?es of Jane Bathori around 1917 in her apartment on the boulevard P?reire. There, he met painter, theater designer and musician Fernand Ochs? who, until his tragic death, remained one of Honegger?s 382 Ochs? was arrested by the Gestapo during World War II and died in Auschwitz in July 1944. Halbreich, Arthur Honegger, 178. 383 Milhaud, Notes Without Music, translated by Donald Evans, 97-99. 174 closets friends. 382 He also met Jean Cocteau, Georges Auric, Darius Milhaud, Francis Poulenc, and Erik Satie, and Andr?e Vaurabourg, who would later become his wife. He also met the singer Claire Croiza who would premiere many of his songs, including his works for flute and voice. In his memoirs, Darius Milhaud described the assemblies of Les six and others associated with them: The formation of the Group of Six helped to draw the bonds of friendship closer among us. For two years we met regularly at my place every Saturday evening. [Novelist] Paul Morand would make the cocktails, and then we would go to a little restaurant at the top of the rue Blanche. The dining room of the Petit Bessonneau was so diminutive that the Saturday customers filled it completely. They gave free rein to their high spirits. After dinner, lured by the steam-driven merry-go-rounds, the mysterious booths, the shooting galleries, the games of chance, the menageries, the din of the mechanical organs with their perforated rolls seeming to grind out simultaneously and implacably all the blaring tunes from the music halls and revues, we would visit the Fair of Montmartre, or occasionally the cirque M?drano to see the Fratellinis in their sketches, so steeped in poetry and imagination that they were worthy of the commedia dell'arte. We finished the evening at my house. The poets would read their poems, and we would play our latest compositions. Some of them, such as Auric's Adieu New York, Poulenc's Cocardes, and my Boeuf sur le toit were continually being played. We even used to insist on Poulenc's playing Cocardes every Saturday evening, as he did most readily. Out of these meetings, in which a spirit of carefree gaiety reigned, many a fruitful collaboration was to be born; they also determined the character of several works strongly marked by the influence of the music hall. 383 Here again, the close affiliations of Les six and the extent to which they were influenced by contemporary literature is a point to be noted. Their favorite authors appear to have been Guillaume Apollinaire (1880-1918), Louis Aragon (1897-1982), Paul 384 Pierre Bernac noted: ?It is astonishing to realize to how great a degree the words, their colors, their accents, the rhythm of a phrase or of a line as well as its sense, the general movement, the pulsation, the form of the poem or literary text in addition to its meaning, all combined to awaken in Poulenc the musical inspiration.? Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 157. 175 Claudel (1868-1955), Jean Cocteau (1889-1963), Paul ?luard (1895-1952), and Paul Val?ry (1871-1945). All the Les six composers were prolific in their production of French m?lodie. Milhaud had met Francis Jammes at a young age and the poet introduced Milhaud to Paul Claudel. This proved to be a turning point in the musician's life, and his collaboration with the poet produced some of his best works. Milhaud found a remarkable collaborator in Paul Claudel, a diplomat, poet, and dramatist who frequented the symbolist social circles. Claudel was seen regularly at Mallarm?'s Tuesday evenings in the rue de Rome. His self-translated works of Aeschylus and his own plays and poems reveal the influence of classicism and the antique world as well as Rimbaud. In 1916, Claudel was appointed French Minister to Brazil and invited Milhaud to accompany him to Rio as his secretary. The two men grew closer still and their collaboration continued even after their return to Paris in 1918 and Milhaud's entry into the circle of Jean Cocteau and Les six. Milhaud went on to compose hundreds of pieces for voice, which conveys something of the importance that texts had for him. Cendrars, Chalupt, Chateaubriand, Claudel, Cocteau, Desnos, Gide, Goethe, Jammes, Laforgue, Mallarm?, Mistral, Rilke, Ronsard, and Tagore were among the poets whose words he set to music. Poulenc, another member of Les six, was also known for his vocal works and his unique understanding of text. 384 Besides his three operas, La voix humaine to a text of 385 Ibid. 176 Cocteau, Les mamelles de Tir?sias derived from Apollinaire, and Dialogues des Carm?lites by Georges Bernanos, Poulenc wrote 137 m?lodie, of which only twenty are not based on texts of contemporary French poets. The composer once described his process in selecting text for his m?lodie: When I have chosen a poem of which the musical setting at times may not come to mind until months later, I examine it in all its aspects. When it is a question of Apollinaire or Eluard, I attach the greatest importance to the way in which the poem is placed on the page, to the spaces, to the margins. I recite the poem to myself many times. I listen, I search for traps, at times I underline the text in red at the difficult spots. I note the breathing places; I try to discover the inner rhythm from a line which is not necessarily the first. Next I try to set it to music, bearing in mind the different densities of the piano accompaniment. When I am held up over a detail of prosody, I do not persist. Sometimes I wait for days, I try to forget the word until I see it as a new word.?I rarely begin a song at the beginning. One or two lines chosen at random, take hold of me and very often give me the tone, the hidden rhythm, the key to the work.?It is not only the lines of the poem that must be set to music, but all that lies between the lines and in the margins. 385 The members of Les six also wrote several pieces for flute, soprano, and piano and flute, soprano, and chamber ensemble. A complete listing is found in Table 7?Music For Flute and Soprano by Members of Les six. As a result of their interactions, many composers of this period explored the same themes and set the same poetry to music. For instance, Louis Durey set Le bestiaire, poems of Guillaume Apollinaire in 1919, as did Francis Poulenc in the same year. Charles Koechlin wrote songs to Les chansons de Bilitis, poems of Pierre Lou?s in 1898, as did Claude Debussy in 1901. Various instances occur of Koechlin setting the same 386 These intersections with other musicians are illuminated in great detail in Robert Orledge?s biography of Charles Koechlin. 387 Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 136-153. 388 Stone, ?The Life and Published Flute Compositions of Jean Rivier, 31. 177 texts as his contemporaries. 386 Maurice Delage, Cyril Scott, and Jean d'Udine wrote works based on Kipling's Jungle Book. Ernest Chausson and Reynaldo Hahn set Banville's La nuit. Louis Aubert wrote versions of Sous bois and La lampe du ciel. Faur? set Verlaine's N'est-ce pas? from La bonne chanson in 1893. Milhaud set Claudel's Dissolution in 1912-13. 387 TRITON Between the two world wars, Pierre-Octave Ferroud (1900-1936) founded the group Triton to provide concert opportunities for new composers. Triton did not promote any particular aesthetic. Rather, it promoted music that was diverse and included several foreigners residing in Paris in addition to its French members. Instead of promoting an artistic nationalism, Triton cultivated a "concert of universality which is in the purest tradition of France and of the radiance of her thought and of the disciplines which she proposes rather than imposes." 388 The composers associated with this group included B?la Bart?k, Henry Barraud, Alfredo Casella, Marcel Delannoy, Claude Delvincourt, Georges Enescu, Manuel de Falla, Jean Fran?aix, Arthur Honegger, Jacques Ibert, Darius Milhaud, Francis Poulenc, Serge Prokofiev, Maurice Ravel, Jean Rivier, Albert Roussel, Florent Schmitt, Arnold Schoenberg, Richard Strauss, Igor Stravinsky, and Henri 389 Missing from this distinguished list were the composers Jean-Yves Daniel-Lesur, Andr? Jolivet, and Olivier Messiaen. Henry Barraud remarked that one would not find these composers appearing in the list of Triton members because they were younger and at the beginnings of their careers. Their works did, however, appear on Triton concerts. Stone, ?The Life and Published Flute Compositions of Jean Rivier, 33. 178 Tomasi, among others. 389 Almost all of the French composers in the group Triton wrote compositions for flute and voice, with some twenty works between 1917 and 1949: TABLE 8 (Alphabetical by Composer) Music for Flute and Voice by Members of Triton Composer Dates Title Instrumentation Date of Comp- osition Text DELANNOY, Marcel Fran?ois Georges (1898-1962) Trois histoires For soprano, flute, bassoon, and piano 1926 Jean Mor?as DELANNOY, Marcel Fran?ois Georges (1898-1962) Deux po?mes For soprano, flute, piano, 2 violins, viola, and cello 1927 Andr? Germain HONEGGER, Arthur (1892-1955) Chanson de Ronsard For soprano, flute, and string quartet 1924 Pierre de Ronsard HONEGGER, Arthur (1892-1955) Trois chansons de la petite sir?ne For soprano, flute, and string quartet 1926 Ren? Morax IBERT, Jacques (1890-1962) Deux st?les orient?es For soprano and flute 1925 Victor Segalen IBERT, Jacques (1890-1962) Aria For soprano, flute, and piano 1930 None IBERT, Jacques (1890-1962) Chanson du rien For soprano, flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, and horn 1930 Maurice Constantin- Weyer MILHAUD, Darius (1892-1974) Machines agricoles, op. 56 For soprano, flute, clarinet, bassoon, violin, viola, cello, and bass 1919 Anonymous Music for Flute and Voice by Members of Triton 179 MILHAUD, Darius (1892-1974) Catalogue de fleurs For soprano, flute, clarinet, bassoon, violin, viola, cello, and bass 1920 Lucien Daudet POULENC, Francis (1899-1963) Rhapsodie n?gre For baritone or soprano, flute, clarinet, string quartet, and piano 1917 Makoko Kangourou POULENC, Francis (1899-1963) Le bestiaire For soprano, flute, clarinet, bassoon, and string quartet 1919 Guillaume Apollinaire POULENC, Francis (1899-1963) Quatre po?mes de Max Jacob, op. 22 For soprano, flute, oboe, bassoon, trumpet, and clarinet 1921 Max Jacob RAVEL, Maurice (1875-1937) Chansons mad?casses For voice, flute cello, and piano 1925 Evariste Parny RIVIER, Jean (1896-1987) Vocalise For soprano and flute Un- known Unknown ROUSSEL, Albert-Charles (1869-1937) Deux po?mes de Ronsard, op. 26, no. 1 and no. 2 For soprano and flute 1924 Pierre de Ronsard SCHMITT, Florent (1870-1958) Kerob-shal, op. 67 For soprano, flute and orchestra 1919- 1924 Ren? Kerdyk, Georges Jean- Aubry, Ren? Chalupt SCHMITT, Florent (1870-1958) Quatre monocantes, op. 115 For soprano, flute, violin, viola, cello, and harp 1949 Poetry by Hernando de Bengoechea, L?on-Paul Fargue, Mireille Vincendon, Maurice Car?me TOMASI, Henri (1901-1971) Le chevrier For soprano, flute, viola, and harp 1943 Jos?-Maria de Heredia TOMASI, Henri (1901-1971) La fl?te For soprano, flute, viola, and harp 1943 Jos?-Maria de Heredia LA JEUNE FRANCE 390 Myers, Modern French Music, 134-138. 391 Apparently, this group of composers worked in reaction against the abstract tendencies of middle European composers, as represented in the group Triton. Rostand, French Music Today, translated by Henry Marx, 34. 180 The decade immediately preceding World War II was marked by a certain relaxation of tension and the emergence of a new generation of musicians in France who felt that the time had come to restore to music some of the dignity and prestige it had seemed in danger of losing during the early 1900s. 390 About 1936, the group La jeune france was founded with the intention of laying greater stress on the deeper human and spiritual values which composers of the post World War I generation had tended to ignore. 391 These composers, including Yves Baudrier (b.1906), Jean Fran?aix (b.1912), Jacques Ibert (1890-1962), Andr? Jolivet (1905-1974), Jean Yves Daniel-Lesur (1908- 2002), Olivier Messiaen (1908-1992), George Migot (1891-1976), and Jean Rivier (1896-1987), enjoyed the patronage of writers such as Georges Duhamel, Fran?ois Mauriac, and Paul Val?ry. Their goal was to bring music back into contact with life? to re-humanize it? and they worked in reaction to what they considered the somewhat frivolous approach of Les six, Cocteau, and Satie. The following manifesto of the group was printed in the program of the first concert of the group at the Salle Gaveau on June 3, 1936: As living conditions become more and more hard, mechanical and impersonal, music must bring its spiritual fortitude and its generous reactions to those who love it. La jeune france, revising a term created by Berlioz a long time ago, pursues the road upon which the master once took his obdurate course.?La jeune france has for its goal the dissemination of young free works equally removed from revolutionary and academic formulae.?La jeune france also hopes to encourage the young French school which has been allowed to languish through 392 Ibid., 35-37. 393 It was when listening to Olivier Messiaen?s Offrandes oubli?es in a concert at the Conservatoire that Baudrier became aware of the spiritual movement which had begun to take hold of many younger artists in France. Baudrier contacted Messiaen and they agreed on the common pursuit of their ideals. Rostand, French Music Today, translated by Henry Marx, 34. 394 Myers, Modern French Music, 142-153. 181 the indifference or the penury of official powers. It will allow the music of the great composers of the past to continue in this century for they have made French music one of the purest jewels of civilization. 392 The actual founder of the group was Yves Baudrier who, like Daniel-Lesur, was opposed to any system of theoretical research, which they believed would only lead to the de-humanization of music and the consequent disconnection of the composer and the public. 393 And, indeed, the works for flute and voice by Daniel-Lesur and George Migot are both neo-romantic in conception with a return to lyricism and humanism. Daniel-Lesur?s Quatre lieder (1947) for soprano, flute, violin, viola, cello, piano, and harp, on poetry by C?cile Sauvage and Henri Heine, was written shortly after the end of World War II and is in opposition to the harshness he perceived in the works of Boulez, Jolivet, and Var?se. 394 Migot wrote several pieces for flute and soprano over the course of his life, including Deux st?les (1934) for soprano, flute, harp, celeste, double bass, and percussion, on poetry of Victor S?galen; Reposoir grave, noble et pur? (1933) for flute, soprano, and piano [or harp], on poetry by Charles de Saint-Cyr; and Six t?traphonies (1946) for soprano, flute, violin, and cello. All are tonal works with a romantic intensity that harkens back to French music of the late-nineteenth century. 182 It would be difficult to exaggerate the significance of these various salons on Parisian artistic life in the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth century. The subtle forms of patronage through the salons as well as the free intercourse of artists provided a rich background for the creation of new French music. The connections these composers made with French writers of the day brought French m?lodie to its pinnacle in their hands. While composers continued to write m?lodie and works for flute and voice in the first half of the twentieth century, including Ibert's Deux st?les orientale, Migot's Reposoir grave, noble et pur, and Daniel-Lesur's Quatre lieder, there was a tendency to de-humanize and de-personalize their work after the atrocities of World War II. A gulf began to grow between the composer and the audience, as the cynicism, disillusionment, and skepticism of contemporary music became apparent. These composers pushed the boundaries of tonality to their limits, experimenting with serialized compositions where almost every aspect of musical structure (pitch, duration, intensity, etc.) was exploited, resulting in scores of immense complexity that were virtually unintelligible to the ear. Mechanical sound devices, such as electronic vibrations or magnetic tapes of artificially distorted sounds began to take the place of instruments or the natural human voice. Chance music or computerized music would soon reduce music to a haphazard succession of isolated sounds, or even to silence. Artists worked more in isolation and developed their own eccentric traits. By 1950, the grouping of voice with flute no longer seemed relevant and, with few exceptions, French 395 Pierre Boulez? Le marteau sans ma?tre (1955) is a notable exception. The work consists of nine pieces based on three poems by Ren? Char. It is scored for contralto, flute, viola, guitar, vibraphone, xylorimba, and percussion. Although still written in Boulez? method of musique concrete, it is more tonally accessible and less cerebral than many of his other works. Myers, Modern French Music, 168-169. 183 composers no longer wrote chamber music for flute and voice. 395 396 Saint-Sa?ns, Harmonie et m?lodie, translated by Hill, 207. 184 CHAPTER 7 THE CONCERT SOCI?T?S Not so long ago, perhaps fifteen years, a French composer who had the audacity to try his fortune in the field of instrumental music had no other means of having his works performed than to give a concert himself and invite his friends and the critics. As far as the general public were concerned it was hopeless to think about them. The name of a composer who was French and still alive had only to appear on a poster to frighten everybody away 396 . ?Camille Saint-Sa?ns 397 See Grout, A History of Western Music, Hervey, French Music in the XIXth Century, Hill, Modern French Music, and Lang, Music in Western Civilization. Paris was the home of numerous theaters that performed opera. In addition to the Op?ra and the Op?ra-Comique, there was the Th??tre-Historique, founded in 1847 by Alexandre Dumas and renamed the Th??tre-Lyrique in 1852; the Cirque-Olympique or Cirque-Imp?ral, home of the Op?ra-Nationale from 1847-1851; the Folies-Dramatiques or Th??tre-D?zet; the Th??tre de la ga?t?; the Funabules; and the Th??tre-Saqui which was later renamed the D?ssements-Comiques. The capital drew composers and vocalists from Austria, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, and Russian. Indeed, most musicians in Europe came to Paris in order to establish their careers. Grout, A Short History of Opera, 315-341. 398 Lang, Music in Western Civilization, 923. 399 The Op?ra was considered the premiere theater in Paris. The orchestra was large, with an average of seventy players, and it maintained a high musical standard. Some of the famous female singers at the Op?ra during this period included Alexandrine Caroline Branchu (1780-1850), Laure Cinti-Damoreau (1801-1863), Maria Malibran (1808-1836), and Pauline Viardot (1821-1910). Famous male singers included Louis Nourrit (1780-1831), Henri Etienne D?rivis (1780-1956), Adolphe Nourrit (1802-1839), Lainez, and Lafont. In addition, the Op?ra premiered important works such as Meyerbeer's Les Huguenots (1836), Berlioz's Benvenuto Cellini (1838), Donizetti's La favorite (1840), and Weber's Der freisch?tz (1841). The state continued to support the Op?ra during Louis Napol?on's reign. In order for the Op?ra to remain profitable, it recycled older works that had achieved "classical" status. These works continued to draw audiences in revival after revival: Meyerbeer's first three grand operas, Jacques Fromentin Hal?vy's La juive (1835), Donizetti's La favorite (1840) and Lucia de Lammermoor (1835), Daniel Fran?ois Esprit Auber's La musette de Portici (1828), and Rossini's Guillaume Tell (1829). During these mid-century years, certain formulas regarding voice types also emerged. At the Op?ra, which generally presented works of four or five acts, two prominent female roles were usually featured, one a florid soprano, and the other a more dramatic soprano falcon (named after Corn?lie Falcon, a famous soprano of the mid-nineteenth century and creator of the role of Alice in Robert le diable.) The 185 French music during the nineteenth century has traditionally been characterized by a preoccupation with opera. 397 Paul Henry Lang described this period in France, saying: ?The musical despot in France was the opera.?Musique was synonymous with the lyric stage, and no one paid serious attention to anything else.? 398 Nevertheless, French composers struggled to have their music heard, even on the stage. Parisian opera, at the opening of the nineteenth century, was entrenched in a stronghold of tradition. The various types of dramatic music, such as grand opera, opera comique, and ballet, maintained a preponderance of French traits as well as a fidelity to the conventions of French taste in the theater. 399 By the 1830s, however, that would all French Grand Opera, as it was known, was famous for the number of costumes, props, and scenery associated with each work. Staging was almost for staging's sake, using flamboyant romantic-historical d?cor, crowd effects, and the new gas illumination. The vocal and histrionic skills of the principal singers (notably Adolphe Nourrit and Pauline Viardot) were vital to the opera theater's success. Kuhn, Baker?s Dictionary of Opera, 219. 400 Throughout the nineteenth century, French governments allocated part of their musical budgets to the Paris opera houses, including the Op?ra, the Op?ra-Comique, and intermittently, the Th??tre-Italien and the Th??tre-Lyrique. Despite political upheaval, the bias of government funding toward Parisian opera houses remained constant through the changing political regimes in France at the time. At the same time, the government exercised strict control over the unsubsidized theaters in Paris, requiring them to pay dues to support the government sanctioned theaters. Charlton and Trevitt, New Grove Dictionary, 2 nd Edition, vol. XIX, 102. 186 change when, ironically, Italian composers of French opera would be the most influential musicians in Paris. The most well known of these Italian emigres were Luigi Cherubini (1760-1842), Gasparo Spontini (1774-1851), and Gioachino Rossini (1792-1868). Somewhat later, Gioacomo Meyerbeer (1791-1864) attained the height of eclecticism with a musical language that fused German technical features and florid Italian vocalism with the opulent staging that was the tradition of the French opera house. 400 French grand opera was soon embodied by the music of a German composer. A small survey of the repertoire illustrates this phenomena. The following table represents the operatic works given the most performances at the Paris Op?ra between 1800 and 1850: TABLE 9 MOST PERFORMED OPERATIC WORKS AT THE PARIS OP?RA BETWEEN 1800-1850 Date Composer Title Librettist Acts 1804 Leseur Ossian, ou les bardes Dercy 5 1807 Spontini La vestale Jouy 3 1809 Spontini Fernand Cortez Jouy 3 1813 Cherubini Les abenc?rages Jouy 3 Date Composer Title Librettist Acts 401 Several striking facts emerge from this table. Although these works were all incredibly successful in their day, none of them have remained in the standard repertory, except perhaps Le comte d?Ory and Guillaume Tell, both by Rossini. French grand opera is not a form that has survived the test of time, as have the romantic works of Beethoven, Verdi, and Wagner. In addition, of the nine composers listed, only four are French, and these four French musicians are relatively unknown today. The greatest successes of Rossini and Meyerbeer were in Pairs. Also notable is that two librettists dominate this repertory: ?tienne de Jouy and Eug?ne Scribe. Both men had a taste for the sensational, with Scribe?s librettos introducing a ballet (Robert le diable), a skating scene (Le proph?te), and a ship in cross-section (Meyerbeer?s L?Africaine). Scribe also preferred the five act opera and plots of great deeds done against a backdrop of epic conflict which render individuals powerless in a grand chain of events. The French Romantics, ed. Charleton, 356. 187 1826 Rossini Les si?ge de Corinthe Soumet & Balocchi 3 1827 Rossini Mo?se Jouy & Balocchi 4 1828 Aubert La muette de Portici Scribe & Delavigne 5 1828 Rossini Le comte d?Ory Scribe & Poirson 2 1829 Rossini Guillaume Tell Jouy, Bil & Marast 4 1831 Meyerbeer Robert le diable Scribe & Delavigne 5 1833 Aubert Gustave III Scribe 5 1835 Hal?vy La juive Scribe 5 1836 Meyerbeer Les Huguenots Scribe 5 1838 Hal?vy Guido et Ginerva Scribe 5 1838 Berlioz Benvenuto Cellini Barbier & de Wailly 2 1840 Donizetti Les martyrs Scribe 4 1840 Donizetti La favorite Royer & Va?z 4 1841 Hal?vy La reine de Chypre St. Georges 5 1843 Hal?vy Charles VI Delavigne & Delavigne 5 1849 Meyerbeer La proph?te Scribe 5 401 Curiously, it was at about the same time (1830) that concert soci?t?s began to flourish in France. Their development over the succession of the century would alter the course of French music. 402 Cooper, ?A Renaissance in the Nineteenth Century: The Rise of French Instrumental Music and Parisian Concert Societies, 1828-1871,? 21. 403 Hill, Modern French Music, 4-8. 188 According to Jeffery Cooper, concert soci?t?s, along with musical salons, were extremely active as early as 1830: Between 1828 and 1871 about 125 societies that performed orchestral or chamber music were founded (or remained active) in Paris.? Needless to say, a number of the societies were short-lived; some lasted only a single season and gave only a few concerts. About 60 lasted more than a season and were apparently regarded as having some permanence, though slightly fewer than half of these survived more than four years. Unquestionably, many of these transitory societies had only limited importance as single entities; yet cumulatively they dramatically changed the musical life of nineteenth-century Paris. 402 These soci?t?s were instrumental in a dramatic shift in French music from the operatic stage to instrumental music and chamber music. Hill states that during the second half of the nineteenth century. There followed a period a revolution in public taste due to the establishment of orchestras and chamber music societies with a consequent awakening of interest in their respective literature. Saint-Sa?ns, Lalo and C?sar Franck, the pioneers of instrumental music in France, may be regarded as the direct outcome of this movement.?The results have been twofold: First, the Parisian musical public has permanently enlarged its viewpoint and its sense of discrimination. Second, native composers, encouraged by the prospects of performance, immediately set to work to produce a literature in the fields of orchestral and chamber music. Without this radical conversion in popular taste, the entire progressive trend of French music would have been unthinkable. 403 Several of these soci?t?s premiered new works that were written for flute and voice. Many of the works were written specifically for certain artists who performed regularly with these ensembles. The following soci?t?s were particularly instrumental in the development and performance of the works considered in this dissertation. 404 The Th??tre-Italien had its beginnings in Napol?on's preference for Italian music, so its repertoire displayed a decided preference for Italian opera. Its directors included Gasparo Spontini (1810-12) and Gioachino Rossini (1824-26). As director, Rossini produced the works of Bellini, Meyerbeer, and other Italian composers. He also imported singers from Italy, including Giulia Grisi, Lablache, and Mario and Antonio Tamburini. These artists were to have a profound impact on operatic singing in France and on the composers who wrote for them. Their coloratura style, with its characteristic lightness and floridness of line, would become a vocal standard. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2 nd edition, vol. XIX, 223. 189 SOCI?T? DES CONCERTS DU CONSERVATOIRE In the early 1800s, the state of musical performance in Paris for French composers was dismal. As noted above, opera dominated the musical scene in Paris and works performed at the Op?ra were mainly by foreign composers. By 1822, more than a dozen operas by Gioachino Antonio Rossini had been produced in the French capital, but even before that, Luigi Cherubini had visited Paris and then had taken up permanent residence there as the director of the Th??tre-Italien, so supportive were French audiences of foreign music. 404 This theater became a magnet for Italian composers, singers, and instrumentalists. Rossini, himself, after some persuasion, would eventually become the director of the Th??tre-Italien in 1824 and, during the next two years, he was also appointed Premier Compositeur du roi and Inspecteur g?n?rale du chant, with an annual income of 20,000 francs. The Th??tre-Italien proceeded to mount each of his operas, as well as works by Vincenzo Bellini and Gaetano Donizetti. The German composer Giacomo Meyerbeer also had no difficulty conquering the Parisian stage. Musical performances in Paris were utterly dominated by foreigners. Partly in answer to these conditions and partly in an attempt to recover the 405 The Conservatoire was closed between 1815 and 1816 during the second Bourbon Restoration. Luigi Cherubini emerged as the head of the Conservatoire in 1822, leading the institution in a program of reorganization and change. In 1824, Cherubini appointed La Rochefoucauld as director of Fine Arts and Habeneck as violin teacher and ?honorary director? of the Conservatoire. These three powerful musicians soon turned to the notion of establishing a concert series at the school. Holoman, The Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire, 11-13. 406 Legend has it that Habeneck summoned to his apartments enough Op?ra musicians to create an orchestra, ostensibly for lunch on the feast day of St. Cecilia, patron saint of musicians. The musicians were told to bring their instruments and, when they arrived, there were music stands in the salon holding parts to sight- read? which was the music to Beethoven?s ?Eroica? Symphony. Although enthusiasm was not unanimous in the group, several more readings took place that year and the following year, eventually leading to the establishment of a society. Cooper, ?A Renaissance in the Nineteenth Century: The Rise of French Instrumental Music and Parisian Concert Societies, 1828-1871,? 26-29. 407 The first performance was reviewed by Fran?ois-Joseph F?tis in the journal La Revue Musicale: ?The concert of March 9, 1828 will be remembered as a great day for the splendor of French music, the moment of its rebirth. The performance was stamped with superiority.?What verve, what energy, what ensemble, what perfection of nuance they brought to the Beethoven Symphony! They made it seem easy, with fine brush strokes, majestic pianos from a huge orchestra, thunderous fortes. It was all perfect, admirable, worthy at last of the best artists in the capital of France. Holoman, The Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire, 4. 190 Conservatoire?s former prestige, the Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire was founded in 1828. 405 This group was an outgrowth of the student concerts presented at the Conservatoire between 1800 and 1815, which had established the presence of symphonic music at the school. 406 This orchestra would soon be considered one of the finest of the nineteenth century, gaining a reputation for polished performing with superior technical skill. 407 It had the distinction of being one of the very few regular orchestral concert series in Paris during the first half of the nineteenth century. Over time, it has become one of the most important performing institutions in France: The Soci?t? des concerts lasted 140 seasons, dissolving on June 21, 1967 to make way for the present Orchestra de Paris (still, officially, the Orchestra de Paris/Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire). Altogether it presented something on the order of 3,000 concerts?before perhaps 2.5 million Paris listeners. The names of some 860 soci?taires appear in the registers; perhaps twice that number played or sang as apprentice members of the Soci?t? des concerts before securing employment elsewhere. In sum very nearly all the major French instrumentalists 408 Ibid., 6. 409 Habeneck was well known in Parisian music circles. He taught violin at the Conservatoire, establishing the necessary connection with that institution to form the group. As the first conductor of the Op?ra (1821- 1824), he had also re-introduced the Lenten concerts spirituels that had been popular before the Revolution. Habeneck seems to have had a dream of conducting the Beethoven symphonies with a fine orchestra, a dream he realized with the group. Ibid., 13. 410 Dandelot, La Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire, 210-212. 411 Holoman, The Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire, 63. 191 after the Revolution had at least something to do with the organization. 408 Founded by Fran?ois-Antoine Habeneck (1781-1849), 409 the orchestra was made up of the finest students and faculty from the Conservatoire. 410 The principal flute position was held by superior Conservatoire professors and graduates. TABLE 10 PRINCIPAL FLUTISTS OF THE SOCI?T? DES CONCERTS DU CONSERVATOIRE 1850-1950 411 Flutist Lifespan Soci?taire Principal Jean-Louis Tulou 1786-1865 1828-1856 1828-1856 Louis Dorus 1813-1896 1839-1868 1856-1868 Joseph-Henri Alt?s 1826-1895 1864-1869 1868-1869 Claude-Paul Taffanel 1844-1908 1867-1901 1869-1892 Adolphe Hennebains 1862-1914 1893-1913 1893-1913 Philippe Gaubert 1879-1941 1901-1938 1913-1919 Marcel Moyse 1889-1984 1899-1984 1919-1938 Lucien Lavailotte 1898-1968 1923-1960 1938-1958 In fact, each one of these flutists studied with the flutist from the prior generation. 412 A complete listing of the flutists and the works they performed and/or premiered is found in Appendix I: Annotated Musical Bibliography. 413 Holoman, The Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire, 32. 192 Their position with the Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire, along with other professionals performing in Paris, brought them into the path of French composers who eventually wrote music for flute and voice. All of these flutists went on to perform the different works for flute and voice considered in this study. In all likelihood, their style of playing and their technical advances on the instrument inspired many of the compositions they performed. 412 Another defining feature of the Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire was the inclusion of a chorus and soloists. About forty of the original members were singers, with the rest of the chorus being assembled from the classe d?ensemble vocal at the Conservatoire and from the substantial ranks of graduated aspiring opera singers. Soloists were singing stars from the Op?ra, including male singers (in date order) Louis Nourrit (1780-1831), Nicolas Levasseur (1791-1871), Henri-Bernard Dabadie (1797- 1853) Adolph Nourrit (1802-1839), Gilbert-Louis Duprez (1806-1896), Prosper D?rivis (1808-1880), and Charles-Amable Battaille (1822-1872); and female singers Louise Zulme L?roux-Dabadie (1796-1877), Laure Cinti-Damoreau (1801-1863), Julie Gras- Dorus (1805-1896), Marie-Corn?lie Falcon (1814-1897), Rosine Stoltz (1815-1903), and Pauline Viardot-Garcia (1821-1910). 413 The connections of French composers, flutists, and singers through the Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire is noteworthy. Several of these singers would also go on to perform works for flute and voice. 414 Taffanel was particularly partial to the works of Saint-Sa?ns. During Taffanel?s nine seasons as conductor, he performed sixteen different works by Saint-Sa?ns, several of them more than once. Blakeman, Taffanel, Genius of the Flute, 166-167 415 By far, the great majority of works performed were by Beethoven, Haydn, Mendelssohn, Mozart, and Weber. Cooper, ?A Renaissance in the Nineteenth Century: The Rise of French Instrumental Music and Parisian Concert Societies, 1828-1871,? see Tables 2.2, 2.3, and 2.4. 193 Two of the ten conductors of the group between the years 1850 and 1950 were flutists. TABLE 11 CONDUCTORS OF THE SOCI?T? DES CONCERTS DU CONSERVATOIRE 1850-1950 Name Lifespan Soci?taire Conductor Narcisse Girard 1797-1860 1828-1832, 1848-1860 1848-1860 Th?ophile Tilmant 1799-1878 1818-1863 1860-1863 Fran?ois George-Hainl 1807-1873 1863-1872 1864-1872 E.-M.-E. Deldevez 1817-1897 1839-1885 1872-1885 Jules Garcin 1830-1896 1853-1992 1885-1892 Claude-Paul Taffanel 1844-1908 1867-1901 1893-1901 Georges Marty 1860-1908 1901-1908 1901-1908 Andr? Messager 1853-1929 1908-1919 1908-1919 Phillipe Gaubert 1879-1941 1901-1938 1919-1938 Charles M?nch 1891-1968 1938-1946 1938-1946 Andr? Cluytens 1905-1967 1946-1960 1946-1960 Taffanel and Gaubert were both instrumental in reforming the repertoire that was performed. 414 Despite the fact that Habeneck was a Frenchman, the group had historically provided a venue primarily for the works of German composers. 415 These works were performed and heard to satisfy popular tastes, not those of French musicians or composers. This orientation changed gradually over the years, but was especially 416 Some examples of these French works were: Louis Aubert?s Dryade, Chausson?s symphonic poem Viviane, Debussy?s L?Apr?s-midi d?un faune and his ballet Khamma, Ibert?s Escales, d?Indy?s Istar, Ravel?s Daphnis et Chlo?, Suite 2, Roussel?s Pour une f?te de printemps, and Florent Schmitt?s Antoine et Cl?op?tre. Holoman, The Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire, 389-392. 417 During Gaubert?s tenure as conductor, the wind section was altered during auditions for the 1919 season. The ensemble was now led by Marcel Moyse as solo flute, with Jean Boulze and Albert Manouvrier as his seconds. Apparently, Moyse?s career with the orchestra was short (relatively speaking) and tempestuous, while Manouvrier stayed with the orchestra for over thirty-five years. Boulze resigned to become principal with the Lamoureux orchestra and was replaced in 1922 by Lucien Lavaillotte, whose career with the Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire orchestra lasted until 1960. Ibid. 194 pronounced in Gaubert?s tenure. Gaubert had a fondness for Berlioz, which the group began to perform. In addition they now performed new or unfamiliar music by French composers of both the old and new generations, including Caplet, Chausson, Duparc, Hahn, Honegger, Milhaud, Schmitt, and Widor. 416 Gaubert was an accomplished composer in his own right and the orchestra premiered many of his works, including his Soir pa?n for flute and soprano in 1922 with Julia Nessay, soprano and Marcel Moyse, flute. 417 It was during Gaubert?s tenure as conductor, as well, that other works for flute, soprano, and chamber ensemble were performed. Jacques Pillois?s (1877-1935) Trois po?mes de Albert Samain (for soprano, flute, and string quartet) was premiered at the Salle de la Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire on February 14, 1920, by Jane Bathori, voice, Louis Fleury, flute, and Quartet Pascal string quartet. As well, Maurice Ravel?s Chansons mad?casses (for soprano, flute, cello, and piano) was performed for the opening concerts of the 1930- 1931 season (a Mozart-Ravel gala) with Madeleine Grey, soprano, Marcel Moyse, flute, Auguste Cruque, cello, and Ravel at the keyboard. THE SOCI?T? DE SAINTE-C?CILE 418 The Soci?t? de Sainte-C?cile was active in 1839, 1847-1848, and again from 1848-1854. While Hill ascribes the beginning and end of the orchestra?s tenure as 1848-1854, Cooper argues for 1850-1855. Hill, Modern French Music, and Cooper, ?A Renaissance in the Nineteenth Century: The Rise of French Instrumental Music and Parisian Concert Societies, 1828-1871.? 419 Hill, Modern French Music, 21-23. 195 Twenty years after the establishment of the Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire, in 1848, Fran?ois Seghers reorganized the Soci?t? de Saint- C?cile, 418 a semi-professional chamber orchestra, mainly to present orchestral works by the German romantics. The group was made up of disgruntled members of the Union musicale, and they began performing in the Salle Sainte-C?cile on alternating Sunday afternoons with the Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire. Soon, the Soci?t??s programming began to include the compositions of contemporary French composers, including Berlioz, Deldeverz, Gouvy, Mathias, Prumier, and Saint-Sa?ns. Lack of funds brought an early end to this group in 1854. 419 The Soci?t? de Saint-C?cile never enjoyed the popularity of the Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire. However, the group did provide an alternative for the many amateur musicians who could not obtain seats at the Conservatoire, and they did attract a large audience, comprised mainly of instrumental dilettantes. THE SOCI?T? DES JEUNES ?L?VES DU CONSERVATOIRE AND THE CONCERTS POPULAIRES DE MUSIQUE CLASSIQUE The initiatives of Seghers were passed on to Jules-Etienne Pasdeloup, who established an orchestral society of Conservatoire graduates in 1851, which he called the 420 Pasdeloup decided to establish this musical organization after another performing ensemble (Cooper states it was the Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire) refused even to read through a Scherzo by Pasdeloup, stating that the orchestra performed only the works of established masters. Hill, Modern French Music, 21- 25, and Cooper, ?A Renaissance in the Nineteenth Century: The Rise of French Instrumental Music and Parisian Concert Societies, 1828-1871,? 61. 196 Soci?t? des jeunes ?l?ves du Conservatoire. 420 The group gave its first concert on February 20, 1853, with musicians drawn from among the best students at the Conservatoire and the best graduate prize winners. Conducted by Antoine Batiste, the orchestra was comprised of sixty-two players and was augmented by a choir of forty voices. This and subsequent concerts were intended to introduce new music to the Parisian public and from its inception the soci?t? exerted an important influence on French musical life. The group became renowned for its willingness to perform new works. Pasdeloup, unfortunately, was little disposed to the works of French composers, favoring instead the symphonies of Beethoven. However, the group did present some early French symphonic works, in particular, symphonies by Charles Gounod and Camille Saint-Sa?ns. Despite critical acclaim and a faithful audience, the group had financial troubles and folded in 1861. The success of these productions encouraged Pasdeloup to begin a series known as Concerts populaires de musique classique at the cirque Napol?on. The Concerts populaires lasted from 1861 until 1884. Many of the same personnel remained from the Soci?t? des jeunes ?l?ves du Conservatoire, however the mission of the new group was not to promote new music. Instead, the Concerts populaires were organized to present 421 As a result of their mission, the Concerts populaires performed in a larger auditorium charging low admission fees. Apparently, 5,000 people attended the first performance! Because the concerts du Conservatoire had become so exclusive (it was said that tickets had to be reserved years in advance), this was a selling point for the new orchestra. Cooper, ?A Renaissance in the Nineteenth Century: The Rise of French Instrumental Music and Parisian Concert Societies, 1828-1871,? 69. 422 Hill, Modern French Music, 8-10. 197 established masterpieces and talented soloists to a larger, less affluent audience. 421 After the Franco-Prussian War, the Concerts populaires diminished in popularity. Many other concert societies were established in the wake of the war to promote French music, and the Concerts populaires were hurt by the competition from Concerts Colonne (founded in 1873) and Concerts Lamoureux (founded in 1881). Pasdeloup?s predilection for German music, along with criticism of his failings as a conductor, eventually led to the group?s extinction. SOCI?T? NATIONALE DE MUSIQUE As we have noted above, after the Franco-Prussian War a wave of nationalism spread quickly across France. At the same time, perhaps due to the total domination of opera in Paris by the Italians, there was a surprising shift in popular interest from opera toward instrumental music. Led by C?sar Franck and his followers, instrumental music began to be the form in which French composers expressed their greatest musical aspirations. On February 25, 1871, perhaps as a reaction to the defeat by Germany, French composers established the Soci?t? nationale de musique fran?ais, led by Camille Saint-Sa?ns and Romaine Bussine, a teacher of singing at the Conservatoire. 422 The aim of the society, according to a manifesto issued at the time of its organization, was: The proposed purpose of the Society is to aid the production and popularization 423 Rolland, Musiciens d?aujourd?hui, 231. Translated by Hill. 424 The group listened to piano transcriptions of orchestral scores and made comments prior to the premiere of many works, including Saint-Sa?ns?s Marche h?ro?que, and Massenet's Po?me du souvenir. Performers of the day, such as Jules Armingaud, Jules Garcin, Madame Lalo, Charles Lamoureux, L?on Jacquard, and Pauline Viardot joined with others to assist in these reading sessions for vocal and chamber works. Ibid. 198 of all serious works, whether published or not, by French composers. To encourage and bring to light, as far as lies within its power, all musical attempts, whatever their form, on condition that they give evidence of lofty artistic aspirations on the part of their author. Fraternally, with entire forgetfulness of self, with the firm resolve to aid each other with all their capacity, the members will unite their efforts, each in his own sphere of action, to the study and performance of the works which they shall be called upon to select and interpret. 423 It would be another thirty years before native French composers would gain momentum in producing many new works in the fields of orchestra and chamber music. By that time, however, what started with the Soci?t? nationale had become an explosion of similar groups intended to promote particularly French music. Almost from its inception, the Soci?t? counted approximately 150 members. Georges Bizet, Alexis de Castillon, C?cile Chaminade, Pierre Max Dubois, Gabriel Faur?, C?sar Franck, Ernest Guiraud, ?douard Lalo, Jules Massenet, Camille Saint-Sa?ns, and Charles-Marie Widor were among the many composers who gathered for meetings at the Salle Pleyel. Initially, it could only offer pianos on which to perform new works by the group's members. 424 Later, the group was able to give a few orchestral concerts each year. In this way, they premiered works by Alfred Bruneau, Emmanuel Chabrier, Ernest Chausson, Claude Debussy, Paul Dukas, C?sar Franck, Vincent d'Indy, ?douard Lalo, Guillame Lekeu, Alb?ric Magnard, Maurice Ravel, and Camille 425 The Op?ra, meanwhile, clung to the Italian repertoire and its Italian singers, a situation to which the Op?ra-Comique responded by acknowledging its own need for renewal. Before 1871, it had primarily produced works of Adolphe Adam, Daniel-Fran?ois Auber, and Fran?ois-Adrien Boieldieu. After the war, the Op?ra-Comique would produce works by three younger French musicians: Emile Paladilhe's Le Passant (1872), Georges Bizet's Djamileh (1872), and Camille Saint-Sa?ns's La princesse jaune (1872). As the efforts of the Soci?t? nationale and the Op?ra-Comique continued to gain attention, along with a larger following, the Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire began to feel pressure to perform more music by new French composers. During the 1871-1872 season, the Conservatoire orchestra premiered Charles Gounod's Gallia, C?sar Franck's Ruth, and excerpts from Saint-Sa?ns's Symphony No. 2. Another orchestral association, the Concert Nationale, led by ?douard Colonne, gave the premieres of C?sar Franck's Redemption and Jules Massenet's Marie Magdeleine. Jules Pasdeloup's Soci?t? des jeunes ?l?ves du Conservatoire, which by now had been in operation for some twenty years and was a steadfast champion of German romanticism, began to modify its programs to include a significant amount of contemporary French music. Hill, Modern French Music, 21-30. 426 Cooper, ?A Renaissance in the Nineteenth Century: The Rise of French Instrumental Music and Parisian Concert Societies, 1828-1871,? 139. 427 Duchen, Gabriel Faur?, 34. 199 Saint-Sa?ns, among others. 425 Duparc stressed the importance of this increased fraternization among young and old composers, writing: All that was great in French music found a home there [at the Soci?t? nationale] . Without it, the greater part of the works that are the honor of our music would never have been played; perhaps they would not ever have been written. 426 In 1886, however, when Vincent d'Indy suggested the inclusion of foreign classics such Beethoven, Haydn, Mozart, and even Wagner to the programs of the Soci?t? nationale, Romaine Bussine and Camille Saint-Sa?ns resigned in protest at the inclusion of non-French music, especially Wagner. Subsequently, C?sar Franck became the president of the group. At Franck's death in 1890, d'Indy (ironically) assumed the office of president. 427 Ultimately, numerous works by contemporary French composers were premiered by the conservative Soci?t? nationale de musique, including Debussy?s Pr?lude ? l?apr?s-midi d?un faune and a number of significant works by Ravel: the song cycle 428 For Faur?, it was a double rebellion, since his work with the Soci?t? musicale ind?pendente also provoked the deep dismay of his former teacher, Saint-Sa?ns. Duchen, Gabriel Faur?, 170-171. 429 By 1910, the Soci?t? nationale was seen as an appendage of the Schola Cantorum and the school?s teaching. Cooper, French Music, 172. 200 Sh?h?razade on May 17, 1904, the Histoires naturelles on January 12, 1907, and the piano piece Gaspard de la nuit on January 25, 1909. The following works for flute and voice were premiered by the Soci?t? Nationale: Andr? Caplet?s (1878-1925) Viens! Une fl?te invisible soupire (for flute, soprano, and piano), first performed in Paris, January 4, 1919 at the Soci?t? nationale de musique; and Florent Schmitt?s (1870-1958) Quatre monocantes, op. 115 (for soprano, flute, violin, viola, cello, and harp), premiered at the Soci?t? nationale de musique on February 24, 1950 performed by the Quintette Laskin-Beronita. SOCI?T? MUSICALE IND?PENDENTE In 1909, Gabriel Faur? organized the Soci?t? musicale ind?pendente in response to the increasingly conservative attitude of the Soci?t? nationale. 428 This group encouraged the further development of younger French composers by bringing their works before the public. A breakaway group from the Soci?t? nationale and spearheaded by Maurice Ravel, it was an unequivocal rejection of "Franckists," French composers who followed the teaching and the musical traditions represented by C?sar Franck and behind him, Richard Wagner. 429 Following its formation in 1909, the Soci?t? musicale ind?pendente devoted entire programs to the works of Arthur Honegger, Albert Roussel, and Arnold 201 Schoenberg. Under Ravel's leadership, the group introduced the works of many younger composers, among them Louis Durey, Paul Hindemith, Jacques Ibert, Marcel Mihalovici, Darius Milhaud, Alexis Roland-Manuel, Manuel Rosenthal, Alexander Tansman, and Joaqu?n Turina. Maurice Delage?s (1879-1961) Quatre po?mes hindous (for soprano, 2 violins, viola, cello, 2 flutes, oboe, 2 clarinets, and harp) was premiered at Soci?t? musicale ind?pendente on January 14, 1914. Likewise, his teacher Maurice Ravel?s (1875-1937) Trois po?mes de St?phane Mallarm? (for soprano, 2 flutes [piccolo] 2 clarinets [bass clarinet], string quartet, and piano) was premiered at the Soci?t? musicale ind?pendente at the same performance on January 14, 1914, with performers Jane Bathori, voice, and a chamber ensemble directed by D?sir?-Emile Inghelbrecht. Delage?s Sept ha?-ka?s (for soprano, flute, oboe, clarinet, piano, and string quartet) was also premiered at the Soci?t? musical ind?pendente in April 1925. OTHER SOCI?T?S In 1873, ?douard Colonne left the position of conductor of the orchestra of the Op?ra to found the Concerts nationale, soon reorganized as L'Association artistique. With the help of music publisher Georges Hartmann, Colonne went about familiarizing his public with primarily the works of Hector Berlioz and other French musicians. In addition, Colonne traveled throughout Europe and then to America introducing various foreign conductors to the distinctions of French music. In 1881, Charles Lamoureux, who had gained experience as a choral conductor in the Soci?t? de l'harmonie sacr?e, established a series called Concerts nouveaux, which he 430 Brody, Paris, The Musical Kaleidoscope, 298. 202 led until his death in 1910. The Concerts nouveaux's principal mission seems to have been the conversion of its subscribers to the music of Wagner and, initially, Chabrier and d'Indy supported Lamoureux in his aims. While Lamoureux launched this series with a decided emphasis on foreign classical repertoire, he soon began leaning toward the younger school of French composers. This change in repertoire came as the music of Wagner was rapidly being rejected by French society. Perhaps due to the public's newly found interest in instrumental music, there was an explosion of French chamber music societies during the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries. These groups performed the works of younger French composers, as well as those of the great masters. Many were attached to certain concert series or to particular composers. Some examples of these numerous groups were Soci?t? Alard-Franchomme (1848), Soci?t? des derniers quartets de Beethoven (1851), Soci?t? de musique de chambre Armingaud (in which Lalo played second violin, 1856), Lamoureux's S?ances populaires de musique de chambre (1859), and Soci?t? de musique de chambre Jacoby-Vuillaume (1864). 430 Examples of other groups formed to support the performance of French music were: ? Soci?t? des concerts fran?ais. A society devoted to the performance of French music. ? Soci?t? nationale des beaux-arts. A short-lived institution with an aim similar to that of the Soci?t? nationale, which was to provide young 431 Cooper, ?A Renaissance in the Nineteenth Century: The Rise of French Instrumental Music and Parisian Concert Societies, 1828-1871,? 94-134. 432 Lalo played viola in the Jacquard String Quartet. Chamber music groups such as La trompette were organized to enable distinguished foreign virtuosi to appear. For these programs, some unusual works were composed, including Camille Saint-Sa?ns?s Septet for trumpet, piano and strings, and Vincent d?Indy?s Suite in the old style for trumpet, flute and strings. Ibid. 203 composers with a venue for their music to be performed. ? Soci?t? philharmonique de Paris. Founded in 1822, near the beginnings of modern concert life in Paris, it organized performances by amateur musicians, often reinforced by theater musicians. ? Soci?t? musicale. Established as a private club for its founders, their goal was to perform chamber music and an expanded repertory of salon music. 431 It would be difficult to exaggerate the significance of these various soci?t?s on Parisian musical life in the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth century. For one thing, the public and musicians alike gained firsthand knowledge of a body of musical literature that would prove to be rich in masterpieces. The early soci?t?s extended appreciation for music beyond the opera house. Over time, the number of French composers who were able to write for the orchestra and for chamber ensembles grew continually. As a result, French taste became similarly and progressively well informed, particularly within the field of chamber music. Indeed, many famous performers of the day formed their own chamber music ensembles. It is no surprise, then, that French composers achieved results in chamber music equal to those obtained in the orchestral field. 432 As noted in the musical bibliography of this dissertation, there were 204 approximately 100 pieces written for flute and soprano with various types of accompaniment between 1850 and1950. The great majority were written after 1870, following the Franco-Prussian War, when the soci?t?s were at their most active and influential. After 1900, this musical format appeared most frequently in arrangements for flute, voice and chamber ensemble, rather than with piano accompaniment. The period from 1900 to 1930 also saw the composition of pieces for flute and voice by Andr? Caplet, C?cile Louise Chaminade, Jean Cras, Louis de Cr?vecoeur, Claude Debussy, Maurice Delage, Marcel Delannoy, Gustave Doret, Maurice Emmanuel, Gabriel Faur?, Philippe Gaubert, Arthur Honegger, Jacques Ibert, Charles Koechlin, Paul Le Flem, Darius Milhaud, Pierre Yves Petit, Jacques Pillois, Francis Poulenc, Maurice Ravel, Alexis Roland-Manuel, Albert Roussel, and Alice Sauvrezis. Public performances of the works for flute and voice were made possible by the musical soci?t?s of the day. As a result of these performances and the consequent dissemination of music for flute and voice, there occurred a concentrated flowering of this form during the early twentieth century. 433 Debussy on Music, 251. 205 CHAPTER 8 THE RISE OF THE FRENCH M?LODIE Good poetry has a rhythm of its own, which makes it very difficult for us. One minute, though: recently, I set to music (I don't know why) three of Villon's ballads. But I do know why: because I have wanted to for a long time. It is very difficult to follow and to cast the rhythms in a suitable mold, still preserving one's inspiration. If one cheats and is content with a mere juxtaposition of the two arts, it is not too difficult, but is it worth the trouble? 433 ?Claude Debussy 434 Noske, French Song from Berlioz to Duparc, translated by Rita Benton, 1. 206 During the 1840s, French m?lodie emerged as a distinct type of composition. This was due to several factors including: (1) the decline in the artistic level of the romance due to its infiltration into widespread popular and folk usage with the resultant need for a vocal genre to replace it; (2) the introduction into France of Schubert's lieder, whose enormous popularity in urban France influenced composers; and (3) the impact of a new romantic poetry, which supplied composers with inspiration and with literary texts that forced a renunciation of earlier compositional styles and techniques. 434 The new significance of m?lodie persuaded nearly every French composer of the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries to compose songs for voice. This trend, combined with the growing prominence of instrumental music, became the catalysts for the creation of songs for flute and voice. To fully understand this inclination, a consideration of the development of the m?lodie is necessary. A HISTORY OF M?LODIE: THE ROMANCE The term romance has a long history of use in France, going back at least to the eleventh century, and ever since it has found itself alternately attached to both musical and literary forms. The Dictionnaire de l'acad?mie fran?aise (1718) describes it as "a kind of light verse, recounting some ancient story," but omits any mention of a musical application, or even the fact that it was sung. This feature does occur, however, a half-century later in the Encyclop?die (1765): "An ancient tale, written in simple, easy, and natural verse. Na?vet? is the principal characteristic.?This poem is sung, and French 435 Henri Gougelot's important study of the romance categorizes the songs according to their content, style of presentation, and poetic form. On the basis of subject matter, three types may be distinguished: historical, pastoral, and sentimental. The pastoral criterion also has three subdivisions: narrative, dramatic, and lyric. Two types of musical expression may be distinguished (1) the romance in which expression is the most important feature, typified by a vocal line tied to the lyrics, and (2) one that follows the text closely; the type in which the melodic line has a purely musical character and is detached from the text, though never being entirely inconsistent with it. In virtually every instance, the accompaniment is characterized by elementary harmony, one completely subordinated to the vocal part, most often supporting the voice with broken chords. Noske, French Song from Berlioz to Duparc, translated by Rita Benton, 2. 436 Debussy?s Chansons de Bilitis, based on poetry by Pierre Lou?s, was written as sc?ne music to accompany a recitation of the poetry. The performance would have been in the form of a tableau. 207 music, clumsy and inane as it is, seems quite suitable to the romance." 435 In France the romance bloomed between the Revolution and the Empire. During that period, both the music and poetry contained characteristic elements of what might be called pre-romanticism since they foreshadow the fully formed romanticism that would emerge in music, art, and literature in the decades ahead. The continuing development of the form is shown in the number of romance types in use in France after 1815. The romance is named in various ways: barcarolle, tyrolienne, chansonnette, nocturne, tarantelle, and bolero, all still collectively regarded as romances. However, in tracing the origins of m?lodie, one cannot disregard the sc?ne, which can be differentiated from the romance chiefly by its free structure. The accompaniment, typically performed on a keyboard instrument, imitates orchestral techniques, using frequent tremolos, while the vocal part is treated either as a recitative or an aria. Some longer sc?nes may even be considered dramatic cantatas. 436 Around 1825, a new type of romance appeared; the romance dialogu?e, for one voice, a melody instrument, and piano accompaniment. Prior to 1825, Boieldieu, Garat, and others published romances for voice, violin, and piano during the Empire, but always 437 Noske, French Song from Berlioz to Duparc, translated by Rita Benton, 6. 438 Ibid. 208 treated the violin as an ad libitum part that could be omitted with little loss to the piece. In the romance dialogu?e, however, the instrument is granted an importance equal to that of the voice as it responds to sung fragments, while the accompaniment is left to the piano alone. 437 The works for voice, flute, and piano of the 1850s are direct descendants of this for, and they became popular in the following decades. Auguste Panseron, "the inventor of those dramatic romances in which the accompaniment of a flute, oboe, horn, violin, or cello arises from the subject itself and is an obligatory part of the composition," urged his text writers to use subjects that would furnish the opportunity for adding a second part to the voice. 438 Many composers followed in his footsteps writing songs for voice with flute. These include (all for flute, soprano, and piano) Adolphe-Charles Adams?s (1803-1856) Variations on Ah! vous and Bravura-Variations on a Theme Attributed to N. Dez?de; Joseph-Henri Alt?s?(1826-1895) Le rossignol et la tourterelle, op. 26; F?licien-C?sar David?s (1810-1876) Charmant oiseau; Louis Drouet?s (1792-1873) O dolce concerto (Air de Mozart avec variations); Charles-Fran?ois Gounod?s (1818-1893) S?r?nade (Quand tu chantes), Barcarolle: o? voulez-vous aller?, O l?g?re hirondell?, and Pri?re du soir; Fl?ix-Marie Victor Mass??s (1822-1884) Au bord du chemin, air du rossignol; ?douard Millault?s (1808-1887) Ave Maria; Auguste Mathieu Panseron?s (1795-1859) Le cor, On entend le berger, Philomel, and Doux rossignol; and Jean-Louis Tulou?s 439 Between 1830 and 1840, the romances of Lo?sa Puget were extremely popular. From 1830 to 1848, the period corresponding to the reign of Louis Philippe, the more fashionable romance is represented by Louis Clapisson, Joseph Concone, Albert Grisar, Th?odore Labarre, Fran?ois Masini, Alphonse Thys, Joseph Vimeux, and Adolphe Vogel. They were replaced in turn after 1845 by Louis Abadie, ?tienne Arnaud, and Paul Henrion. Noske, French Song from Berlioz to Duparc, translated by Rita Benton, 8. 440 In Le M?nestrel of December 13, 1840, a critic reviewed no less than thirteen albums of this type by Adh?mar, B?rat, Clapisson, Duschamge, Herz, Labarre, Latour, Masini, Mass?, Messemaeckers, Meyerbeer, Puget, and Rubini. That same year, for example, collections of romances by a number of other composers were published by Album de la france musicale, containing works by Adam, Auber, Hal?vy, Monpou, Thomas, and Pauline Viardot. Ibid., 10. 209 (1786-1865) Chanson. During roughly the same period we encounter still other developments related to the romance. After 1815, the romance became a genre of specialization for many composers, characterized by more sophisticated lyrics and increased musical invention. Romagn?si and Pauline Duschambge (who together wrote over 300 romances) were popular during the first years of the Restoration. By 1825, they had been dethroned by others: Am?d?e de Beauplan, ?douard Brugui?re, and Auguste Panseron. 439 The most serious composers generally had little interest in the romance during the first half of the century. Even those by well-known composers such as Adam, Auber, Hal?vy, Meyerbeer, Rossini, and Thomas were no better than the average. Still, quality does not seem to have been a particular virtue during this period, though productivity was. At the end of each year, several volumes of romances appeared in the form of albums as bonuses for subscribers to musical journals. 440 There were two composers who began elevating the quality of the romance, not simply with their compositional styles, but in the care they gave to selecting poetry: Louis Niedermeyer and Hippolyte Monpou. Niedermeyer became linked to Le lac, a 441 Noske, French Song from Berlioz to Duparc, translated by Rita Benton, 17. 442 Ibid., 22. 210 famous poem from Lamartine's M?ditations po?tiques. Monpou, on the other hand, was probably the first to put the verse of Alfred de Musset to music. He also wrote numerous romances on texts of Hugo. During the 1850s, both composers abandoned the balanced phrasing so characteristic of the form of the romance (a melodic structure subdivided into groups of two, four, or eight measures) in favor of asymmetrical groups that accommodated the melody to the rhythmic and metric complexities of romantic verse. This was a significant innovation in song composition and one that would have far-reaching effects in the decades to come. In the music itself, they employed harmonic instability for dramatic purposes, something that had not been heard before in romance writing. 441 THE BEGINNINGS OF M?LODIE Most twentieth-century writers agree that Berlioz was the first composer to call his short vocal pieces m?lodie, perhaps as early as 1835. 442 The fame of Schubert's songs had infiltrated urban France while Berlioz was still near the start of his career, in large part as a result of the publicity given them by Adolphe Nourrit, one of the great singers of the romantic period. The young Berlioz seized upon the popularity of Schubert's Lieder, with its haunting, memorable sense of melody and line, and he refined it to suit his own taste. He gave it a Gallic flavor and, as an almost direct consequence, the romance quickly fell out of favor. It was during this period that French composers took up the 443 Meister, Nineteenth-Century French Song, ix-xii. 444 Ibid., 37-38. 211 m?lodie as a distinct genre. 443 After 1835, the air type of m?lodie, as developed by Berlioz, disappeared, and in the hands of other composers arose the new form of m?lodie, which may be characterized by four features: (1) The structure was no longer a strophic form, many m?lodie now having a free structure or schematic form; (2) In the vocal part, the square phrase was not always respected; rather, the vocal part was sometimes treated as recitative; (3) The piano assumed a more important role in the musical interpretation of the text, beginning to take the lead, with dramatic portrayals of the text, and frequent use of orchestral effects; and (4) An interest in verse of high literary value became much more readily apparent as both formal and thematic aspects of the melodic form. As a result, composers began to set poems by Gautier, Hugo, and Lamartine, whose free structures, run-on lines, and broken meters required the abandonment of the square-phrase principal. 444 Although orientalism was only a transient fashion in French literature of the 1830s, the movement left its mark on the history of the m?lodie. True musical orientalism did not appear during the romantic era, but emerged later in the century, when it would be exploited by composers such as Bizet, D?libes, and Saint-Sa?ns. Of what does this exotic language consist, at least for the European composer? Henri Quittard claims that the literal imitation of Arabic music is illusory, since the Western octave is divided into twelve approximately equal semitones, while the oriental scale has seventeen dissimilar intervals. Thus, the so-called oriental m?lodie is most often constructed on the medieval 445 Meister, Nineteenth-Century French Song, 312-313. 212 modes, chiefly the first, seventh, and the ninth. 445 The augmented second may suggest exoticism, as does rhythmic imitation of oriental music, made by means of bass patterns repeated unceasingly. Such repetitions are a simplified musical translation of rhythmic harmony, an indispensable element for oriental ensembles. Melismatic vocal passages also tend to be imitations of the types of melismas found in Arabic song. As discussed in Chapter 5: Exoticism, many compositions for flute and voice were written on oriental and exotic themes. These works include Maurice Delage?s Quatre po?mes hindous and Sept ha?-ka?s, Claude Debussy?s Les chansons de Bilitis, Maurice Emmanuel?s (1862-1938) Trois odelettes anacr?ontiques, op. 13, Georges H?e?s Soir pa?n, Charles Koechlin?s Le nenuphar, op. 13, no. 3, Louis-Trouillon Lacombe?s (1818-1884) Le ruisseau et la jeune fille; Paul Le Flem?s (1881-1984) Cinq chants de cr?isade; Jacques Pillois? (1877-1935) Chanson de Yamina; Georges Poniridy?s (1892- 1982) Deux po?mes dans le style populaire grec, Maurice Ravel?s "La fl?te enchant?e" from Sh?h?rzade, Chansons mad?casses, and Trois po?mes de St?phane Mallarm?, Marguerite Roesgen-Champion?s (1894-1976) Les chrysanth?mes d?or and Pannyre aux talons d'or; Florent Schmitt?s (1870-1958) Kerob-shal, op. 67 and Quatre monocantes, op. 115, and Alexandre Tansman?s (1897-1986) Huit m?lodies japonaises. All of these works suggest an exotic or oriental harmonic sense through the use of modes or the pentatonic scale. Many contain the rhythmic repetitions and vocal melismas that are indicative of eastern music (this is especially present in the works of Delage). About 1850, the m?lodie entered a new phase, developing into an independent, 446 The various types of song related to the m?lodie, which up to this time had impeded its development, either became extinct or went on to develop into other independent forms. Consequently, the m?lodie's position in the musical history of France also would be clarified. Appendix III contains a list of selected French composers who wrote m?lodie. 447 Many of the so-called ?bird? pieces by Mass?, D?libes, and David were salon works of dubious musical merit. 448 According to Noske, Lalo was also a forerunner of the school of song-composers represented by Faur?, Duparc, Chausson, and Debussy. Certainly, he is a conspicuous figure in the period of transition; his name is linked with many of the important composers of the preceding generation. Noske, French Song from Berlioz to Duparc, translated by Rita Benton, 231-242. 213 specifically French genre able to maintain its position opposite the German lied. Thus, France would become the second country in which the art song arose as a true and highly distinctive national form, supported by almost all of its leading composers. 446 The m?lodie now entered what was considered classical music and a genre best suited to professional musicians (the best pieces of Berlioz and Liszt being intended for the professional singer, not the amateur). In bourgeois circles, the m?lodie replaced the romance and performances at the salon would feature the most famous artists of the day. The next generation of French song composers, including David, Gounod, Mass?, Massenet, and Reger wrote some exquisite pieces, while others were mediocre or trite. 447 Fortunately, between 1870 and 1900, Ernst Chausson, Claude Debussy, Henri Duparc, Gabriel Faur?, C?sar Franck, ?douard Lalo, and others took up the form, unequivocally elevating m?lodie to an art form in its own right. 448 M?LODIES FOR FLUTE AND VOICE French composers who wrote m?lodie also wrote songs for voice with flute and 449 Gounod, Bizet, and Massenet also wrote pieces for flute and voice with religious and pastoral themes, including the Agnus dei of Bizet, the S?r?nade of Gounod, and Massenet?s ?l?gie: o doux printemps d?autrefois. 450 Later, sopranos Nellie Melba, Emma Calv?, and Lily Pons preferred concert tours based entirely upon these types of showpieces, traveling with French flutists such as Phillippe Gaubert, Louis Fleury, or Marcel Moyse. Clayton, Queens of Song, 461. 214 piano accompaniment or flute and chamber accompaniment. Beginning with Bizet, David, D?libes, Gounod, Mass?, and Massenet, whose principal works were for the stage, and their songs show this influence. All of their pieces for voice and flute were arias drawn from their operas which were then transcribed for the salon. Most frequently, those melodies were bird songs: arias written as show pieces for the soprano in which the singer imitates the sounds of particular birds. 449 As we have noted above, these arias were typically based on texts that referred to birds (the nightingale was by far the most prevalent), with call and response figures between the voice and the flute. In addition, extended cadenzas for voice and flute were added for dramatic effect. Indeed, numerous pieces were conceived for a trio of singers popularly known as ?the nightingales:? Jenny Lind, Adelina Patti, and Henriette Sontag. 450 With the emergence of the soprano as a musical star in Paris, many of these pieces were written with specific singers in mind. The extraction of arias from operas enabled sopranos to exploit their operatic popularity and so promote themselves and their careers by giving recitals of this music. This utterly commercial exigency contributed to the development of the m?lodie as art music, thereby beginning a steady stream of repertoire for these sopranos to exploit. As mentioned previously, David's Charmant oiseau was extracted from his comic 451 The Pearl of Brazil ? the opera from which the bird song is taken ? was written in 1851. Joseph Gabriel was the librettist, with some help later from Eug?ne Scribe (1791-1861). Originally destined for the Op?ra- Comique, it was premiered at the new Th??tre de l?Op?ra National (later the Th??tre-Lyrique) on November 22, 1851. Not many days later, the coup d??tat would set the stage for the reign of Napol?on III, which brought immense changes to Parisian cultural life. Hagan, F?licien David, 152. 452 The following from a review of the performance: ?One of the best moments of the last act occurs when Zora awakens with her Charmant oiseau strophes. Birdsong insures a smooth connection with the introduction to the song, and it returns at the end of each stanza expanded into full cascades for solo flute which Zora tosses off in turn. This is the sort of bravura aria that an opera audience waits for, and it is the only David composition to survive in the modern singer?s repertoire.? Ibid., 152. 215 opera La perle du Br?sil (1851). 451 Act III contains a "dream song" for Zora, the heroine, which is accompanied by a birdsong in the orchestra, played by the flute. Charmant oiseau became an encore piece for Emma Nevada with the addition of an interpolated cadenza for voice and flute. 452 As another example, Mass?'s Au bord du chemin, air du rossignol was taken from his opera Les noces de Jeannette (1853). On the other hand, Alt?s, D?libes, and Gounod all wrote bird pieces during the same period that did not come from operas, but were conceived as stand alone works. Alt?s' Le rossignol et la tourterelle (1851), Gounod's O l?g?re hirondell? (n.d.), and D?libes' Le rossignol (1882) are examples of this genre. The composers of the next generation, who had begun to emerge by 1860, were masters of instrumental forms such as the symphony, sonata, and concerto. Led by ?douard Lalo, C?sar Franck, and Camille Saint-Sa?ns, they inaugurated a renaissance of instrumental music in France. Drawn to the economy and potential for virtuoso effect in the m?lodie format, they had no difficulty lifting it to the level of chamber music. This change paved the way for composers such as Duparc and Faur?, who would perfect the m?lodie as art song. Composers now looked to French writers for serious texts and, at the 453 In March-April 1913, Ravel and Stravinsky were living in Clarens, Switzerland,and working together on Diaghilev?s commission to revise Mussorgsky?s Khovanshchina. Stravinsky told Ravel about a new work he had just heard, Schoenberg?s Pierrot lunaire, whose scoring for soprano and chamber ensemble inspired Stravinsky?s own Trois poesies de la lyrique japonaise. Attracted to this instrumentation, Ravel began work on his Trois po?mes, completing them in August. Kaminsky, ?Vocal music and the lures of exoticism and irony,? in The Cambridge Companion to Ravel, 172. 454 Orenstein, A Ravel Reader, 470-471. 216 same time, were influenced by composers such as Igor Stravinsky and Arnold Schoenberg to experiment with instrumentation. Singers and flutists now found themselves accompanied by various combinations of instrumental chamber ensembles, no longer just by piano. Ravel wrote two song cycles for voice, flute, and ensemble that incorporate themes of orientalism and exoticism, and experiment with various combinations of instrumentation: Sh?h?razade (1903, for voice, flute, and piano or orchestra) and Chansons mad?casses (1925-26, for voice, flute, cello, and piano). He also composed pieces that included settings of poetry by writers of the day, one well-known example being Trois po?mes de St?phane Mallarm? (1913, for voice, flute, piccolo, clarinet, bass clarinet, piano, and string quartet). Ravel felt some debt to Schoenberg for aspects of Trois po?mes as well as the Chansons mad?casses: 453 One should never be afraid to imitate. I myself turned to the school of Schoenberg in order to write my Trois po?mes de St?phane Mallarm?, and above all, the Chansons mad?casses, in which, like Pierrot lunaire, there is a very strict contrapuntal underpinning. If my music doesn't completely sound like Schoenberg's, it's because I am less afraid of the element of charm, which he avoids to the point of asceticism and martyrdom. 454 The instrumentation for Ravel's work was, in fact, very close to that for Pierrot lunaire. Maurice Delage (1879-1961), a student of Ravel, composed numerous works for 455 His Sept ha?-ka? (1920) uses almost the same instrumentation (voice, flute, oboe, clarinet, piano, and string quartet) as Ravel?s Trois po?mes de St?phane Mallarm? from seven years earlier. 456 Delage?s piece seems to have upstaged the works of the other two composers, with the audience demanding an encore of ?Lahore,? the second song of Quatre po?mes hindous. Thomas, ?Three Representative Works of Maurice Delage: A study of Style and Exotic Influence,? 109. 217 voice with a variety of ensembles that included the flute. 455 He wrote seven song cycles for voice with flute and orchestra and two songs for voice, flute, and piano, all with exotic themes as suggested by their titles, Quatre po?mes hindous, for instance, or Sept ha?-ka?. Delage was also a close friend of Florent Schmitt as well as Igor Stravinsky; his work Quatre po?mes hindous was premiered in 1914 on the same program with Stavinsky's Three Japanese Lyrics and Ravel's Trois po?mes de St?phane Mallarm?. 456 Composers, such as Cras, Honegger, Lesur, Milhaud, and Poulenc, further developed these innovations in instrumentation for ensembles with voice and flute. Milhaud's pieces, Machines agricoles (1919) and Catalogue des fleurs (1920), both use an instrumentation of voice, flute, clarinet, bassoon, violin, viola, cello, and bass. Poulenc's Rhapsodie n?gre (1917), Le bestiaire (1918), and Quatre po?mes de Max Jacob (1921) are arranged, respectively, for voice, flute, clarinet, string quartet, and piano; voice, flute, clarinet, bassoon, and string quartet; and voice, flute, oboe, bassoon, trumpet, and clarinet. Honegger, writing about the same time, composed two pieces for voice, flute and string quartet: Chanson de Ronsard (1924) and Trois chansons de la petite sir?ne (1926). Prior to Ravel's experiments of 1913 and the widespread influence of Schoenberg's Pierrot lunaire, French composers of m?lodie for flute and voice had 218 written mainly for flute, voice, and piano. Afterward, they felt free to experiment with many instrumental combinations and to conceive of music for flute and voice in an entirely new way. These innovations in instrumentation, along with the elevation of m?lodie to a form of serious cultivation by French composers, contributed to the outpouring of music for flute and voice during the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries. 457 Baudelaire, The Flowers of Evil, xxviii. 219 CHAPTER 9 THE WRITERS How the artist, by a prescribed series of exercises, can in proportion increase his originality; how poetry is related to music through prosody, the roots of which go deeper into the human soul than any classical theory indicates; that French poetry possesses a mysterious and unrecognized prosody, like the Latin and English languages; why any poet who does not know exactly how many rhymes each word has is incapable of expressing any idea whatever; that the poetic phrase can imitate (and in this, poetry is like the art of music and the science of mathematics) a horizontal line, an ascending or descending vertical line; that it can rise straight up to heaven without losing its breath, or fall straight down to hell with the velocity of any weight; that it can follow a spiral, describe a parabola, or can zigzag, making a series of superimposed angles; that poetry is like the arts of painting, cooking, and cosmetics in its ability to express every sensation of sweetness or bitterness, of beatitude or horror, by coupling a certain noun with a certain adjective, in analogy or contrast? 457 ?Charles Baudelaire 458 The New Oxford Companion to Literature in French, edited by Peter France, 599. 220 Certainly, no song is possible without poetry. Indeed, this outpouring of m?lodies for flute and voice between 1850 and 1950 comes partly as a response to the renaissance in French poetry that was experienced during that time. As we have observed, French musicians had intimate relationships with the poets and writers of their day and were deeply interested in the French poets of the past. In the context of this study, it may be helpful to give a short description of the trends in poetry during the period under consideration. THE PARNASSIANS The nineteenth century can be seen today as the golden age of French poetry and prose, surpassing even the Renaissance in its wealth of themes and variety of treatment. It was an age in which poetry was perhaps the most popular of all expressive mediums, attracting a remarkable number of gifted writers and a veritable army of less memorable practitioners. In the twentieth century, the most striking development in French poetry would be the breakdown of regular versification. Experiments in free verse were already underway in the nineteenth century, principally by Jules Laforgue (1860-1887) along with other poets working along similar lines. By 1900 the cultivation of free verse had become an important by-product of the symbolist movement. 458 It had tremendous influence on the radical movement in French poetry during the first half of the twentieth century: surrealism. It would also have a tremendous influence on French composers of m?lodie. 459 The first reference to l?art pour l?art occurs in a work by the French philosopher Victor Cousin, entitled Questions esth?tiques et religieuses (1818), in which Cousin argues that art is not enrolled in the service of religion or morals, or in the service of what is pleasing and useful. Art exists for its own sake: ?Il faut de la religion pour la religion, de la morale pour la morale, et de l?art pour l?art.? Fowlie, Poem and Symbol, 2. 460 The New Oxford Companion to Literature in French, edited by Peter France, 599. 221 With the founding of the Second Empire in 1852, a clear opposition arose between those writers concerned with the defense of a national morality and the cause of progress and those representing the tradition of ?art for art's sake.? 459 Questions relating to art for art's sake have been raised in nearly every age, but the phrase in its most precise meaning applies to the French movement, originating with P?trus Borel (1809-1859), Th?ophile Gautier (1811-1872), and G?rard de Nerval (1808-1855), who shared a profound aversion to the bourgeois spirit, Saint-Simonianism, and humanitarianism. These younger writers sought a new faith in rejuvenated forms of art rather than in participation of the life of the era. At the beginning of this new movement, between 1851 and 1853, bohemianism was idealized and celebrated by such writers as Charles Marie Leconte de Lisle (1818-1894), Charles Baudelaire (1821-1867), Gustave Flaubert (1821-1880), and Th?odore de Banville (1823-1891), along with Th?ophile Gautier (1811-1872) and G?rard de Nerval (1808-1855). These new poets were published in three anthologies entitled Le parnasse contemporain, and thus parnassian came to refer to the theories of l'art pour l'art. 460 In 1857, two major literary events occurred in Paris: the much- awaited publication of Gustave Flaubert's Madame Bovary, and the somewhat startling 461 Connelly, Les Mardis, 7-18. 462 Myers, Modern French Music, 62-65. 463 Zola used the term naturaliste in the 1860s to denote a heritage of realist literature, inspired by the positivist tradition in philosophy, science, and the arts that rejected the idealistic aspirations of the romantic movement. The term ?naturalism? evoked the natural sciences, which provided the broad philosophical framework for the movement. It also connected them with contemporary art criticism and practices, to which the naturalist writers frequently had intercourse, not only for their themes and techniques, but also for their aesthetic principle of the exact imitation of nature. Two fundamental types of naturalist texts emerged. The first was in a type depicting tragic dramas of degeneration caused by such determining factors as hereditary taints, neurotic dispositions, or adverse social conditions. The second was a less scientific, more philosophical type of naturalism, (sometimes inspired by the writings of Schopenhauer) which presented disillusionment and frustrations of a protagonist caught up in the dilemmas of daily existence. The New Oxford Companion to Literature in French, edited by Peter France, 558. 222 appearance of Charles Baudelaire's collection of poetry, Les fleurs du mal (The Flowers of Evil). These two works presaged the era which many consider to have been a peak period in French culture?the period of the symbolist poets, the impressionist and post-impressionist painters, and the impressionist composers. 461 In poetry, the first decade after the proclamation of the new republic was dominated by Victor Hugo. After his return from exile and up until his death in 1885, his preeminence was scarcely contested. At the same time, those poets already dubbed the Parnassians, Banville, Fran?ois Copp?e (1842-1908), L?on Dierx (1838-1912), and Leconte de Lisle, among others, were rapidly rising to fame and would soon become the dominant school of poetry in Paris. 462 NATURALISM In fiction, those same years from 1870 to 1880 were marked by the rise of naturalism. 463 In 1871, Emile Zola (1840-1902) began publication of his Rougon-Macquart series, a landmark of French naturalism and a multi-volume fiction that would continue until 1893. Although Flaubert, Joris-Karl Huysmans (1848-1907), 464 The New Oxford Companion to Literature in French, edited by Peter France, 558. 465 A view of decadence as an early stage of symbolism was developed by Guy Michaud. In his interpretation, decadence was a negative reaction to naturalism and the Parnassians, in contrast to the positive position taken by symbolism. Pierrot, The Decadent Era, 5. 466 The decadent worldview was characterized by the following elements: a rejection of the world which represented a reality intolerable to man in general and the artist in particular; a pessimism derived from the 223 Guy de Maupassant (1850-1893), and the Goncourt brothers (Edmond, 1822-1896 and Jules, 1830-1870) were all closely associated with literary naturalism at this time, Zola was the epicenter for a growing constellation of younger novelists. The naturalist movement, which reached its peak in 1880 with the publication of the Les soir?es de m?dan (1880), was to some extent a reaction against the insipid novels published by journals such as the Revue des Deux Mondes and written by authors such as Victor Cherbuliez Octave Feuillet, but it also aspired to depict the sordid conditions of urban life as they really were. 464 THE DECADENT MOVEMENT After 1880, at the very moment that both the Parnassians and the naturalist movement were flourishing, they were soon to encounter violent opposition from other newcomers on the scene, as well as internal divisions. The emergence of symbolism in 1885 and 1886 was preceded by a transition of several years known as the decadent period. 465 After the death of Victor Hugo in 1885, Paul Verlaine (1844-1896) and Joris-Karl Huysmans (1848-1907) were seen as the leaders of a new poetic style, known for its expressions of sadness and melancholy, a pessimism allied to skepticism, and the imprisonment of the self. 466 In prose, decadence made an imprint on much of the fiction conviction that the sum of suffering in human existence is always far in excess of possible happiness; the affirmation of an idealism that took a variety of forms, including philosophical idealism, subjectivism, and solipsism, or mysticism and occultism; the resolve on the part of the artist to escape reality by all possible means, thus creating his own paradise one way or another ? dreams and drugs, exotic imagery, poetic reconstruction of vanished civilizations, hallucinations ? and in the name of artistic purity, a corresponding celebration of artificiality, pursued with the aid of drugs or sexual perversions; and a refusal to participate in the political or social life of the time. Pierrot, The Decadent Era, 9-11. 467 The seeds of the movement can be found in "Correspondences," a poem by Charles Baudelaire (1821-1867) that appeared in Les Fleurs du Mal (1845), in which the poet demonstrates the relationships of scent, sound, and color: Nature is a temple whose living colonnades Breathe forth a mystic speech in fitful sighs; Man wanders among symbols in those glades Where all things watch him with familiar eyes. Like dwindling echoes gathered far away Into a deep and thronging unison Huge as the night or as the light of day, All scents and sounds and colors meet as one. Perfumes there are as sweet as the oboe's sound, Green as the prairies, fresh as the child's caress, ?And there are others, rich, corrupt, profound And of an infinite pervasiveness Like myrrh, or musk, or amber, that excite The ecstasies of sense, the souls' delight. "Correspondences," Baudelaire believed, was a term describing a new aesthetic philosophy. He uses the classic sonnet form, his meter is the traditional Alexandrine, his rhymes are regular, and his prosody is impeccable. However, the content was disconcerting at the time and must have seemed anarchical to his contemporaries. He speaks of a correspondence of sensations, which appeal equally to the spirit and the senses, in which perfumes, sounds, and colors respond to each other within the vicariousness of the senses. Salazar, Music in Our Time, 146 224 published during these years and was the source of many novellas and tales that appeared in periodicals such as L'Echo de Paris and Le Journal. SYMBOLISM Most historians of the era would agree that the symbolist 467 movement began with the publication of the famous literary manifesto by Jean Mor?as (1856-1910) in Le 468 Pierrot, The Decadent Era, 5. 469 Some of these journals were: Lut?c, La Revue blanche, La Revue Ind?pendente, La Revue Wagn?rienne, La Pl?iade, Le Scapin, and La Vogue. Ibid. 470 According to Mallarm? and Val?ry, Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849), the American poet, is to be cited as an important influence on the formation of modern French poetry. Indeed, Baudelaire and others translated most of Poe?s important works into French. Among the themes to be found in later French poetry that may be attributed to Poe are the instinct for beauty, the love of musicality in poetry, the theme of the poet- outcast or accursed poet, techniques of an intentional vagueness of atmosphere, and the visionary power of the poet. Mallarm?, Collected Poems, xi-xviii. 471 Some of these tenants included joi de vivre, the importance of music, a stylistic reliance on free verse, a constant concern for technical detail, philosophical idealism, a predilection for the world of dreams and legends, and an abundance of works with double meanings. Neely, Les Mardis, 25. 472 Neely, Les Mardis, 25. 225 Figaro, in which he rejected absolutely the artificiality of decadence. 468 The name of the new movement was subsequently accepted and proclaimed by literary journals, 469 which published both the poetry and the critical writings of the symbolists, bringing them to the attention of the public. St?phane Mallarm? (1842-1898), 470 the standard bearer of the movement, began to have a strong influence over a number of younger poets, such as Jean Mor?as (1856-1910), Ren? Ghil (1862-1925), Francis Vi?l?-Griffin (1863-1937), and Henri de R?gnier (1864-1936), all of whom espoused the doctrines of symbolism. 471 R?my de Gourmont (1858-1915), a leading critic of the day, attempted his own definition of the term symbolism: What does Symbolism mean? If one insists on the strict etymological sense of the term, almost nothing; if one goes beyond this, it can mean individualism in literature, freedom of art, abandonment of conventional formulae, tendencies toward the new, the strange, and even the bizarre; it can also mean idealism, disdain for the social conventions, anti-naturalism, a tendency to take only the characteristic detail from life, to heed only the act which distinguishes one man from another, to work only for results, for the essentials. 472 473 Myers, Modern French Music, 63-65. 474 The New Oxford Companion to Literature in French, 788-789. 226 Arthur Rimbaud (1854-1891) and Paul Verlaine (1844-1896) also became associated with this movement. Rimbaud for themes such as the voyage of discovery, the half-forgotten depths of childhood memory, the unconscious, and the poet's innocence and integrity in the face of the eternal battle of good and evil. Verlaine became known particularly for he musicality of his poetry. 473 Other symbolist characteristics of his work were his dreamlike reveries which concentrate on unstable states of matter, periods in which ordinary objects seem to be transformed, while visual experience is revealed in his use of images drawn from nature to express very subtle psychological nuances. Rimbaud and Verlaine, in turn, had many disciples who ultimately form a direct line of succession of their mentors, beginning new trends in poetical writing, including surrealism. Following Verlaine, these included Paul Claudel, Jean Cocteau, Tristan Corbi?re, Maurice de Gu?rin Jules Laforgue, and Albert Samian. Following Rimbaud were Andr? Breton and Saint-Pol-Roux (pseud. Of Paul Roux). Following Mallarm? were ?douard Dujardin, Andre Fontainas, Ren? Ghil, Paul Fort, Maurice Maeterlinck, Stuart Merrill, Albert Mockel, Jean Mor?as, Paul Val?ry, Francis Vi?l?-Griffin, and Emile Verhaeren. 474 SYMBOLISM IN MUSIC From this example, the symbolists intended to liberate the techniques of versification in ways that would give poetry greater fluidity. Poetry was now to evoke, 475 Myers, Modern French Music, 65-81. 476 Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 159. 227 not describe, and this poetry was to offer impressions, intuitions, and sensations, not details or descriptions. Symbolism was a Wagnerian ideal, and it permeates his operas, where people, objects, sentiments, and specifics acts are represented by leitmotifs, which are used to evoke the overarching themes of the work. Wagner's preoccupation with myths and the theme of death also linked him to the symbolists. Thus, symbolism, coupled with Wagnerism in France, produced a conception of the essential musicality of poetry and a link between words and music. 475 The orchestrator, likewise, was to follow a similar process, granting each instrument a characteristic color: green for the pastoral oboe, blue for the flute, vibrant red for the trumpets and trombones. These elemental syntheses are equivalent to the classical ethos of the Greek modes. After the Correspondence of Baudelaire, his heirs among the symbolists, like Rimbaud, found definite colors in the vowels: A is black, E is white, I is red, O is blue, and U is green. Poets like Ren? Ghil went so far as to codify this sensorial or sensual vicariousness in a system, according to which, each vowel in the French language could find a translation in the timbres of different orchestra instruments. According to Ghil, the sound "ou" has the color of flutes, and the French "u" has the timbre of the piccolo, while the sounds "eu" and "o" correspond to the trumpets and trombones. 476 Now another element, the musical quality, appears in the pictorial and poetic arts, just as music had earlier borrowed poetical and pictorial qualities from literature and 477 Pater, Studies in the History of the Renaissance, 149. 228 painting. Cultural theorist Walter Pater described this borrowing: All art constantly aspires toward the condition of music. But although each art has thus its own specific order of impressions and an untranslatable charm, while a just apprehension of the ultimate differences of the arts is the beginning of aesthetic criticism; yet it is noticeable that, in its special mode of handling its given material, each art may be observed to pass into the condition of some other art, by what German critics term an Andersstreben?a partial alienation from its own limitations?through which the arts are able, not indeed to supply the place of each other, but reciprocally to lend each other new forces. 477 This dissolution, the melting of the outline of form through subtle chromatic changes, the dissolution of the harmonic progressions of the tonic-dominant of classical music, and the relaxing of rhythmic tension, is typical of the new impressionistic aesthetics in music. Similarly, prosody itself would soon dissolve in the atmosphere of pure lyricism, as did tonality and form with Debussy. Verlaine experimented with alliteration to develop the musical quality of his verse by reducing language to pure sound values whose poetic images are intelligible only through intuition. This idea of the abstract image formed the whole poetic art of St?phane Mallarm?. In painting it is the revelation of light, free of narrative requirements; in poetry it is the interplay of vowels and consonants; and in music, it is the pure harmonic sensations, free from their function in tonal relationships. During World War I, a new technology that included high velocity shells, machine guns, tanks, and airplanes at first outstripped the defensive capacities of the combatant armies. This industrialized killing challenged the traditional attitudes towards war and soon made its conventional literary expressions obsolete. The war cast a long 478 P?guy, Alain-Fournier, and Paicharis were among the writers killed in the opening weeks of the war. Soon, a number of writers were recounting the suffering in novels, including Barbusse?s Le feu (1916), Adrien Bertrand?s L?Appel du sol (1916), and Genevoix?s Nuits de guerre (1916). The finest French poetry of the war was arguably Apollinaire?s Calligrammes (1918). The New Oxford Dictionary of Literature in French, edited by Peter France, 783-785. 479 Bereton, An Introduction to the French Poets, 273. 229 shadow over writers and other artists; a movement such as surrealism may be seen as a response to the collapse of nineteenth-century European values. In France, the number of dead and wounded was disproportionately higher than that of other European countries, virtually wiping out an entire male generation. Faced with the new moral and spiritual dramas of war, very few writers could remain detached. Many served in the military and experienced combat. As a result, a striking body of war literature was produced in France. 478 DADA AND THE SURREALIST MOVEMENT Dada was one particularly important movement born in 1916, partly in response to the carnage and futility of war and its obscene immorality, by a group of young exiles of various nationalities living temporarily in Switzerland, under the leadership of Hugo Ball, Emmy Hennings, and Tristan Tzara. The name was taken from a random consultation of the French dictionary, in which dada (the equivalent of gee-gee) means "hobbyhorse." 479 It served its purpose admirably, suggesting at once the movement's infantilism and absurdist world view, its preference for words nearer to an incoherent cry than to rational speech, and the determination of its members to take up nothing to which an existing mystique could be attached. Reacting against the mass slaughters of World War I and at least partially influenced by prewar movements such as cubism and Italian 480 The New Oxford Companion to Literature in French, edited by Peter France, 785-787. 481 In this document, Breton provided a definition of surrealism: ?Pure psychical automatism, which has the aim of expressing, whether verbally, in writing, or in some other manner, the actual functioning of thought freed from any control of the reason and any aesthetic or moral preoccupation.? The New Oxford Companion to Literature in French, edited by Peter France, 784. 482 Ibid. 230 futurism, the dadaists approached the arts as revolutionary nihilists, convinced that whatever had been established before the war was bad because it partook in the common cultural values that led to the war. 480 The dadaists were ready to experiment in any direction, provided it was new. Dadaism was brought to Paris in 1919 and its effect on young writers, such as Paul ?luard (1895-1952), Andr? Breton (1896-1966), Louis Aragon (1897-1982), and Ren? Char (1907-1988), quickly led to the founding of surrealism by Breton. Breton remained the principal spokesman for the movement that he codified in his Manifeste du surr?alisme (1924). 481 As a revision of aesthetic values, it was a reaction against positivism, realism, reason, logic, and the nineteenth-century belief in progress. Surrealism sought various means, mostly in poetry and the visual arts, of giving the human psyche or subconscious a fuller, truer expression. As one consequence, the surrealists discarded conventional concerns with form. 482 Prose, written without premeditation (or the loosest kind of free verse) were used because they seemed to be least likely to mediate production or introduce self-critical judgment to the creative process. No stress was given to the distinction between verse and prose. Breton conceived of the state of surreality as a fusion of dream and reality, expressing the belief 483 The New Oxford Companion to Literature in French, edited by Peter France, 785-787. 484 Ibid. 231 that there existed a site in the mind where opposites (for examples life and death, real and imaginary, past and future) were no longer perceived as contradictory. The key themes explored by Breton and his followers were the quest through the subconscious, the city (especially Paris), night, the miraculous, surprise, coincidence, chance encounters, desire, and the championing of liberty in all walks of life. 483 WORLD WAR II During the late 1930s, as another world war loomed on the horizon, a number of surrealists immigrated to New York, including Breton. By this time, most of Breton's early followers, dissatisfied with the programmatic nature of the movement and Breton's own imperious personality, had gone their own ways, and surrealism was no longer a serious force in French culture. 484 In New York, surrealism exerted a passing influence with the nascent abstract expressionist circle, particularly Adolph Gottlieb, Jackson Pollock, and Mark Rothko, but American art never passed through a strong surrealist phase, as did French art. In France, meanwhile, the rending of the nation into an occupied zone and a free zone produced a similar split in the literary community. The right to speak for France was bitterly disputed among those who followed the Vichy government and those who joined the resistance. Soon, the occupation forces established a Nazi Literature Office, which banned 2,000 titles and 850 authors and translators, most of them of Jewish origin or 485 Sowerwine, France Since 1870, 241-252. 486 Ibid. 487 The New Oxford Dictionary of Literature in French, edited by Peter France, 580-582. 232 left-wing political affiliation. Early writers loyal to the Vichy government stressed the independence of the French literary tradition, but the willingness of the Vichy government to collaborate with the Germans brought censorship as well. Books were to have a nobility of moral purpose and to celebrate familial and rural values, and the label ?Vichy? was the mark of legalized publications and public performances during the period. For many writers, any legalized publication amounted to compromise with the Germans and, for them, the only possible mode of unequivocal defiance was to publish clandestinely. The underground newspaper would become the most widespread act of resistance for writers and publishers. 485 After the war, one important legacy of the occupation was a fierce struggle for cultural legitimacy that included a purge of those writers who had collaborated with the Vichy government or the Germans. 486 These purges eventually failed, but a short-lived postwar genre of ironic writing about the occupation was born. There was a surge in publishing thematically linked to the resistance. This would include novels such as Simone de Beauvoir's Le sang des autres, (1945), Andr? Chamson's Le puits des miracles (1945), and Roger Vailland's Un jeune homme seule (1951). 487 Another philosophical and literary movement of the postwar period was existentialism. Paul Camus, a member of the French resistance and a well-known author, was identified with this movement, as was Jean-Paul Sartre. 488 Myers, Modern French Music, 61-65. 489 Debussy set this theatrical work to music with few alterations; few operas have ever managed to wed literature and music so successfully. The vocal line captures the inflections and natural rhythms of the French language, while the musical techniques remain true to both the essence of the drama and the play's symbolist aesthetic. Myers, Modern French Music, 61-67. 233 THE COLLABORATION OF WRITERS AND MUSICIANS By the late nineteenth century, French writers were struggling to free their verse from the constraints of classical forms. Many musicians worked closely with writers and poets as they sought fresh material for their pieces with texts. A number of composers also wrote prose, most often music criticism. Starting with Carl Maria von Weber in the early nineteenth century, Hector Berlioz, Claude Debussy, Paul Dukas, Franz Liszt, Camille Saint-Sa?ns, Erik Satie, Robert Schumann, and others proved themselves to be able writers.Yet with very few exceptions (such as Ezra Pound, Jean Cocteau, and Tristan Klingsor) writers did not compose music. They did, however, have definite ideas about the powers of music and, for many, particularly the symbolists, all art aspired to the level of music, which they considered a universal language. 488 During this time, there were a large number of French operas with libretti either specifically written by, or based on, works by important writers of the time. Often the collaboration between writer and composer was extremely close; this is evident in the work by Massenet and Catulle Mend?s, Bruneau and Zola, Debussy and Maeterlinck, Honegger and Claudel, Poulenc and Apollinaire, and Milhaud and Claudel. One of the most important twentieth-century French operas, Debussy's Pell?as et M?lisande (1902), is based on a play of the same name by Maeterlinck. 489 490 Ibid., 123-129 491 Cooper, French Music, 8-54. 234 One of the most important literary collaborators on works of mixed genre, as well as operas, during the first half of the century is Jean Cocteau, who was involved in the following works: Milhaud's opera Le pauvre matelot (1927), a setting of the three-act Cocteau play; Stravinsky's opera-oratorio Oedipus rex (1927), based on a Latin translation of a text by Cocteau; Honegger's opera Antigone (1927), with a Cocteau text; and Poulenc's La voix humaine (1959) on a text by Cocteau. 490 Many composers represented in this dissertation collaborated with French writers to develop operas and vocal chamber music. George Bizet is best known for his opera comique Carmen (1875), based on a novella by Fran?ois M?rim?e. The term realist, adapted from literature and the visual arts, has been applied to Carmen as a description of its subject-matter, its social milieu, the use of on-stage music and local color, and Bizet's quality of detachment from his characters. Bizet also composed incidental music for Alphonse Daudet's play L'Arl?sienne (1872) and many songs to texts by the romantic poets, Victor Hugo in particular. Jules Massenet's most famous operas are Werther (1892), based on Goethe's novel The Sorrows of a Young Werther; Manon (1894), based on Pr?vost's novel; and Tha?s (1894), from a novel by Anatole France. He also collaborated with Catulle Mend?s on two operas, and based compositions on works by Victor Hugo, Alphonse Daudet, and Gustave Flaubert, among others. His musical style has a melodic charm and grace, later described by d'Indy as quasi-religious eroticism. 491 C?sar Franck was a deeply religious man and the combination of classicism and 492 Duchen, Gabriel Faur?, 88-89. 493 Ibid., 95-101. 494 Lockspeiser, Debussy: His Life and Mind, 135-179. 235 intense emotionalism in his music inspired many younger composers. Franck based some of his songs and symphonic poems on romantic texts from Leconte de Lisle and Victor Hugo, and his music was appreciated in an unusually wide variety of artistic and literary circles. Proust, for one, was a great admirer of Franck's chamber music; Franck's violin sonata may be one of the sources for the Vinteuil sonata in Proust's A la recherch? du temps perdu. 492 Although Gabriel Faur? composed music for almost all genres, for many he represents the quintessence of French song writing. Most of his songs, or m?lodies, were set to poems by Hugo, Gautier, Leconte de Lisle, Baudelaire, Verlaine, and Armand Silvestre. Verlaine inspired some of Faur?'s best songs, whose subtlety of musical response to Verlaine's poetry would produce work of extraordinary sensitivity in its molding music to poetry. 493 The French composer most influenced by literature was probably Claude Debussy. He was involved in literary circles, was friendly with the important literary men of his time, and, according to Lockspeiser, drew more inspiration from literature than from music. 494 In his oeuvre, works with text are prevalent; the largest single body of composition being his eighty-seven songs. The writers most important to his music were the Parnassians and symbolists, especially Banville, Baudelaire, Lou?s, Mallarm?, Maeterlinck, and Verlaine. The greatest number of Debussy's songs, however, use words by Verlaine and, in general, Debussy appears to have been the composer of his time most 495 Lockspeiser, Debussy: His Life and Mind, 17-23. 236 inspired by poetry. 495 Debussy wrote his own poems for the song cycle Prose lyriques, and some libretti based on short stories by Poe. In setting the texts, Debussy was always sensitive to the rhythms and natural inflections of the French language. This is particularly evident in Pell?as et M?lisande (1902), but his songs are also consistently effective in their handling of the sound of language. A number of other important works by Debussy were inspired by literary texts, including his incidental music for Le martyre de Saint S?bastien (1911) to a text by Gabriele D'Annunzio, and the orchestral work based on a poem by Mallarm?, Pr?lude ? l'apr?s-midi d'un faune (1892-1894). THE MUSIC FOR FLUTE AND VOICE AND ITS POETS Not surprisingly, French composers used exclusively French poets of every era as inspiration in their works for flute and voice. Below is a table of the works for flute and voice, listing the poet for each work. TABLE 12 MUSIC FOR FLUTE AND VOICE WITH NAMES OF POETS Alphabetically by Composer Composer Title Poet Date of Composition Louis Auber L?heure captive Ren? Dommange 1928 J. B?esau Deux m?lodies Ferdinand H?rold unknown Marcel Bernheim Claire de lune Franz Toussaint unknown Louis Beydts Chansons pour les oiseaux Paul Fort 1948 Composer Title Poet Date of Composition 237 Louis Beydts La fl?te verte Louis Codet unknown Louis Beydts Trois m?lodies Paul Jean Toulet 1947 M. T. Bonhomme Ballade anci?nne Georges Finaud unknown Paul B?sser Le seigneur vient dans le chemin Marie Maindron 1937 Andr? Caplet Viens! Une fl?te invisible soupire Victor Hugo 1900 Andr? Caplet ?coute, mon coeur Rabindranath Tagore 1924 Jean Caran Po?mes de Tristan Klingsor Tristan Klingsor 1927 C?cile Chaminade Portrait Pierre Reyniel 1904 Jean Cras La fl?te de Pan Lucien Jacques 1928 Jean Cras Fontaines Lucien Jacques 1923 Louis Cr?vecoeur Ha?-ka? d?occident Maurice Heim unknown Jean Yves Daniel-Lesur Quatre lieder C?cile Sauvage, Henri Heine 1947 Claude Debussy Les chansons de Bilitis Pierre Lou?s 1901 Maurice Delage Deux fables de Jean de la Fontaine Jean de la Fontaine 1931 Maurice Delage Hommage ? Roussel Ren? Chalupt 1925 Maurice Delage Quatre po?mes hindous Bhartrihari, Henri Heine, Maurice Delage 1914 Marcel Delannoy Trois histoires Jean Mor?as 1926 Marcel Delannoy Deux po?mes Andr? Germain 1927 Louis Di?mer S?r?nade Aylic Langl? 1884 Gustave Doret Mirage Charles Vellay unknown Louis Durey Images ? cruso? Saint-L?ger 1918 Maurice Emannuel Trois odelettes anacr?ontiques R?mi Belleau, Pierre de Ronsard 1911 Gabriel Faur? Nocturne Villiers de l?Isle-Adam 1886 Ernst Fromaigeat Petite po?mes d?extr?me-orient l. Arnould-Gr?milly 1932 Philippe Gaubert Soir pa?n Albert Samian 1912 Composer Title Poet Date of Composition 238 Benjamin Godard Lullaby G. Sandre 1891 Charles Gounod S?r?nade Victor Hugo 1866 Charles Gounod Pri?re du soir Eug?ne Manuel unknown Arthur Honegger Chanson de Ronsard Pierre de Ronsard 1924 Arthur Honegger Trois chansons de la petite sir?ne Ren? Morax 1926 George H?e Soir pa?n Andr? Lebey unknown Jacques Ibert Deux st?les orient?es Victor Segalen 1925 Jacque Ibert Chanson du rien Maurice Constantin- Weyer 1930 Charles Koechlin Le nenuphar Edmond Harcourt 1897 ?douard Lalo Chant de Breton Albert Delpit 1884 Raoul LaParra Bien loin d?ici Charles Baudelaire 1926 Paul Le Flem Cinq chants de cr?isade Medieval poets Conon de B?thme, Le chatelain de Couci, Thibaut de Champagne, Chardon de Reims 1925 Jules Massenet ?l?gie Louis Gallet 1881 Georges Migot Deux st?les Victor Segalen 1934 Georges Migot Reposoir grave, noble et pur... Charles de Saint-Cyr 1933 Darius Milhaud Catalogue de fleurs Lucien Daudet 1920 Jacques Pillois Chanson de Yamina R.H. de Vandelbourg 1922 Jacques Pillois Trois po?mes de Albert Samain Albert Samain 1932 Georges Poniridy Deux po?mes dans le style populaire grec C. Crystallis 1925 Francis Poulenc Le bestiaire Guillaume Apollinaire 1919 Franci Poulenc Quatre po?mes de Max Jacob Max Jacob 1921 Maurice Ravel Air de la princesse Colette 1920 Maurice Ravel La fl?te enchant?e Tristan Klingsor 1903 Composer Title Poet Date of Composition 496 Sowerwine, France Since 1870, 94-105. 239 Maurice Ravel Chansons mad?casses Evariste Parny 1925 Maurice Ravel Trois po?mes de St?phane Mallarm? St?phane Mallarm? 1913 Alexis Roland-Manuel Deux elegies Francois Maynard, Jean Pellerin 1928 Marguerite Roesgen- Champion Les chrysanth?mes d?or Jose Bruyr 1926 Marguerite Resgen- Champion Pannyre aux talons Albert Samain 1926 Albert Roussel Deux po?mes de Ronsard Pierre de Ronsard 1924 L?o Sachs Les nymphes Pierre Reyniel 1909 Camille Saint-Sa?ns Une fl?te invisible Victor Hugo 1887 Henri Sauguet Madrigal Jean Aubry 1942 Henri Sauguet Beaut?, retirez-vous Georges Couturier 1943 Alice Sauvrezis La chanson de soirs Albert Samian, Andr? P?zard 1922 Florent Schmidt Kerob-shal Ren? Kerdyk, Georges Jean-Aubry, Ren? Chalupt 1919-1924 Henri Tomasi Le chevrier Jos?-Maria de Heredia 1943 The great majority of these works were written during the period now known as La belle epoque, when the literary movements of realism, symbolism, surrealism, and decadence all converged to create a one-of-a-kind cultural revolution in France. 496 As this list demonstrates, nearly every French composer of the period was touched by this literary activity and became involved in the production of m?lodies, and, more specifically, vocal chamber music. 497 Myers, Modern French Music, 102-107. 498 Orenstein, Ravel: Man and Musician, 179-181. 240 RAVEL AND THE MUSIC FOR FLUTE AND VOICE The works of Ravel for flute and voice are one example of how French composers were influenced by French writers of the day to compose vocal chamber music. Although Maurice Ravel was renowned for his piano music and his skill as an orchestrator, his music shows an intense pictorial imagination and most of his compositions have pictorial and poetic titles. 497 Tristan Klingsor, a fellow member of the group Les apaches, wrote the texts for Ravel's orchestral song-cycle Sh?h?razade (1903). Ravel also felt some affinity with symbolist poets and wrote a chamber piece entitled Trois po?mes de St?phane Mallarm? (1913). He also worked with the novelist Colette on the fantaisie- lyrique, L'Enfant et les sortileges (1925). It was his exposure to the innovative ideas debated by Les apaches that led Ravel to the major stylistic shift that takes place in the composition of Trois po?mes de St?phane Mallarm? (1913) for soprano, flute, and chamber ensemble. 498 Trois po?mes begins a new phase for Ravel, one marked by the revelation of the inner meanings of the text through its musical setting; the underlying tendencies of this shift can also be traced to his deep admiration for Edgar Allen Poe. In the late nineteenth century, Poe was a cult figure in France and a writer of particular interest to Baudelaire, Mallarm?, and Debussy. Ravel was specifically interested in Poe's The Philosophy of Composition, in which Poe gives an explication of the writing of The Raven. Poe states: 499 Peter Kaminsky, ?Vocal music and the lures of exoticism and irony,? The Cambridge Companion to Ravel, Ed. Deborah Mawer, 171. 500 Peter Kaminsky, ?Vocal music and the lures of exoticism and irony,? The Cambridge Companion to Ravel, ed. Deborah Mawer, 172. 241 But in subjects so handled, however skillfully, or with however vivid an array of incident, there is always a certain hardness or nakedness, which repels the artistic eye. Two things are invariably required: first, some amount of complexity, or more properly, adaptation; and, secondly, some amount of suggestiveness, some undercurrent, however indefinite, of meaning. It is this latter, in especial, which imparts to a work of art so much of that richness ?which we are too fond of confounding with the ideal. 499 Ravel described his own compositional process in Trois po?mes de St?phane Mallarm? and his approach to Mallarm?'s text: The aesthetic of Edgar Allen Poe, your great American, has been of singular importance to me, and also the immaterial poetry of Mallarm?, unbounded visions, yet precise in design, enclosed in a mystery of somber abstractions, an art where all the elements are so intimately bound up together that one cannot analyze, but only sense, its effect. I have a predilection for my Trois po?mes de St?phane Mallarm?, which obviously will never be a popular work, since in it I transposed the literary procedures of Mallarm?, whom I personally consider France's greatest poet. I wish to transpose Mallarm?'s poetry into music, especially that preciosity so full of meaning and so characteristic of him. 500 Ravel cites Mallarm?'s precision, abstraction, and mystery as the defining elements for the piece. Later, the composer wrote Chansons mad?casses for soprano, flute, cello, and piano to texts by Evariste de Parny (1753-1814) excerpted from his book entitled Chansons mad?casses, traduites en fran?ais, suites de poesies fugitives (1787). Ravel had already written many works using folksongs and folk idioms, and the influence of Igor Stravinsky and Arnold Schoenberg eventually led him away from the techniques of broad 501 Ibid. 502 Roland-Manuel, Maurice Ravel, 95-96. 503 Orenstein, Ravel: Man and Musician, 196. 242 impressionism to a sparseness and clarity devoted to the clear illumination of the text. 501 Elizabeth Sprague-Coolidge, New York patroness of the arts, who was also financially instrumental in the support of Bart?k, Casella, Hindemith, Schoenberg, and Stravinsky, commissioned the work. Sprague-Coolidge specifically asked for the instrumentation of only voice, flute, cello, and piano. Roland-Manuel wrote the following account of how the piece came to being: Being a confirmed admirer of bibelots dating back to the Revolution, Directoire, Empire and Restoration, Ravel bought, between an 1820 Gothic Clock and an Etruscan teapot, a first-edition of Evariste Parny. As he was looking through the [volume].?He had a cablegram from America from the cellist Kindler asking him to compose a song cycle.? Always happy, in true Mozartian fashion, to adjust himself to a task that had been determined for him by another's will, the composer tenaciously went on reading Parny, having made up his mind to provide an accompaniment of piano, flute, and cello for the words of the French Tibilus. Delighted by a peculiar, exotic quality, which entirely suited his tastes, as local color was virtually excluded, his choice fell on the fifth, eighth, and twelfth Chansons mad?casses. 502 Ravel commented on his compositional procedures in the work and the influence of the poetic text: I believe the Chansons mad?casses introduce a new element, dramatic?indeed erotic, resulting from the subject matter of Parny?s poems. The songs form a sort of quartet in which the voice plays the role of the principal instrument. Simplicity is all-important. 503 LES SIX AND THE MUSIC FOR FLUTE AND VOICE Darius Milhaud was a prolific composer of dramatic music for opera, vocal 504 L?o Latil was a young poet of profoundly Catholic faith and a close friend of Milhaud. He was killed in action in 1915 and left his diary to Milhaud, extracts of which Milhaud used in the second movement of his Third String Quartet with Voice (1916) ? written in memory of L?o Latil ? and in a work for voice and piano entitled Po?mes (1921). Nichols, Conversations with Madeleine Milhaud, 8-10. 243 chamber music, theater, ballet, and film. He was a close friend of Paul Claudel and based many works on Claudel texts, including the innovative music for the entire Oresteia Trilogy (1913-1922) and an allegorical opera, Christophe Colomb (1928). He also worked with Cocteau, their most successful collaboration being the chamber opera Le pauvre matelot (1927). When asked about her husband's early friendships with artists and writers, Madeline Milhaud replied: Q: Were Milhaud's friends exclusively musicians? A: Certainly not. His friendships in Aix show that. Latil was a poet and Lunel a writer. L?o Latil was the son of the Milhaud family doctor. He had lost his mother when still very young, and I think he suffered greatly from it. L?o took violin lessons with Milhaud's teacher M. Brugui?re, but he wasn't really a musician. He was a very sensitive, highly-strung, fragile young man. He wrote poetry, but loved music in his way. He admired Milhaud and held him in great affection. He thought he was the only person who could understand him. L?o was a mystic and would probably have been a priest if he had not been killed in the war in 1915. This friendship might perhaps have become a little morbid had Darius not got to know Armand Lunel at the lyc?e. Armand was more positive and had a fertile imagination as well as a perfect knowledge of the history of Provence. It was Armand who was Darius's first collaborator. He wrote prose poems inspired by Persia, India, Greece, etc., that Darius set to music. It was L?o who introduced Darius to a play by Francis Jammes. It was to become his first opera. 504 Francis Poulenc, also a member of Les six, composed chamber, choral, and stage music, including ballets, incidental music for plays (by writers such as Anouilh, Cocteau, and Salacrou), and film scores. He possessed a unique lyrical gift and made a use of mimicry and parody in his music. Poulenc wrote a number of compositions for voice 244 based on works by Apollinaire, Cocteau, and ?luard, including Les mamelles de Tir?sias (1947) by Apollinaire and La voix humaine (1959) by Cocteau. A complete study of the intersections between the composers for flute and voice and French writers is found in Chapter 12: The Composers and the Music for Flute and Voice. The romantic poets prepared the way for the intimate relationship between music and literature, especially the interaction between poetry and music. Music began to enter the subject matter of the symbolists, as themes and as an aspect of their ideas about literature itself. Yet near the beginning of the twentieth century, a disentanglement of the two arts began to occur. Wagnerism was no longer a matter of controversy, and during this period of remarkable, highly dramatic cultural change, music lost its place as the quintessential art. Poets and composers worked together, but not toward the Gesamtkunstwerk of the previous decades. Sadly, vocal chamber music, as an art form in France, subsequently died out. 505 McCutchan, Marcel Moyse, Voice of the Flute, 25. 245 CHAPTER 10 THE RISE OF THE GREAT FRENCH FLUTISTS It is often remarked that though 'French schools' of flute playing exist in several countries, they never quite sound the same as the French players.? As no one can diagnose the difference, the essential ingredient is probably one of personality rather than of method. 505 ?Marcel Moyse 506 Powell, The Flute, 208. 507 Toff, The Flute Book., 255. 246 The idea of a particular French flute style or school is by now commonplace. This notion of a French style of playing is described by Powell: ?the term also refers to a French-influenced style of flute-playing that became dominant in Europe and America as Conservatoire-trained players filled orchestral and teaching posts and as the recording industry carried their sound and style to all corners of the developed world. In that looser sense, we can easily list the style?s main attributes: the use of the French-style silver flute, a preoccupation with tone, a standard repertoire, and a set of teaching materials in which the Taffanel-Gaubert method and the tone development exercises of Marcel Moyse hold a central place. 506 These two primary characteristics of the French flute school? the French-style silver flute or Boehm flute and the innovative teachings of the flute professors at the Conservatoire? would bring about the rapid development and expansion of flute playing in France. During the period 1850-1950, the rise of these great flutists was a contributing factor to the development of music for flute and voice. THE BOEHM FLUTE IN FRANCE Certainly the physical evolution of the flute has had a direct effect on the kind and the amount of music written for it. Toff states unequivocally: The physical evolution of the flute since the turn of the twentieth century has had a direct effect on the music written for the flute ever since. Perhaps the most important factor is stability, for the absence of mechanical change is evidence of the Boehm system?s proven excellence and reliability. The stabilization of the flute mechanism has permitted all manner of experimentation with music for the instrument because composers are able to deal with a known quantity. 507 The Boehm flute, with its larger tone holes and their acoustically correct placement, 508 Toff, The Flute Book, 42-62. 509 Giannini, Great Flute Makers of France: The Lot & Godfroy Families 1650-1900, 106. 510 In fact, the introduction of the Boehm flute in France was a long and sordid affair. Giannini chronicles the battle between Tulou and the younger flutists in Paris, such as Camus, Coche, and Dorus to establish the flute at the Conservatoire. Beginning in 1839, Dorus made repeated requests to the administration of the Conservatoire to establish a class in the use of the Boehm flute, but these efforts were vehemently opposed by Tulou. Boehm himself even wrote several works for the new flute that were dedicated to Camus (Grand polonaise, op. 16), Tulou (Grand polonaise, op. 17), and Dorus (Grand polonaise, op. 24) in the hope that this would popularize his flute in France. After several years, Tulou?s retirement, and several instances of Dorus describing specific passages of orchestral and opera music that were impossible to execute on the old flute, the Conservatoire accepted the instrument in 1860. Ibid., 106-129. 247 cylindrical tubing, a larger embouchure hole, a springed key system, and metal body represented a radical departure from flutes of the past. It had more volume and a more penetrating sound than the flutes preceding it, and the mechanism easily accommodated the expansion of technical demands. 508 Godfroy and Lott, the official manufacturers of Boehm flutes in France, placed the following advertisement in Courrier Fran?ais on October 21, 1837: A New System Flute To give the flute a sound of considerable volume, a perfect equality, an irreproachable intonation, and an easy fingering, such are the great problems that only recently have at last been resolved in Germany. It is a flute constructed after this beautiful system that M. Clair Godfroy a?n?, 67 rue Montmartre, opposite the passage du Saumon, in now offering to flautists. He has brought to the manufacture of this instrument all the care and taste of which one knows he is capable. 509 Well before the end of the nineteenth century, it had replaced most of the older system instruments in France in orchestras and in small group settings. 510 In 1847, Boehm sold the rights to his design (in France) to the Paris instrument 511 Ibid.,105-106. 512 In 1860, the flutists of the Op?ra were Dorus, Alt?s, and Gabriel Leplus. Leplus, apparently, was the last flutist at the Op?ra to use a pre-Boehm system flute. At his retirement, the section changed to Alt?s, Taffanel, and Donjon. All three of these flutists had ordered silver cylinder flutes from Lot in 1850/60. Also in 1860, the Conservatoire ordered five nickel silver flutes, and the Th??tre-Italien ordered two silver flutes. The noted flutists Canti?, Deneux, Stenosse, Brunot, and Simon each ordered a silver flute. Giannini, Great Flute Makers of France: The Lot & Godfroy Families 1650-1900, 176. 513 Ibid., 186. 248 maker Clair Godfroy and his son-in-law, Louis Lot. 511 Thus, when Dorus introduced the Boehm flute to the Conservatoire, this provided an opening for Louis Lot as a new supplier of flutes. He began to provide the school with Boehm cylinder flutes that Dorus had made popular. Manufacturing figures increased accordingly. Between 1855 and 1860, Dorus purchased four silver flutes. Among the forty-one flutists who purchased Boehm silver cylinder flutes in 1860 alone were Henri Alt?s (Op?ra, 1848-76), Emile Astruc (Professor of Flute, Marseille), Jules Deneux (in Varennes), Louis Dorus (Op?ra, 1834-66), Charles Herval (Professor of Flute, Havre), Andr? Lemort (in Nice), and Paul Taffanel (Op?ra, 1864-90). 512 Later the Lot company also made Boehm system silver cylinder flutes for Gaston Blanquart (Op?ra, 1923-49), J. Boule (Op?ra, 1922-55), Jean Chefnay (Op?ra-Comique, 1951-70), Gaston Crunelle (Professor of flute, Conservatoire, and Op?ra-Comique, 1938-64), Jean-Pierre Eustache (Op?ra, 1960-90), Philippe Gaubert (Professor of Flute, Conservatoire), Adolphe Hennebains (Op?ra, 1894-1914, and Professor of Flute, Conservatoire), Pierre Jeanjean (soloist), Ren? Le Roy (soloist), and Jean-Pierre Rampal (Op?ra, 1955-62, and Professor of Flute, Conservatoire). 513 514 Toff also asserts that the open-hole flute family is a French invention, first introduced on the Boehm flute by Clair Godfroy. Apparently, Gaubert was the first major French flute player to adopt the open-hole system, which became widely used thereafter. Indeed, the open-hole French model flute is ubiquitous today. Toff, The Flute Book, 101. 249 This new instrument brought about a profound change in the aesthetics of tone for French flutists. As Toff explains: The pure, silvery tone of the modern French school implies the use of the silver flute, and indeed, the silver flute became popular in France before anywhere else. The tone produced by the silver flute is light and limpid and an appropriate top voice to the light-textured French woodwind choir. It responds well to the light, front-of-the-mouth attack and to pianissimo, particularly in the upper register and over wide intervals. The silver flute permits a looser embouchure than does wood, which allow the player to make the nuances of timbre and pitch that are the hallmarks of the French style. 514 These new tonal possibilities ignited the imagination of French composers, who began writing music for the new instrument at a prodigious rate. Along with solo works for the flute, composers turned themselves to all manner of chamber groupings including the flute. This involved combining the flute with voice and other instruments. The flute was now seen as a solo instrument that could produce the strength of sound and variety of tone colors to hold its own in orchestral and ensemble settings. FLUTE TEACHING AT THE CONSERVATOIRE Historically, the French style of flute-playing also arose from the method of playing and teaching the instrument attributed to Claude-Paul Taffanel (1844-1908) and his pupils at the Paris Conservatoire during the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries, a number of whom would become well-known flutists in their own right. However, the lineage to Taffanel was established much earlier through Jean-Louis Tulou (1786-1865), who was elected Flute Professor in 1829. These teachers did much to 515 Powell, The Flute, 221. 250 contribute to the development of music for flute and voice. It would be useful for the purposes of this study to relate some of the history of flute pedagogy at the Conservatoire. TABLE 13 FLUTE PROFESSORS AT THE PARIS CONSERVATOIRE 1850-1950 515 Name Teaching Tenure Jean-Louis Tulou 1829-1859 Louis Dorus 1850-1868 Joseph-Henri Alt?s 1869-1893 Claude-Paul Taffanel 1894-1908 Adolphe Hennebains 1909-1914 L?opold Lafleurance 1915-1919 Philippe Gaubert 1920-1931 Marcel Moyse 1932-1940 Gaston Crunelle 1941-1969 JEAN-LOUIS TULOU (1786-1865) Tulou dominated flute playing in Paris during the 1830s and 1840s, often performing with the famous Italian operatic soprano of the day, Madame Catalani. In fact, it was a performance between flute and voice that brought Tulou early critical acclaim. In 1816, he performed the solo flute part opposite Mme Albert at the Paris Op?ra in Lebrun?s Le rossignol. Berlioz later reviewed his performance with praise in 516 Giannini, Great Flute Makers of France: The Lot & Godfroy Families 1650-1900, 130. 517 Apparently, Tulou developed his own new system flute, which he called the fl?te perfectionn?e. His tutor, published in 1835, starts with a one-keyed flute and progresses to the use of five additional keys, finally demonstrating an improved flute with ten keys. Meyland, The Flute, Portland, 115. 518 Tulou wrote numerous pieces for flute, among them: concertos, air and variations, melodies arranged for piano and flute, duets, trios, variations on operatic themes by Bellini and Meyerbeer for flute and piano, and fantaisie concertantes for flute and piano. Ahmad, Patrician Joan. ?The Flute Professors of the Paris Conservatoire from Devienne to Taffanel, 1795-1908,? 84. 251 Les Grotesque de la Musique, October 24, 1857. 516 At the Conservatoire, his students included Joseph-Henri Alt?s, Johannes Donjon, and Jules Demersseman, all of whom became famous performers and teachers in their own right. Although Tulou presided over a period when the flute itself was in the midst of an important phase in its modern evolution, he staunchly resisted the final metal flute developed by Theobald Boehm in 1863, feeling that it corrupted the "true tone" of the wooden instrument. 517 French flutists who advocated the Boehm flute, including Camus, Coche, and Dorus, were obliged to cultivate the instrument without the endorsement of the Conservatoire. During Tulou's tenure in the mid-nineteenth century, operas by Auber, Donizetti, Hal?vy, Meyerbeer, and Rossini, were the chief musical forms popular in Paris. Like their vocal counterparts, virtuosic showpieces were the primary solo and chamber vehicles available to flutists. Indeed, Tulou wrote numerous works of airs vari?s and solos de concerts, which his students studied and performed. 518 LOUIS DORUS (1813-1896) Louis Dorus came from a musical family. His father, who was also a flutist, 519 Blakeman, Taffanel: Genius of the Flute, 10-11. 520 Ibid. 521 Two operas come to mind with extended flute and soprano duos: the mad scene from Thomas? Hamlet, and the sleepwalking scene from Donizetti?s Lucia di Lammermoor. 252 played principal flute in the Valenciennes theater orchestra and was conductor of the Garde nationale, while his sister was the celebrated soprano Juliette Dorus-Gras. 519 Dorus studied at the Conservatoire from the age of ten with Joseph Guillou and won a premiere prix in 1828. He spent several years performing in the orchestra of the Th??tre des Vari?t?s and the Op?ra, becoming principal flute in 1866. He was also principal flute of the Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire from 1839-1868 and performed frequently as soloist with the orchestra. 520 Louis Dorus succeeded Tulou at the Conservatoire in 1860. Dorus had already accepted the Boehm flute years earlier and, in his hands, the flute developed an increased tonal power that would bring it to prominence in the wind section of the orchestra. Dorus was principal flute with the Th??tre-Italien, where he took part in the premieres of many Italian operas, including those with extended flute solos accompanying the lead soprano. 521 Together with a group of leading Parisian musicians, Dorus established the Soci?t? de musique classique around 1847 to promote classical chamber music and to encourage French composers to write new works. Meanwhile, music by Beethoven, Boehm, Haydn, Mozart, and Rossini was being performed on the Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire programs in which Dorus played 522 Powell, The Flute, 214. 523 Giannini, Great Flute Makers of France: The Lot & Godfroy Families 1650-1900, 112. 524 With the introduction of the Boehm flute, timbre became an important aspect of flute performance. Instrumentation treatises of the time by Kastner (1837, 1839), Berlioz (1844), and Widor (1904) concentrated on this element and flutists began to study tone in such a way as to exploit the timbre possibilities of the instrument more fully. This was especially evident in the teachings of Taffanel. Toff, The Flute Book, 258. 253 flute solos in 1850, 1852, and 1854. 522 He was a proponent of the study and performance of music of enduring value rather than the music of the popular operas of the day, which he regarded as a novelty form. He was also instrumental in the introduction of the Boehm flute in Paris and to the Conservatoire. On March 12, 1839, Dorus performed on a concert on his Boehm flute, which was reviewed by the Revue et Gazette Musicale on March 17, 1839: We heard in the beautiful concert given by M. Alard on Wednesday, March 12 at M. Petzold, variations for flute executed with a rare talent by M. Dorus. These variations, written on a Tyrolean air that Mlle. Sontag has made fashionable, were composed by M. Boehm, the famous German maker, to whom the musical world owes the instrument that carries his name, and for which M. Dorus has provided us a new occasion to admire its mechanism, so perfect.?He played the variations on a Tyrolean air, of an incredible difficulty, with a cleanness and an agility, a grace that one can compare only to the lightness and delicateness that his charming sister, Mme. Dorus-Gras, uses on the stage that has elevated her reputation so high. These two talents are like one, and their relationship is such that when one hears the singer one dreams involuntarily of the sounds, full of sweetness, of the virtuoso.? 523 The comparison of his technique to that of his sister, Madame Dorus-Gras, then a prima donna at the Paris Op?ra, brings to the fore the relationship between vocal and instrumental technique, which was of great importance to French musicians at the time. 524 It was key to the interpretation of the greatest part of nineteenth-century French flute 525 Giannini, Great Flute Makers of France: The Lot & Godfroy Families 1836-1845, 113. 526 Blakeman, Taffanel: Genius of the Flute, 12. 254 music, in which the execution of elaborate passage work is comparable to the vocal ornamentation of an extended melodic line. For a flutist to convincingly match the technique of a great coloratura was a measure of the highest achievement. In terms of his sound, Dorus must have been effected by his sister, with whom he performed on many occasions, including her debut in 1826. 525 According to Blakeman, Dorus performed music for flute and voice with his sister: He [Dorus] was not averse to appearing as a flute soloist playing fashionable sets of brilliant variations, but he much preferred to be involved in chamber music. Contemporary reports made much of his partnership with his sister. They often preformed Lebrun?s Le rossignol together, but the frequent references in reviews to their ?nightingale?-like agility were accompanied by other recurring descriptions of Dorus?s playing that paint a rather different picture from that of the usual virtuoso flutists of his time: ?warm and mellow playing?he sings so well?never such soft, such sweet tones?a smooth and delightful singing manner?so poised, so well tuned, so delightful?in tones both mellow, brilliant and sweet.? 526 Dorus?s chamber music activities included the establishment of a concert series called the Soci?t? de musique classique. The group included a mixture of string and wind instruments and performed chamber works by composers such as Beethoven, Farrenc, Hummel, Reicha, and Weber. Through this organization, he collaborated with a wide variety of musicians, including Saint-Sa?ns (as pianist), the singer Pauline Viardot, and the cellist Charles Lebouc. He was also a frequent visitor to the salon of Rossini, where he participated in the first performance of Saint-Sa?ns?s Tarentelle for flute, clarinet, and 527 Blakeman, Taffanel: Genius of the Flute, 12-13. 255 piano. 527 Dorus? views on repertoire, tone production, and technique, along with the official acceptance of the Boehm system among flute instructors at the Conservatoire, brought tremendous changes to the study of the instrument and to the resultant music making of its performers. Rather than pieces based on the sentimental melodies of the most popular operas, which contained lengthy variations based on scale patterns and arpeggios, music was now written for the flute that was original in melodic content, development, and harmonic originality. Flute students at the Conservatoire began to study musical interpretation rather than perfecting empty technical feats. One of Dorus' first pupils at the Conservatoire to attain the premier prix was Claude-Paul Taffanel. Taffanel continued his flute lessons at the Conservatoire while earning diplomas in harmony and fugue, which qualified him as a composer, conductor, and performer. JOSEPH-HENRI ALT?S (1826-1895) Joseph-Henri Alt?s succeeded Dorus as professor in 1869, launching a twenty-four year reign during which he wrote numerous compositions as well as his Grand method (1880). He also performed in the leading Paris orchestras of the day for more than three decades. During his term at the Conservatoire, the Franco-Prussian war ended in a humiliating defeat for France. One consequence of this was a nationalistic rejection for all things German, including music, which brought about tremendous 528 It was in 1871, too, that the Soci?t? nationale de musique fran?ais was formed in Paris, an organization that included musicians Faur?, Franck, Massenet, Saint-Sa?ns, and Taffanel. Powell, The Flute, 214. 529 Ibid., 216. 530 Blakeman, Taffanel: Genius of the Flute, 180-186. 256 changes in Parisian culture. 528 After 1871, German composers vanished from the lists of pieces performed in the annual concours (flute examination) at the Conservatoire and these examinations conducted between 1869 and 1893 contained only works by three French flutists: Alt?s, Demersseman, and Tulou. 529 During this time, Alt?s and Tulou both composed works for flute and soprano: Le rossignol et la tourterelle, op. 26 for flute, soprano, and piano; and Chanson for soprano, flute, and piano, respectively. Both works are bird songs, written in imitation of the arias for soprano and flute that were popular in the operas of the day. Since both of the flutists served in the Op?ra orchestra and performed these works, it is not surprising that they would attempt a foray into this genre. CLAUDE-PAUL TAFFANEL (1844-1908) When Taffanel took over as professor of flute at the Conservatoire in 1893, he brought about what were perceived at the time to be radical changes in flute teaching. 530 He began individualized instruction rather than teaching only in a master-class setting. This allowed each student to work at his or her own level and pace, and it permitted the teacher to tailor the training to the student. While Taffanel continued the practice of commissioning the annual examination pieces in the prevalent genre of romantic 531 Taffanel brought about fundamental changes to the concours of the Paris Conservatoire during his tenure as professor of flute. The concours had been in existence since 1795 and was an annual competition on each solo instrument taught at the school to determine who among the students would graduate. First prize winners on each instrument were graduated, while second prize and several other compensatory prizes were awarded in each category both as a reward and incentive toward further development and eventual graduation. Toward the end of the nineteenth century, the concours provided a forum for the premiere of new works written especially for the competition by either established or young composers. These composers, with few exceptions, were graduates of the Conservatoire. In 1896, Faur? succeeded Massenet as composition professor at the Conservatoire. Faur? and Taffanel agreed to reform the compositions used for the concours and, in 1898, Faur? composed his Fantaisie for flute and piano to be used for the concours that year. It set the standard for the general form of concours pieces to come. It is a bi-sectional piece, with a slow-fast format. In the years following, a majority of the pieces composed for the concours followed this design and were dedicated to Paul Taffanel, including Louis Ganne?s Andante et Scherzo, Georges Enesco?s Cantabile et Presto, Philippe Gaubert?s Nocturne et Allegro Scherzando, Paul Taffanel?s own Andante Pastorale et Scherzettino. Blakeman, Taffanel: Genius of the Flute, 186-191. 532 To quote Louis Fleury: ?The beginning of the nineteenth century heralded a period of artistic decadence for the flute, with virtuoso players favoring a pretentious style, ?full of sound and fury?. To this School of playing, which began with Tulou and ended with Demersseman, we owe countless numbers of grande concerts and brilliant solos. As fantasias with variations and pot-pourris of opera melodies were all the fashion, flute music became merely an excuse for idle twitterings and tasteless gimmicks . . . The credit must go to Taffanel for purifying the solo flute repertoire. Masterpieces long neglected by his predecessors ? who showed an incredible lack of taste ? were revived and restored to their rightful place. The Bach Sonatas, Mozart Concerti, and in general all the riches of the flute repertoire were virtually unknown until Taffanel brought them to light.? ?La Fl?te,? Encyclop?die de la musique, ed. Lavignac, Part 2, vol. 3, 1524, 1526. 257 virtuosity, 531 he also revived the baroque and classical works for the flute by introducing the Mozart concertos and Bach sonatas to the required repertoire. These pieces had not been heard in Paris for over fifty years while Tulou was professor at the Conservatoire. 532 In addition, Taffanel emphasized instruction in style and interpretation, a practice reflected in his own composition of cadenzas for the Mozart concertos. In 1879, Taffanel founded the Soci?t? de musique de chamber pour instruments ? vent. In a letter to an amateur who had contacted him to express support, Taffanel explained the purpose of the group: It is precisely because the study of those instruments that make up the wind section is no longer what it was in the past, because the appearance in a serious concert of a virtuoso wind player has become extremely rare, that we wish to react against such a totally unjustifiable neglect. There are two reasons for this 533 Blakeman, Taffanel: Genius of the Flute, 68-69. 534 During the fifteen years of its existence, the society performed 150 different works, including about fifty premieres. Ibid., 73. 535 A complete listing of the works dedicated to Taffanel is found in Blakeman, Taffanel: Genius of the Flute, Appendix 3. 536 Taffanel, for instance, arranged the Feuillet d'album of Saint-Sa?ns for flute, oboe, two clarinets, two horns, and two bassoons for a concert tour to St. Petersburg. Hervey, Masters of French Music, 78. 537 In 1854, Saint-Sa?ns won a contest sponsored by the Soci?t? Saint-C?cile in Bordeaux. Here, his work may well have come to the attention of Paul Taffanel, who was born and educated in that city. Later, as professor at the Conservatoire, Taffanel was responsible for establishing Saint-Sa?ns firmly in the repertoire of the Paris Soci?t? des Concerts. Ibid. 258 neglect, one the shortage of worthwhile works at a time when musical education is making astonishing progress, the other, it must be said, the apathy of musicians themselves. 533 This group became an important force in revitalizing chamber music for winds, especially the woodwind quintet. Taffanel commissioned works from contemporary composers, such as Charles Gounod, Charles Lef?bvre, and Gabriel Piern?. 534 These pieces are thick, sonorous works, with equality given to each instrument in the ensemble. Taffanel, himself, wrote a woodwind quintet that is still in the standard repertoire today. Numerous new works by French composers were dedicated to him, including Gabriel Faur?'s Fantaisie for flute and piano (1898), Philippe Gaubert's Sonata for flute and piano (1918), Camille Saint-Sa?ns's Romance for flute and orchestra (1898), and Charles Marie Widor's Suite for flute and piano (1898). 535 He was particularly close to Camille Saint-Sa?ns, arranging his works for winds 536 and performing with Saint-Sa?ns in concert tours around Europe. 537 Taffanel may have met Saint-Sa?ns when the composer had his Urbs Roma symphony performed in Bordeaux in 1857, and they likely 538 Ibid., 271-272. 539 Blakeman, Taffanel: Genius of the Flute, 23. 540 Several instrumentalists supplemented the roster of the society, including flutists Edouard Lafleurance, Johannes Donjon, Jules Roux, and Adolphe Hennebains. Blakeman, Taffanel: Genius of the Flute, Appendix 5. 259 met later in Paris, since Taffanel's teacher, Dorus, was one of the players of Saint-Sa?ns's Tarantella at Rossini's soir?es. Taffanel attended Saint-Sa?ns's Monday evenings, and his name appears as Assistant Treasurer in the early days of the Soci?t? nationale. He was a profound admirer of Saint-Sa?ns, whose Romance for Flute and Orchestra, opus 37 he played in Germany and England, as well as on the Russian tour. 538 Taffanel performed often with his teacher, Dorus, and with sopranos of the day. Blakeman reports: In March 1863 he [Taffanel] appeared once again with Dorus, and with the celebrated singer Pauline Viardot. April saw him playing a Demersseman solo in a special concert at the Op?ra-Comique, and in December the press reported that ?Mademoiselle Marie Sax, the famous artiste, and a young flute player, Monsieur Taffanel? had joined forces with several local musicians in the northern town of Arras. 539 Taffanel was the dedicatee of one work for flute, soprano and piano: the S?r?nade (1878) by Louis Di?mer. Di?mer (a pianist and composer) and Taffanel were almost direct contemporaries, studying at the Conservatoire during the same years. They formed a performing partnership around 1877, Di?mer collaborating with the Soci?t? de musique de chamber pour instruments ? vent as well as performing duo works for flute and piano with Taffanel. 540 Taffanel premiered the S?r?nade with L?once Valdec, voice and Di?mer 541 Unfortunately, Blakeman lists the date of composition of the piece as 1887 and the first performance as 1878. Since the performing partnership began in 1877, I must conclude that the piece was actually written in 1878 and the date of composition of 1887 given in Appendix 3 is a type error. Blakeman, Taffanel: Genius of the Flute, 40, 61-62, and Appendix 3. 542 The M?thode was begun during Taffanel?s lifetime but was finished after World War I by Philippe Gaubert in 1923. Gaubert was his former student and close colleague. Hence, the work is entitled the Taffanel- Gaubert M?thode compl?te. 543 Fleury, Encyclop?die de la musique et dictionnaire du Conservatoire, translated by Blakeman. 260 at the piano at a concert of the Soci?t? nationale de musique on March 16, 1878. 541 Taffanel also performed H?b? (1887) by Ernest Chausson, a work for voice, two flutes, alto flute, harp, and string quartet, with performers Storm, Lef?bvre, Lafleurance, Laudou, and the R?my quartet at a Soci?t? nationale concert on March 5, 1887. TAFFANEL'S TEACHING METHODS AND HIS STUDENTS Taffanel advocated a particular type of tone quality, playing style, and emotional sensibility that were entirely French in character. These concepts brought about a deliberate rejection of the repertoire and playing style of his predecessors, now seen as lacking emotional depth. His M?thode compl?te for the flute (1923) was the first conservatory method to devote sections to tone color and personal style and to add orchestral excerpts. 542 It brought about a profound change in the playing of his students, particularly that of Louis Fleury (1878-1928) and Georges Barr?re (1876-1944). Fleury agreed with his teacher's ideas that quality of sound conveyed the music to the listener: We place at the head of the list of a flutist's preoccupations the search for a good sound?and do not forget that volume is not important; quality of tone is what really counts.? All practicing of technique that neglects the quality of sound is deadly. 543 544 Barr?re, ?Violin of the Woodwind Instruments,? Musical America, 6 November 1909, 39. 545 Forty years after Taffanel?s tenure, the flute class produced four times as many first prizewinners in one year as Dorus, Alt?s, and Taffanel combined had taught over the previous forty-eight years. Powell, The Flute, 222. 546 For a complete listing of Taffanel?s students see Blakeman, Taffanel: Genius of the Flute, Appendix 6. 261 Georges Barr?re, meanwhile, was unequivocal in his condemnation of past repertoire and older playing styles, an attitude reflecting that of his teacher: These monstrosities, as we regard them today, are dead beyond revival. Written as a rule by flautists, and remarkably well adapted to the instrument, their intrinsic poverty excludes all but a legacy of superannuated interest. To play persistently a repertoire of this character, to call up the lifeless skeletons of a past alike, sterile and baroque [i.e. contrived], is effectually to coerce public sentiment to the conviction that the flute is scarcely to be regarded as a musical instrument. 544 Taffanel's reputation as the founder of the modern French flute school rests not only on his own abilities as teacher and performer, but on those of his students as well. His pupils were active at a time when concepts of musical performance and education were also in the midst of rapid, pervasive change. It was also a time when the number of students studying and graduating from the Conservatoire increased quite dramatically. Under Dorus and Alt?s, the graduation rate for flutists was about one per year during the period between 1860 and 1899. The next forty-year period, from 1900 to 1939, saw the rate of graduation more than double. 545 Taffanel's many students included Georges Barr?re, Gaston Blanquart, Georges Delangle, Pierre Deschamps, Louis Fleury, Philippe Gaubert, Adolphe Hennebains, Georges Laurent, Marcel Moyse, Joseph Rampal, Ren? Le Roy, and Aimable Valin. 546 Most of these flutists would themselves become influential performers and teachers. 547 In response to the increased tonal and technical abilities of the Boehm flute, the length of flute solos in orchestral works was expanded and their technical demands began steadily rising through the late- nineteenth century. Beginning with Beethoven?s Symphonies, extended flute solos began appearing in the orchestral works of Brahms, Mendelssohn, Schubert, and Schumann. Amongst French composers, Debussy (as seen in his Pr?lude ? l?apr?s midi d?un faune) was one of the first to explore the tonal and expressive possibilities of the flute. These solos by Ravel and Stravinsky required a technical facility and flexibility of tone that was unprecedented in the orchestral literature. Debussy, Ravel, and Stravinsky certainly exploited the abilities of the new Boehm flute and their works mirrored the progress of these young French flutists to create passages featuring the flute in their orchestral works that were totally new. To this day, these solos are among the most difficult in the flute repertoire, and are studied extensively by flute students and professionals flutists alike. Toff, The Flute Book, 257-264. 262 SUCCESSORS TO CLAUDE-PAUL TAFFANEL Adolphe Hennebains (1862-1914) succeeded Taffanel as solo flute of the Op?ra orchestra in 1891 and was elected professor of flute at the Conservatoire in 1909. Philippe Gaubert (1879-1941), who gained the premi?re prix at the age of fifteen, became professor of flute in 1919, succeeding L?opold Lafleurance (1865-1951). Gaubert developed a strong relationship with Maurice Ravel, playing the premiere of his Introduction et allegro in 1907 and performing many of his works for flute and voice with the Soci?t? musique ind?pendente. Marcel Moyse graduated from the Conservatoire at the age of seventeen, and his early career included the premieres of a number of notable works, among them Ravel's Daphnis et Chlo? and Stravinsky's Rite of spring in 1913. 547 Like his teacher, Moyse wrote exercise books documenting his daily practice regimens, developing his ideas on many aspects of flute playing. Some of them, such as De la sonorit?, have been translated into several languages and are available throughout the world. Ren? Le Roy (1898-1985) went on to a distinguished performing career as well, premiering works by a number of composers, including Robert Casadesus, Jean Chartan, Arthur Honegger, Vincent d'Indy, Buslav Martinu, Gabriel Piern?, Jean Rivier, 548 Dorgeuille, The French Flute School, translated by Blakeman, 35. 549 Toff, The Flute Book, 260. 550 Gustave Doret, conductor of the premiere, wrote the following remembrance of the performance: I mounted the podium not without emotion, but fortified and full of confidence. I waited a long moment, after having imposed silence on the late chatterers among the audience. The hall is full. An impressive silence reigned when our marvelous flutist Barr?re unrolled his initial theme. Suddenly, I sensed behind my back?it is a distinct faculty of certain conductors!?the public was complete captivated! The triumph is complete, so much so that despite the rule that forbade the ?bis,? I did not hesitate to violate the rule. And the orchestra, carried away, repeated with joy the work that they loved. 263 and Guy Ropartz. 548 MUSIC FOR FLUTE BY FRENCH COMPOSERS A tremendous outpouring of French music written for the flute occurred during the 1890s as a direct result of the changes in the flute, the emergence of an unusual number of flute virtuosi, the revival of instrumental music, and an accompanying increase in work of high quality by French composers. Rather than containing passages of meaningless fast notes, the new music contained technical challenges through the increased use of harmonic dissonances and the increased demands on the melodic phrase. The irregular phrases and the use of asymmetrical groupings of notes was uniquely challenging in the late-nineteenth century. This method of composition became a radical departure from the incessant scale figures and arpeggios of the romantic era. The flute solo in Debussy's Pr?lude ? l'apr?s-midi d'un faune, for example, was written specifically to exploit the tone of color and subtleness of the flute as taught by Taffanel. 549 The piece received it first performance on December 22, 1894, with Georges Barr?re performing the solo. 550 Some other particularly notable French orchestral pieces Toff, Monarch of the Flute, 19. 551 Joueurs de fl?te, op. 27 was the first of two works that Roussel composed for flute and piano, but the only one for this combination with extra musical reference. As the title would suggest, each movement is named for a flutist. Three are drawn from mythology and the fourth from contemporary fiction ? Pan, Tityre, Krishna, and Mr. De la P?jaudie. If there exists a particular motivation for the dedications or rational for their assignment, to this point it has not been discovered. Louis Fleury premiered the work, and correspondence between Roussel and Fleury suggest that Fleury was the inspiration for the work. Toff, The Flute Book, 257-264. 264 of this era to feature major flute solos were Debussy's Pell?as et M?lisande (1902) and La mer (1903-05) and Ravel's Daphnis et Chlo? (1912). An extensive repertoire of solos and chamber music was composed during the same period. Some of the more famous works (in chronological order by date of composition) are: Gabriel Piern?'s Sonata for flute and piano; Gabriel Faur?'s Fantaisie (1898) for flute and piano, Charles-Marie Widor's Suite (1898) for flute and piano, Claude Debussy's Chansons de Bilitis (1900) incidental music for the poems of Pierre Lou?s for 2 flutes, 2 harps and celeste, Maurice Ravel's Introduction et allegro (1905) for harp, flute, clarinet, and string quartet, Claude Debussy?s Syrinx (1913) for flute solo and Sonata for flute, viola, et harp (1915), Arthur Honegger's Danse de la ch?vre (1919) for flute solo, Albert Roussel's Les joueurs de fl?te, op. 27 (1924) for flute and piano, S?r?nade, op. 30 (1925) for flute, harp, and string trio (written for Ren? Le Roy), Trio, op. 40 (1929) for flute, viola, and cello, (written for Georges Barr?re), and Andante et scherzo, op. 51 (1934) for flute and piano (also written for George Barr?re), and Jean Rivier's Oiseaux tendres (1935) for flute solo. The first Roussel piece is comprised of four programmatic movements, each dedicated to a leading flutist of the day: Pan to Marcel Moyse; Tityre to Gaston Blanquart; Krishna to Louis Fleury; and M. de la P?jaudie to Philippe Gaubert. 551 552 Orledge, Charles Koechlin (1867-1950): his Life and Works, 389-390. 265 Many of the composers in this study wrote not only music for flute and voice, but also for a wide variety of chamber-scale orchestrations that included the flute in a prominent role. Georges Migot (1891-1976), as one example, composed for flute in settings of tremendous variety: Quatuor (1924), for flute, violin, clarinet, and harp; Livre de divertissements fran?ais (1925), for flute, clarinet and harp; Six petites preludes (1927), for two flutes; Concert (1929), for flute, cello and harp; Le livre des danceries (1929), for flute, violin, and piano; Reposoir grave, noble, et pur (1932), for voice, flute, and harp; Trio ? chords (1944-45), for flute, cello and harpsichord; Trio (1968) for flute, cello, and harpsichord; Quintette ? vent (1954), for flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, and horn; Sonate (1945), for flute and piano; and Sonate (1965), for flute and guitar. Charles Koechlin (1867-1950) wrote a truly remarkable number of works for the flute as a soloist and as part of an ensemble, probably as a result of his close friendship with flutist Jan Merry, who premiered many of Koechlin?s works. In his Trois sonatines pour fl?te seule, op. 184 (1942), each Sonatine was dedicated to a different person: Albert Manouvrier, Lucien Lavailotte, and Jan Merry. The Chants de nectaire, op. 198, 199, and 200 is a three-volume set of ninety-six programmatic pieces for solo flute; the subtitle of the second book is "In the forest of antiquity," and the third, "Prayers, processions, and dances for familiar gods." 552 (The first book has no subtitle.) The songs were written by Koechlin between April and September of 1944. They were inspired by Anatole France's La R?volte des Anges and dedicated to his flutist friend, Jan Merry. St?le fun?raire, op. 224 (1950), is a monody for one performer, who uses three flutes: 553 Koechlin had a very personal, eclectic, and experimental style, incorporating chromaticism and polytonality, among other procedures, into his compositions. It is impossible to classify him as classic or romantic, expressionist or impressionist. However, it is equally impossible to mistake Koechlin?s authorship in any of his works, so individual was the stamp of his personality. While the works listed above were written during the Occupation, their titles could be taken as escapist (as the symbolists were often accused). Koechlin seems to have been oblivious to the effects of war. Rather, the subjects that recurringly fired Koechlin?s imagination during his lifetime fall into several categories: classical mythology and ancient Greek civilization, especially as evoked in the poetry of Albert Samain; Roman civilization as portrayed in the poetry of Virgil; the forest, which overlaps with mythology in the portrayal of its inhabitants?dryads, fauns, Pan, etc.; the jungle, which replaces the forest and becomes synonymous with it in the Jungle Book cycle; the night, with its starlit sky, moonlight, and the stillness and cosmic mystery of the universe; dreams and fantasy; yearning for the unattainable and distant shores; folksong; the orient, associated with Koechlin?s love of foreign travel; the stars of the early sound films; the seasons; the sea, water, swimming; and sunshine and the effects of light. Orledge, Charles Koechlin (1867-1950): his Life and Works, 223-235. 266 alto flute, C flute, and piccolo. It is dedicated to the memory of flutist Paul Dommel, a friend of the composer. 553 Koechlin's tremendous output for flute includes the following: Deux nocturnes, op. 32b for flute, horn, and piano; Trois pieces, op. 34b for flute, bassoon, and piano; Sonata pour fl?te et piano, op. 52; Suite en quatuor, op. 55 for flute, violin, viola, and piano; Sonata pour deux fl?tes, op. 75; Pastorale, op. 75b for flute, clarinet, and piano; Divertissement, op. 91 for three flutes; Trio, op. 92 for flute, clarinet, and bassoon; L'Album de Lilian, op. 139 and op. 149 for flute, soprano, and piano; Sonatine modale, op. 155 for flute and clarinet in A; Primavera quintette, op. 156 for flute, violin, viola, cello, and harp; Quatorze chants, op. 157b for flute and piano; ?pitaphe de Jean Harlow, op. 164 for flute, saxophone, and piano; Septuor, op. 165 for flute, oboe, english horn, clarinet, saxophone, horn, and bassoon; Trois sonatines, op. 184 for flute solo; Les chants de nectaire, op. 198, 199, and 200 for flute solo; Pi?ce, op. 218 for flute and piano; Sonata ? sept, op. 221 for flute, oboe, harpsichord, two violins, viola, and cello; Second quintette, op. 223 for flute, violin, viola, and cello; and St?le fun?raire, op. 224 for flute, 554 Many of Koechlin?s works were premiered by the famous flutists of the day, including: Sonata for Flute and Piano, op. 52 premiered by Hennebains and Ms. E. Bompard piano, June 3, 1914 at the Salle Malakoff, Concert SMI; Suite en quatuor for flute, violin, viola, and piano, op. 55, premiered by Trembelland (fl), Ms. Fernande Capelle (vn), Ms. Cluzet (vla), Jeanne-Herscher-Cl?ment (pf), on March 25, 1931 at the Salle de L??cole Normale; Divertissement pour trios fl?tes, op. 91 premiered by Moyse, Cortot, and Masson on May 24, 1937 at the Salle de L??cole Normale; Trio for Flute, Clarinet, and Bassoon, op. 92 premiered by Ren? Le Roy (fl), Louis Cahuzac (cl), and M. Dh?rin (bn), on May 6, 1927 at the Salle Gaveau; Album de Lilian, first volume, op. 139 premiered by Jane Bathori (soprano) with Darius Milhaud at the piano on June 13, 1934 at the salon of Mme B?riza, and nos. 1-9 with flute premiered by Fenwick Smith (fl), Judith Kellock (s), and Martin Amlin (pf) on January 17, 1986 at The Boston University School of Music; Sonatine modale for Flute and Clarinet, op. 155a premiered by Masson (fl) and Del?cluze (cl) on February 11, 1936 at the Concert Mardis de la revue musicale; Primavera Quintet for flute, violin, viola, cello, and harp, op. 156 premiered by the Ensemble Pierre Jamet at the salon of Mme. Amos with Pierre Jamet (hp), Gaston Crunelle (fl), R?ne Bas (vn), ?tienne Ginot (vla), and Marcel Fr?cheville (vc) on March 14, 1944; 14 Chants pour fl?te et piano, op. 157(bis) premiered by Jan Merry with Koechlin at the piano on July 16, 1941 and all the movements premiered by Fenwick Smith (fl) and Martin Amlin (pf) on July 16, 1985 at Boston Radio Station WGBH; Trois sonatines pour fl?te seule, op. 184 premiered by Jan Merry on May 7, 1943 at the Concerts du triptyque Salle de L??cole Normale; Les chants de nectaire, op. 198 (inspired by La revolt des anges by Anatole France) for flute solo, premiered by Marcel Moyse on April 29, 1945 at the Centenaire de la naissance d?Anatole France, Grand ampith??tre de la Sorbonne; Les chants de nectaire, op. 199 premiered by Jan Merry on May 7, 1945 at the Soci?t? faur?ene de musique de chambre, Salle de L??cole Normale; and Les chants de nectaire, op. 200 premiered by Jan Merry on December 8, 1947, Concerts du triptyque. From Orledge, Charles Koechlin (1867-1950): his Life and Works, Appendix B. 267 piccolo, and alto flute for one player. 554 FRENCH FLUTISTS PREMIERE WORKS BY FRENCH COMPOSERS Composers such as Migot and Koechlin were hardly alone. Many of the composers listed in the Musical Bibliography, along with other French composers of the day, wrote chamber works including the flute. The list is long, and only some of the works written during this time include Auric's Imagin?es no. 1, Aria, and Prelude for flute and piano; Durey's Deux dialogues for flute solo, Dialogues, Romance sans paroles, and Sonatina for flute and piano; Emmanuel's Sonata for flute, clarinet, and piano; Honegger's Danse de la ch?vre for flute solo and Romance for flute and piano; Milhaud's Sonatine for flute and piano (1922), Sonata for flute, oboe, clarinet, and piano (1918), and Concerto for flute, violin, and orchestra (1938, written for Marcel Moyse and 555 These pieces are listed in the catalogue of works in the biography of each composer found in the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2 nd edition. 268 Blanche Honegger Moyse); Pillois' Cinq ha?-ka? epigrammes lyriques du Japon pour flute, violin, viola, cello et harp; Poulenc's Sonata (1956) for flute and piano (premiered by Jean-Pierre Rampal); Rivier's Sonatine pour fl?te et piano (1940), Nocturne pour fl?te et piano (1947), Concerto pour fl?te et orchestre ? cordes (1956), Duo (1968) for flute and clarinet, and his song Rossignol, mon mignon (1944) based on poetry by Pierre de Ronsard (the same poetry used by Roussel for his piece for flute and voice of the same title); Roesgen-Champion's Sonate for flute and piano; Tailleferre's Forlane, and Pastorales for flute and piano; and Tomasi's Suite fran?aise pour fl?te et harpe. 555 Tomasi, like Koechlin, wrote an extraordinary amount of repertoire for the flute, including several flute concertos and tone poems for flute, as well as Cinq danses profanes et sacr?e pour quintette ? vent; La fl?te, paroles de Jos? Maria de H?r?dia for voice and piano; Jeux de geishas, petite suite japonaise pour quintette ? vent, batterie, harpe et quatuor ? cordes; Pastorale inca, pour flute et deux violins; Trios pastorals pour trois fl?tes en ut; Le petit chevrier corse pour fl?te et piano; Printemps pour sextor ? vent; and Sonatine pour fl?te seule. Other contemporary composers and their works for flute include Lili Boulanger's Nocturne (1911), Cort?ge (1914), and D'un matin de printemps (1922), all for flute and piano; Eugene Bozza's Agrestide for flute and piano (one of his nearly thirty works for flute); and Jacques Ibert's Concerto for flute and orchestra (premiered by Marcel Moyse, with Philippe Gaubert conducting the orchestra). Other works by for flute by Ibert are Jeux (1923) for flute and piano, Pi?ce (1936) for 556 McCutchan, Marcel Moyse: Voice of the Flute, 82-83. 557 Blakeman, Taffanel: Genius of the Flute, 181. 269 flute solo, Trois pi?ces br?ves for woodwind quintet, and Entr'acte (1954) for Flute and harp. Certainly, this outpouring of music for the flute is unprecedented in the western world during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Many of these works have come to be accepted as masterworks for the flute and are staples of the repertoire. As a result, individual French flutists became associated with certain French composers and their music. These flutists later became famous in their own right. As noted above, many of the works written by French composers were conceived for, or premiered by, the famous flutists of the day, and this exposure catapulted them onto the international stage. For example, Marcel Moyse rose swiftly to prominence, and like Gaubert, he accompanied the singer Nellie Melba on her concert tours. 556 Moyse was principal flute in the Op?ra-Comique and later succeeded Gaubert in the orchestra of the Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire. Georges Barr?re and Louis Fleury continued the Soci?t? moderne d'instruments ? vent, first begun by their teacher, Paul Taffanel, in 1879. Georges Barr?re was one of the first flutists to play an instrument made of gold and then of platinum. Density 21.5 (1936), by Edgar Var?se, was written specifically for him to inaugurate the platinum flute. 557 Fleury remained an active soloist and performer in Paris, and he was the performer for many of the premieres of the flute and voice repertoire contained in this study. He also toured Europe with Nellie Melba and Emma Calv? and compiled an article on the flute for Lavignac's Encyclop?die. Blanquart became famous 558 According to Dorgeuille, his performance of the work was a guarantee of a packed house. Dorgeuille, The French Flute School, 35. 559 Fischer, ?Philippe Gaubert (1879-1941): His Life and Contributions as Flutist, Editor, Teacher, Conductor, and Composer,? 4-8. 560 Fischer, ?Philippe Gaubert (1879-1941): His Life and Contributions as Flutist, Editor, Teacher, Conductor, and Composer,? 27-30. 270 for his interpretation of the Pr?lude ? l'apr?s-midi d'un faune. 558 Hennebains became well-known for his dazzling technique and was associated with the Concertino of C?cile Chaminade. Several flutists of this era deserve individual attention in this dissertation due to their substantial influence upon the development of French music and, in particular, music for flute and voice. These flutists are (chronologically) Philippe Gaubert, Ren? Le Roy, Georges Barr?re, Louis Fleury, and Marcel Moyse. PHILIPPE GAUBERT (1879-1941) Philippe Gaubert was born in Cahors in 1879. He began his musical studies at age six with Paul Taffanel, pursuing flute, solf?ge, and harmony. He entered the Conservatoire in 1893, the same year that Taffanel became flute professor there. A year later, Gaubert received the premi?re prix in flute. He was fifteen. 559 Gaubert entered the orchestra of the Op?ra in 1901, an especially prestigious post for a flutist, and remained there until 1919. He performed with the Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire in 1904, and, in that year as the successor to the conductor Andr? Messager (1853-1929), he became both conductor and principle flute for the ensemble, serving in these two capacities until 1919. 560 That year, he was also appointed the 561 Dorgeuille, The French Flute School 1860-1950, translated by Blakeman, 26-33. 562 Aitkin, ?Marcel Moyse ? A Long and Productive Life,? The National Flute Association Newsletter 4:2, 3. 271 professor of flute at the Conservatoire, and in 1920, conductor at the Op?ra, where he would become the Director of Music in 1931. Gaubert's affiliation with the Soci?t? des concerts de Conservatoire continued until 1938 and with the Op?ra until his death in 1941. He remained a teacher at the Conservatoire until 1931 and was prominent as a pedagogue there. Later, he succeeded Paul Dukas and Vincent d'Indy as professor of conducting at the Conservatoire. Gaubert's playing style was influenced by the vocal aspects of the music, as a direct consequence of his longtime affiliation with the Op?ra. His playing was fluid, with a resonant vowel-based tone and a vocally inspired vibrato, the intensity of which related to the musical phrase and emotional content of the music. 561 Although he did not record during the prewar era, by all accounts, Gaubert was a flutist of extraordinary ability and musicality, and his playing elicited the highest praise from many prominent flutists. Moyse, his successor as professor of flute at the Paris Conservatoire, commented: Gaubert, a great flutist, I compare with the Cathedral at Reims with its flamboyant Gothic details. Gothic art is beautiful and reminds me of the great facility of Gaubert. 562 The list of composers who dedicated new works to Gaubert is impressive and includes (chronologically) Albert Roussel (1869-1937), Florent Schmitt (1870-1958), Henri B?sser (1872-1973), Alfredo Casella (1883-1947), and Paul Taffanel. Gaubert performed the premieres of many works by French composers, one of which was Gabriel Faur?'s Fantaisie, op. 79. Gaubert was a composer for flute in his own right, and he 563 M?thode Compl?te de Fl?te, vol. 2, 185-186. 272 created his Soir pa?en for flute, soprano, and piano for Paul Taffanel, perhaps inspired in his conception of the work by the tone quality of Taffanel?s flute playing. Some of his other noteworthy compositions are Romance (1905), Nocturne et allegro scherzando (1906), Berceuse (1907), Madrigal (1908), Sur l'eau (1910), Fantasie (1910), Deux Esquisses (1914), Sonate (1918), Suite (1922), Deuxi?me sonate (1925), Ballade (1928), Troisi?me sonate (1935), and Sonatine (1937); all for flute and piano. Perhaps as a result of Taffanel's teachings regarding sound and sensitivity, Gaubert's works are primarily concerned with a subtlety and a flexibility of sound that was not evident in the showpieces of the romantic era. Modeled after the works of Faur?, Gaubert composed in an introverted way, exploiting the landscape of the interior. In his flute pieces, this manifests itself in long, floating, pianissimo phrases and in exotic harmonies using many complicated techniques. His works might be described as impressionistic and were identified with the musicians and artists of this movement. Gaubert best expressed his technique of composition and style in these comments: The breath is the soul of the flute; in other words, it is the fundamental point in the art of playing. The disciplined breath must be an obedient agent, now supple, now powerful, which the flautist should be able to control with the same dexterity as a violinist wields his bow. It is the creative force behind the sound, the spirit which animates it, gives it life, and makes it a voice capable of expressing all the emotions. The lips, the tongue, the fingers, are only its servants.?With Bach, as with all the great classical masters, the player must observe the utmost simplicity of style. There should be no vibrato or quavering of the sound, an artifice best left to mediocre instrumentalists and inferior musicians. 563 REN? LE ROY (1898-1985) 564 Dorgeuille, The French Flute School 1860-1950, translated by Blakeman, 53-67. 565 Ibid. 273 Ren? Le Roy was born in Maisons-Laffitte on March 4, 1898 and became a pupil of Hennebains, Lafleurance, and Gaubert. He achieved the premi?re prix in 1918, at the age of twenty. In 1919, he succeeded his teacher, Gaubert, in the Soci?t? des instruments ? vent de Paris and was eventually able to establish himself as a soloist without an orchestral position, perhaps the first flutist to do so in France. 564 He toured widely in Europe as a soloist and founded the chamber group Quintette instrumental de Paris with Marcel Grandjany in 1922. The ensemble consisted of flute, harp, and string trio; Le Roy commissioned a number of French composers to write for this unusual combination of instruments. These works include S?r?nade, op. 30 by Albert Roussel, Pr?lude, Marine et chansons by Guy Ropart, Variations libres, et finale op. 51 and Voyage au pays du tendre by Gabriel Piern?, Suite en rocaille by Florent Schmitt, Suite op. 91 by Vincent d'Indy, and Quintette by Jean Fran?ais. 565 In addition, many French composers dedicated works to him, including Danse de la ch?vre (1919) by Arthur Honegger, Sonatine for flute and clarinet (1931) by Jean Cartan, Sonatine for flute and piano (1931) by Guy Ropartz, Sonate for flute and piano (1934) by Robert Casadesus, Concerto in D Major op. 35 for flute and orchestra by Robert Casadesus, and Oiseaux tendres (1935) by Jean Rivier. Unlike the works written for Gaubert, the works written for Le Roy were technically difficult and also exploited his free, flowing sound and his astounding breath control. Le Roy was known particularly 566 In a review by Paul Landormy, dated May 17, 1938, of a concert at the Salle Gaveau with Le Roy and Lev?que: Whenever Ren? Le Roy performs, the audience (sic) are deeply moved. They are immediately impressed by his refinement, reflected in his bearing and gesture, indicative of a widely cultured person: ?a gentleman and a scholar?. He has a natural elegance, which permeates his playing; the performer, the artist, is an extension of the man. Here is a flautist who is not content just to have a lovely tone, a compelling tone, but being fundamentally a musician, expresses all the nuances of a piece with keen sensibility. The flute is reputedly a cold instrument. In the hands of Ren? Le Roy, the flute springs to life and encompasses the most powerful range of emotions. No music is beyond his talent; he is equal even to J. S. Bach. He proved that to us in two sonatas for flute and continuo, and especially in a Sonata for unaccompanied flute, which he played wonderfully. The difficulties of J. S. Bach are well known. Ren? Le Roy triumphed completely, displaying extraordinary facility, command and masterly assurance. Throughout the Allemande, Courante, Sarabande, and Bourr?e anglaise, I admired the variety of playing and especially the forceful rhythmic impulse which I had not at all expected from such a fragile instrument. Dorgeuille, The French Flute School 1860-1950, translated by Blakeman, 53-67. 567 Dorgeuille, The French Flute School 1860-1950, translated by Blakeman, 62. 274 for his style, which conferred the maximum of individuality and detail on the music. 566 Le Roy's breathing techniques were considered remarkable for his time. Apparently, he learned it intuitively from listening to singers, particularly F?lia Letvinne. He was able to support the long lines of modern music, and the ends of his phrases could be gradually and imperceptibly faded, while remaining perfectly in tune. In this respect, Le Roy followed and perfected the techniques espoused by his predecessors, Taffanel, Hennebains, and Gaubert. The famous soprano Nellie Melba heard him in concert and often asked him to come and play at her home. To Le Roy she wrote: I wish you a huge success in America. I am truly a great admirer of your artistry, it is superb, your phrasing is better than any I have ever heard on the flute. In a word, you are a great artist and I shall never forget how much I have enjoyed your playing. 567 In a letter to Le Roy, Albert Roussel was also full of praise: 568 Ibid., 59. 569 Ibid., 57. 570 Toff, Monarch of the Flute, 6-11. 275 It seems, when one hears Ren? Le Roy, as if flute playing is the easiest thing in the world. As the notes unfold from this bewitching instrument, now fast, now slow, witty or tender, lively or languorous, as clear in rapid articulation as in lingering passages, they are witness to the utmost technical flexibility and exceptional musicianship of this maser of the magic flute. 568 Le Roy performed many works for flute and voice, appearing in concert with sopranos Madeleine Grey (with whom he performed Ravel?s Chansons mad?casses), Ninon Vallin (with whom he performed Roussel?s Deux po?mes de Ronsard), Claire Croiza (with whom he performed Roussel?s Deux po?mes de Ronsard), and Lily Pons (with whom he performed D?libes? Le rossignol). 569 GEORGES BARR?RE (1876-1944) Georges Barr?re was born in Bordeaux on October 31, 1876 and, in 1888, he moved with his family to Paris where he began fife lessons with a member of the Scholars battalions. He attended classes on the flute at the Conservatoire as an auditor with Alt?s until he was admitted to the school in 1892. In the next year, Paul Taffanel became the flute professor at the Conservatoire and Barr?re's teacher. 570 Barr?re attained the premi?re prix in 1895 at the age of nineteen. That year, he also established the Soci?t? moderne d? instruments ? vent with Louis Fleury and Barr?re almost immediately began 571 Apparently, this group was an outgrowth of the Soci?t? de musique de chambre pour instruments ? vent that Taffanel had founded in 1879. With his teacher?s blessing, Barr?re organized a younger version of Taffanel?s group with his fellow recent Conservatoire graduates. Toff, Monarch of the Flute, 24-27. 572 Toff, Monarch of the Flute, 343. 276 to solicit new works from French composers for the group. 571 By 1898, Barr?re had been engaged as principal flute in the orchestra of the exposition of Geneva, Switzerland, conducted by Gustav Doret. Guest conductors included Saint-Sa?ns, Chausson, and Dalcroze. During this time, he was also a substitute with the Op?ra. At the Paris Exposition of 1900, Barr?re played with the Colonne Orchestra in a series of concerts given in the Old Paris Exhibition Hall. He won the job of fourth flute with the Op?ra in 1900 and joined an illustrious section with Hennebains, Lafleurance, and Gaubert. He also taught flute at the Schola Cantorum, the rival music school to the Conservatoire. Barr?re's success as a performer was swift. By the age of twenty-four, he had infiltrated all the major performing and teaching establishments in Paris. Among Barr?re?s and his ensemble?s many premieres was a first performance of Georges H?e?s Soir pa?en for flute, soprano, and piano at a concert of the Soci?t? nationale de musique on January 25, 1902 at the Salle ?rard. The performers included Charlotte Lormont, soprano, Georges Barr?re, flute, and Blanche Selva, piano. 572 Barr?re was asked by many composers to premiere their new works for flute, including Alfred Bruneau, Andr? Caplet, Gustave Charpentier, Ernst Chausson, Theodore Dubois, Reynaldo Hahn, Georges H?e, Vincent d'Indy, Pierre Monteux, Gabriel Piern?, 573 In 1926 alone, Barr?re premiered Ibert?s Jeux, Piern??s Sonata, Milhaud?s Sonatine, and Roussel?s Trio. Dorgeuille, The French Flute School 1850-1960, translated by Blakeman, 89. 574 Apparently, his former teacher, Taffanel, helped him to be released from his orchestral contracts in Europe. Dorgeuille, The French Flute School 1850-1960, translated by Blakeman, 88. 277 Catherine Vidal, and Charles-Marie Widor. 573 As noted above, he premiered and performed works for flute and voice. He was also asked by Charles-Marie Widor to write a flute chapter for a book he was compiling on orchestration. In 1905, Barr?re left for the United States in search of new performing opportunities. 574 There, he played principal flute with the New York Symphony under the direction of Walter Damrosch until it disbanded in 1928. Always ambitious, during his first years in New York Barr?re organized wind players into the New York Symphony Wind Instruments Club. In the new world, as in France, he founded his own performing society in 1910, called the Barr?re Ensemble of Wind Instruments and programmed American premieres of many works that had been written for the Soci?t? moderne. By 1914 he had begun concertizing with cellist Paul Kefer and harpist Carlos Salzedo in the Trio de Lutece and, by 1915, he had established the Little Symphony, a chamber orchestra that toured the United States. In the summers, he traveled to various music festivals, including Chautauqua, where he became a major presence. He began teaching at Chautauqua in 1921 and when the Chautauqua Symphony was formed after the demise of the New York Symphony, he became principal flute and assistant conductor of the group. Barr?re developed a solo career in New York, and he soon began playing recitals. Flute recitals were quite out of the ordinary in those days, however, he programmed substantial works such as Bach 575 Toff, Georges Barr?re and the Flute in America, 8. 576 Toff, Monarch of the Flute, 104-119. 577 Toff, The Flute Book, 100-103. 278 Sonatas, Schubert Introduction and Variations, and the Jarnach Sonatine. 575 Earning the admiration of his colleagues, Barr?re became a fixture in New York musical circles as a member of the Julliard faculty, the Beethoven Association, the Bohemians (New York Musicians' Club), the Society of Publication of American Music, and many other organizations. He collaborated with the finest musicians of his day, including sopranos Emma Calv? and Nellie Melba, violinist Albert Spalding, baritone David Bispham, and dancer Isadora Duncan. 576 One of Barr?re's greatest legacies is the establishment of the Paris Conservatoire tradition of woodwind pedagogy in the United States. He taught at the Institute of Musical Art beginning in 1905 (which became the Julliard School of Music beginning in 1931) and took on many private students as well. He advocated high standards for woodwind teaching, recommending French-style class instruction, including the solf?ge system. In a little over ten years, Barr?re had indelibly established the French style of flute playing in the United States and would later be known as the father of a school of American flute playing through his prolific student, William Kincaid. 577 He was best known, perhaps, for his pivotal role in the adoption of the Boehm-system silver flute in the United States. At the time Barr?re came to this country, the wooden flute predominated in New York. Although the French Boehm-system silver flutes made by Louis Lot had been played in the Boston Symphony since 1887 (by Andr? 578 Toff notes that very few flutists today play wooden instruments. She cites the late Felix Skowroneck of Seattle, and I have heard Jacques Zoon perform on a wooden instrument with the Boston Symphony. Toff speculates as to the waning of the wooden flute: What led to the decline of the wooden flute was its relatively slow response?the silver flute is more agile and quicker-speaking?which disqualified it from the solo arena, where flexibility and response were paramount. Compromises sprang up?the British thin-walled wooden flute, metal head joints or metal-lined wooden head joints on wooden bodies?but in the United States the wooden flute passed into oblivion by World War I. With the immigration of several exemplars of the French school, notably Barr?re and Laurent, in the first decade of the [twentieth] century, the wooden flute came to quite a speedy demise. Toff, The Flute Book, 20. 579 Toff, ?Georges Barr?re, Monarch of the Flute,? The Flutist Quarterly, Vol. XX, No. 1, 52-53. 279 Maquarre and Charles Mol?), Williams S. Haynes, Co., the leading maker of Boehm flutes in the United States, made wooden instruments exclusively. Just thirteen years later, Haynes Co. had converted almost entirely to silver flutes. 578 In 1927, Barr?re made news with the acquisition of a gold Haynes flute and in 1935 with a platinum Haynes flute. Barr?re was a tireless champion of new music, and he continued to work with composers, now French and American, to premiere new works. These included (alphabetically by composer): Suite for Winds op. 17 by Seth Bingham; Suite persane by Andr? Caplet; Poem by Charles T. Griffes; Sonata by Paul Hindemith; Suite for solo flute op. 8 by Wallingford Riegger; Sextuor op. 271 by Carl Reinecke; Trio for flute, viola, and cello by Albert Roussel; Odelette op. 162 by Camille Saint-Sa?ns; Lied et scherzo op. 54 by Florent Schmitt; and F?te galante by David Stanley Smith. 579 In addition, he premiered works by American composers by John Beach, Seth Bingham, Howard Brockway, George Chadwick, Archer Gibson, Christian Kriens, A. Walter Kramer, Edward McDowell, Ward Stephens, and Harriett Ware. Unfortunately, of the Americans, 580 Ibid. 581 Dorgeuille, The French Flute School 1860-1950, translated by Blakeman, 93-95. 280 only Griffes, McDowell, and Riegger are still in the repertoire today. 580 LOUIS FLEURY (1878-1926) Louis Fleury was one of France's most accomplished and sophisticated flutists. Born on May 24, 1878 in Lyons, he entered the Conservatoire in 1895. His fellow students in the flute class were Gaubert, Barr?re, Laurent, and Maquarre. Fleury obtained the premi?re prix in 1900 at the age of twenty-two, and, by 1903, he was touring through France as a soloist. Soon, he was touring all Europe as well. From 1905 until his death, he was the leader of the Soci?t? moderne d'instruments ? vent, having taken the directorship from Barr?re when Barr?re left France for America. Fleury, along with other members of the group, commissioned more than 100 new chamber works over the next twenty years. He was also the founder and head of the Soci?t? des concerts d'autrefois, which performed music of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and gave concert tours throughout Europe and Asia Minor. 581 Between 1906 and 1909, Fleury toured America with the soprano Emma Calv? performing music for flute and voice. Fleury was quite popular in England, where he performed frequently. Fleury wrote on the subject of voice and flute for the Chesterian: The combination of the voice and the flute generally conjures up in the mind the appearance on the stage at the Albert Hall of a mature and plump lady, who emits little bird-like notes, whilst a gentleman, younger and of lesser substance, produces corresponding sounds from a wooden or metal pipe. The whole thing concludes with a marriage, not necessarily that of the singer to the flutist, but rather the union of their two voices which should, according to the rules, become 582 De Lorenzo, My Complete Story of The Flute, 465. 583 In his foreword to the article, Fleury explains that Taffanel had invited him to collaborate on it just a few months before his death, and that Genevi?ve Taffanel and Lavignac had then asked him to continue. 281 one in the course of the final cadenza. This union does not always come about without trouble. If the flutist is not of the first rank, the singer gains an easy triumph at his expense, for nothing is more delightful than a beautiful voice and nothing more displeasing than a bad flute tone. In the opposite case the risk lies on the side of the singer. Although the voice is the most beautiful of instruments, it is also the most sensitive. If the singer is not in good form, the cleanness of the tones produced by the good flutists will unmercifully show up her imperfections; in this it is the flutist who triumphs. It is true that he then runs another risk, that of never being re-engaged by his jealous partner. That happens more often than one may be aware of. 582 Debussy composed Syrinx for unaccompanied flute for Fleury, who premiered the work in 1913. In addition, Roussel wrote the Joueurs de fl?te and Deux po?mes de Ronsard for flute and soprano for him in 1924. These two songs were dedicated to two important sopranos of the day ? Rossignol, mon mignon to Ninon Vallin, and Ciel, aer et vens to Claire Croiza ? and were premiered within a few days of each other in May, 1924 (Rossignol, mon mignon on May 15, 1924 at the Th??tre du Vieux-Colombier; Ciel, aer et vens on May 28, 1924 at Salle ?rard. There is no official record of who performed the flute part on these occasions, although one surmises it might have been Louis Fleury, since he premiered Roussel?s next work for flute, Joueurs de fl?te in January 1925. Fleury revived eighteenth-century music for flute and was an editor of early flute music, including pieces by Blavet, Naudet, and Purcell. He wrote extensively about the instrument and about musical life in general in many musical journals. He completed the article on the flute which Taffanel had planned for Lavignac's Encyclop?die de la musique et dictionnaire du Conservatoire (1920-31). 583 Blakeman, Taffanel: Genius of the Flute, 209. 584 Blakeman describes Fleury as follows: In contrast [to Barr?re], Fleury became the scholar of the French School. By all accounts he was never very highly regarded as a player by his contemporaries, but he was a widely read and cultured musician. He made a career mainly as a chamber music player, inheriting the Soci?t? moderne des instruments ? vent from Barr?re in 1905. He also edited many new editions of eighteenth-century flute music, wrote a series of well-researched articles on the flute and its music, and completed the article on the flute that Taffanel had planned for Lavignac?s Encyclop?die. Blakeman, Taffanel: Genius of the Flute, 181. 585 Dorgeuille, The French Flute School 1860-1950, translated by Blakeman, 33-35, 46-50. 282 In researching the premiere performers of the works for soprano and flute, Louis Fleury's name often recurs. He seems to have been known in Paris as the flutist most associated with the performance of solo and chamber works. Having taken the bold step of shunning the orchestra, Fleury was free to develop as an individual. He does not leave a conducting or teaching legacy, as in the case of Gaubert or Barr?re, but of an intellectual and an artist who championed chamber works and researched and revived many pieces from centuries before. 584 MARCEL MOYSE (1889-1984) Marcel Moyse was born on May 17, 1889 in Besan?on. He was exposed to opera as a youngster and by the time he was ten years old, he had seen as many as forty operas. 585 He began playing the flute during this time, studying at a civic music school. By 1904, he had come to Paris with his uncle Joseph, who lived near the Moulin Rouge (at the time a caf?-concert and dance hall). Joseph played cello in the Lamoureux Orchestra, and the young Marcel observed the musician's life firsthand. He soon began studying privately with Hennebains and was accepted into the Conservatoire in 1905. At 586 Apparently, Moyse met Barr?re while touring in the United States with Melba. However, when Melba appeared with the New York Symphony in October, Barr?re provided the flute obbligati. Toff, Monarch of the Flute, 129. 587 McCutchan, Marcel Moyse: Voice of the Flute, 82-83. 283 seventeen, after just one year of study, he obtained the premi?re prix. Even after graduating from the Conservatoire, Moyse continued to study with Philippe Gaubert and soon began a career performing with orchestras and chamber ensembles in Paris. He played with the Lamoureux Orchestra, was a regular in the Op?ra orchestra, and joined an orchestra at Vichy during the summers. During the 1913-14 seasons, Moyse spent six months touring the United States and Canada with Nellie Melba, performing repertoire for flute and voice. 586 As noted above, the opportunity to work with the singer came through Gaubert, who had performed and recorded the mad scene from Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor and "Sweet Bird" from Handel's Il pensieroso with Melba. Moyse was greatly influenced by Melba and even idolized her. 587 He performed the arias from Lucia and Il pensieroso, as well as Bishop's Lo! Here the Gentle Lark while on tour with the singer. Moyse sometimes performed solo works as well. Like so many French musicians, Moyse struggled to make a living during World War I. He gave one of the first performances of Debussy's Sonate for flute, viola, and harp during this time and began writing the beginnings of his exercise books, establishing a relationship with the French publishing firm Alphonse Leduc who later published all of 588 Moyse was the most prolific in the next generation of flutists after Taffanel to write treatises regarding the techniques of playing the flute. In all, he authored over thirty-three volumes on all aspects of flute playing, addressing topics from tone production to articulation. His most revealing book is entitled Comment j?ai maintenir ma forme [How I Stayed in Shape], in which he describes his personal practice routines and his philosophy about many aspects of flute playing and music making. His book De la sonorit? is described by some in the flute world as the ?bible? for tone development. His books are published in several countries, and flutists throughout the world have adopted his exercises and techniques. Through his published works, his recordings, and his students (notably William Bennet, Trevor Wye, and Geoffrey Gilbert), he is, perhaps, the most influential teacher of flute of the twentieth century. A complete list of publications by Moyse is found in McCutchan, Marcel Moyse: Voice of the Flute, ?Publications of Marcel Moyse,? 239- 240. 589 McCutchan, Marcel Moyse: Voice of the Flute, 76. 590 Ibid., 110-100. 591 Walther Straram (1876-1933) was a violinist and conductor and founded the Walther Straram Orchestra in 1923 and the Concerts Walther Straram. Ibid., 111-112. 284 them. 588 He performed with the Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire, becoming the principal flute in 1919. He soon won the principal flute position with the Op?ra-Comique as well. Under the direction of Koussevitzky, the orchestra premiered many French and Russian works, including Daphnes et Chlo? by Ravel, Sch?razade by Rimsky-Korsakov, and Petrouchka and Le sacre du printemps by Stravinsky. 589 As result, Moyse premiered the flute solos from all of these works, solos that are among the most difficult and the most prominent in all of orchestral music. Moyse also played the premiere of Ravel's Sh?h?razade for soprano, flute, and orchestra and Stravinsky's Octet. 590 Moyse continued to distinguish himself as the most prominent orchestral flutist in Paris during the period prior to World War II. By 1926, Moyse had become principal flute with Concerts Straram. 591 During this time, French composers began to write new works for Moyse, inspired 592 Dorgeuille, The French Flute School 1860-1950, translated by Blakeman, 33-35, 46-50. 593 The Moyse Trio was made up of Marcel Moyse on flute, Louis Moyse on the keyboard, and Blanche Honegger (later Louis? wife) on the violin or viola. Louis also joined his father in flute duets, sometimes with Blanche at the keyboard. Louis recalled that the group just decided one day to make a trio and began rehearsing: We never had to discuss anything, musically. The ?magic? was that the three of us had the same deep feeling for music, based on traditional interpretations by great masters. We knew in advance where one would take a little ritard, or make a crescendo, and we had exactly the same feeling?absolutely the same feeling! It was as simple as sitting at a table for a meal. No problem. McCutchan, Marcel Moyse: Voice of the Flute, 128-133. 594 A complete discography of Moyse?s recordings is found in McCutchan, Marcel Moyse: Voice of the Flute, Discography, 241-318. 285 by his superior technical skills. Moyse premiered and became identified with Jacques Ibert?s Concerto for flute and orchestra and Pi?ce for flute solo. These pieces remain in the repertory as great masterworks for the flute. 592 As a member of the Moyse trio, he commissioned works by other composers of the day, such as Jean Fran?aix, Bohuslav Martinu, and Ervin Schulhoff, and he became a champion of new music for chamber ensemble. 593 Moyse was already renowned as a soloist when the electrical recording process emerged in 1925, and he became the first flutist of the era between World Wars I and II to record extensively. He succeeded in recording a cross-section of the flute's serious repertory over a period of more than two decades. In many cases, Moyse's playing remained the only interpretation of certain flute repertoire available on disc for years. 594 Yet Moyse was by no means a pioneer. Many prominent flutists did record before Moyse, most notably some of his French predecessors, such as Georges Barr?re, Philippe Gaubert, Adolphe Hennebains, and Ren? Le Roy. Others recorded only sporadically, 595 Dorgeuille, The French Flute School 1860-1950, translated by Blakeman, 42-50. 596 McCutchan, Marcel Moyse: Voice of the Flute, Discography, 241-318. 286 such as Gaston Blanquart, Gaston Crunelle, and George Laurent. 595 With the proliferation of serious instrumental music on record, including large-scale works, the woodwind repertory came gradually to assert itself as commercially viable. Certainly, recorded music contributed to the increase in French chamber music, including works for flute and voice. In this setting Moyse began recording, both as a soloist and as a principal member of the numerous ensembles with which he had been associated since 1910 (including the Op?ra-Comique, the Concerts Pasdeloup, the Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire, and the Straram orchestras). His recording career was centered in the Paris studios of the Gramophone Company and Columbia Gramophone, but he also recorded in London for the English branches of both companies. His records have appeared on a variety of labels. He had a prolific recording career with a discography of about 225 recordings. 596 Moyse recorded a number of works for flute and soprano. In 1928, he recorded opera excerpts that included flute, such as ?Le pardon de Plo?rmel? from Dinorah (Meyerbeer) with Yvonne Brothier, soprano, as well as the Act III: Mad Scene from Lucia de Lammermoor (Donizetti) with the same singer. He recorded The Mad Scene from Lucia again in 1936, this time with soprano Vina Bovy. He was also the flutist on the one of the recordings of Ravel?s Chansons mad?casses, with Madeleine Grey, 597 This work was recorded several times, by many different flutists and singers. Ibid. 598 Ibid., 151-169. 599 By the time Moyse returned to Paris after the war, a talented young flutists by the name of Jean-Pierre Rampal had made his mark on the Parisian musical scene. As well, Gaston Crunelle had been well liked at the Conservatoire as the professor of flute, and they saw no reason to ask him to step down. It took two years of negotiations before Moyse agreed to the compromise suggested by the administration of the Conservatoire to establish a second flute class for Moyse. McCutchan, Marcel Moyse: Voice of the Flute, 162-163. 287 soprano, Hans Kindler, cello, and Ravel at the keyboard. 597 During World War II, Moyse sought refuge from the Nazi Occupation in the south of France. He was exiled from his performing life in Paris during this time and was even arrested for a short time as a suspected Jew. 598 Moyse was surrounded for four years by farms instead of students and concert halls. In the meantime, music in Paris had largely gone on without him. Unfortunately, he failed to make formal arrangements to leave his posts temporarily, allowing plenty of opportunities for rival flutists who quickly claimed Moyse's chairs in chamber groups and orchestras. At the Conservatoire, Gaston Crunelle took his post as flute professor, and the new director, Claude Delvincourt, was not anxious to have Moyse return. While a compromise was struck to have Moyse and Crunelle teach parallel flute classes, by 1947 Moyse decided to leave Paris for Buenos Aires. 599 He took with him his daughter-in-law, Blanche Honegger Moyse, and son Louis. In the summer of 1949, the Moyse family immigrated to the United States when the situation in Buenos Aires did not work out as planned and, with the help of Rudolf Serkin and Adolf Busch, was able to settle in Vermont as part of the faculty of the Marlboro 600 Ibid., 171-172. 601 A partial listing of these students includes: Robert Aitkin (soloist); William Bennett (principal flute, London Philharmonic, soloist); Rogert Cortet (soloist); Michel Debost (principal flute, Orchestra de Paris, flute professor Oberlin Conservatory); James Galway (principal flute, Berlin Philharmonic, soloist); Bernard Goldberg (principal flute, Pittsburgh Symphony); Peter-Lukas Graf (soloist); Raymond Griot (Orchestra de Paris); Karl Kraber (Dorian Quintet); Raymond Meyland (soloist); Susan Milan (soloist); William Montgomery (Theater Chamber Players, flute professor, University of Maryland); Aur?le Nicole (Berlin Philharmonic); Paula Robison (principal flute, New York Philharmonic, soloist); and Trevor Wye (soloist). Ibid., 191-206. 288 Festival. 600 Moyse quickly obtained professional management and began concertizing in America as a soloist and as a member of the Moyse Trio. Moyse also began to take private flute students and established himself as a preeminent teacher in the United States. Like Barr?re before him, Moyse continued the influence of the French school of flute-playing in the United States, teaching almost all of the next generation of American flutists. His students began to take their places in the leading orchestras, conservatories, and universities around the world. 601 In a letter to Moyse dated December 15, 1962, Moyse's student Aur?le Nicolet wrote of his teacher's legacy: I know several French players of the "new school" of Rampal, etc., whose technique and facility I admire, but I always have the impression I am searching for something other than what they look for. I feel myself nourished from another tradition, coming from another school. Once I was a member of a jury with Crunelle. He told me how much he admired you, and we agreed that although the technical level of the current candidates is extremely high, it is rare to hear a flutist who is sensitive to color and beauty of sound, and who uses his means toward the service of expression. The things you made me work on are always at the base of my teaching, and I love this work, which is perpetual creation and the best personal discipline. I'm lucky to have lots of pupils, and many talented ones. One of those who gives me the most satisfaction is a young Frenchman, from Besan?on.? I would also like to say, that even after fourteen years I am still so full of your remarks, perceptions, images, expressions that all of them spring involuntarily in each lesson that I give, in each musical phrase that I play.? 602 McCutchan, Marcel Moyse: Voice of the Flute, 194. 603 The work was performed later by Moyse and soprano, Madeline Grey. When it was recorded in 1932 under the direction of Ravel, the flutist was Ren? Le Roy. Orenstein, A Ravel Reader, 273, 537. 289 Thanks to you, the expression of the flute has gone beyond the pretty and the gracious, it has become frank. I am trying to disseminate this heritage well and to make it known. 602 FRENCH FLUTISTS PREMIERE WORKS FOR FLUTE AND VOICE Of the works for flute and voice considered in this study, many were written for and premiered by these well-known flutists. Trois odelettes anacr?ontiques, op. 13 by Maurice Emmanuel was premiered by the Soci?t? de concerts du Conservatoire on March 20, 1921, with Marcel Moyse on flute, Rose Feart as vocal soloist, and Philippe Gaubert at the piano. Albert Roussel's Deux po?mes de Ronsard was premiered by Ninon Vallin, voice and Ren? Le Roy, flute on May 15, 1924. A portion of the Chansons mad?casses of Maurice Ravel were premiered in 1925 by Jane Bathori, voice, Alfred Cassella, piano, Louis Fleury, flute, and Hans Kindler, cello, at the Hotel Majestic in Paris, although in this instance, only one movement was performed. The full work was premiered at the American Academy in Rome on May 8, 1926 with the same performers. The Paris premiere of the full work took place on June 13, 1926. By this time Louis Fleury had died; Maurice Baudouin performed the flute part. 603 Honegger's Chanson de Ronsard and La petite sir?ne were both premiered by soprano Regime de Leroy with flute and string quartet. The former piece, with Blanquart on flute, received its premiere with the Pullet Quartet conducted by Arthur Ho?r?e on January 24, 1925, in Paris; the later featured Ram?n on flute, with Ho?r?e conducting the Roth Quartet on March 26, 290 1927 at the Durand Concert series at the Salle Pleyel. The performers and the circumstances of the premieres of many of the works for flute and soprano are unknown to us. But the legacy of these flutists is clear in the development of French repertoire for the flute and voice. Their prominence as performers, their connections to French composers through the Conservatoire and other musical organizations in Paris, and their superior skill in playing the flute all contributed to the tremendous outpouring of repertoire for flute and voice. It is no coincidence that the production of music for flute and voice peaked between World War I and World War II, the precise time that the flute class almost doubled in size at the Conservatoire and that flute-playing began to reach its zenith in Paris. It is as a result of these fine flutists that much of the repertoire for flute and voice exists today. 604 De Bovet, Gounod, 16-17. 291 CHAPTER 11 THE RISE OF THE GREAT SOPRANOS In the same way that the painter collaborates with nature, I consider the musical interpreter collaborates with the composer. The theatrical expression "create a part" is not a meaningless phrase. The work, which the author has created by his heart and his imagination, is, so to speak, created afresh by another's heart and imagination, intelligent reflexes of his own, by which it is conveyed to the public. 604 ?Charles Gounod 605 The most successful composer associated with the Second Empire was not Gounod, Berlioz, or Bizet, but Jacques Offenbach. This age was attracted to op?ras bouffes, which were based to a great extent upon gibes at the contemporary society and the political order. Louis Napol?on and his empress Eug?ne were also enamored with Meyerbeer, who became a close friend at court. Grout, A Short History of Opera, 315-341. 606 Cooper, French Music, 9. 607 Paris was the home of numerous theaters that performed opera. In addition to the Op?ra and the Op?ra- Comique, there was the Th??tre-Historique, founded in 1847 by Alexandre Dumas and renamed the Th??tre-Lyrique in 1852; the Cirque-Olympique or Cirque-Imp?ral, home of the Op?ra-Nationale from 1847-1851; the Folies-Dramatiques or Th??tre-D?zet; the Th??tre de la ga?t?; the Funabules; and the Th??tre-Saqui which was later renamed the D?ssements-Comiques. The capital drew composers and vocalists from Austria, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, and Russian. Indeed, most musicians in Europe came to Paris in order to establish their careers. Grout, A Short History of Opera, 315-341. 292 Just as the proliferation of superior flute playing in Paris had its effect on French composers, so did the prominence of vocalists and particularly sopranos. As noted above, the leading musical institution of nineteenth-century Paris was the opera, and opera singers were the stars of the musical world. As Saint-Sa?ns later described in 1900: The young musicians of today would find it difficult to imagine the state of music in France when Gounod came on the scene. The beau monde thought of nothing but Italian music; the last ripples of the tide on which Rossini, Donizetti, Bellini, and the wonderful generation of singers who had interpreted their works, had sailed to take Europe by storm, were still sensible; and the star of Verdi, veiled as yet with the morning mist, was just appearing above the horizon. The real public, that is the bon bourgeois, recognized no music outside the opera and French comic opera, 605 which included works written for France by distinguished foreigners. There was a universal cult, a positive idolatry, of ?melody? or, more exactly, of the tune which could be picked up at once and easily remembered. 606 During the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries, France, and specifically Paris, could arguably be called the most significant operatic center in Europe. 607 As a result, the capital attracted the most talented singers, instrumentalists, and composers, most of whom trained together at the Conservatoire and who entered the professional musical world through the Op?ra and the Op?ra-Comique. 608 Jane Bathori played a seminal role in the development of modern French song, and specifically of modern French chamber music for soprano and flute. See Chapter 11: The Rise of the Great Sopranos for a through discussion of her contributions to this repertoire. 609 Emma Bardac was the wife of a wealthy banker, Sigismond Bardac. Emma had a rather progressive salon at her home in the rue de Berri, where she entertained composers, artists, and writers. She was known for her femininity, forthrightness, intelligence, and charm, all of which attracted male attention to her, especially the artistically gifted. She became involved in love affairs with both Debussy and Faur?, and they each composed songs specifically for her. She eventually ran away with Debussy and subsequently married him. Duchen, Gabriel Faur?, 104-105. 610 A complete listing of French composers who wrote m?lodie during this period is found in Appendix III. 293 The various opera houses of France launched the careers of many of the soprano soloists who went on to inspire and premiere many of the works included in this dissertation. These women include Jane Bathori, 608 Emma Bardac, Emma Calv?, Claire Croiza, Rose F?art, Mary Garden, Madeline Grey, Jane Hatto, Maria Malibran, Blanche Marot, Adelina Patti, Lily Pons, Louisa Tetrazinini, Ninon Vallin, and Pauline Viardot. Certain singers were especially connected with composers as muses or lovers, such as Mary Garden and Emma Bardac who were associated with Debussy, Emma Bardac who was also associated with Faur?, 609 and Madeleine Grey who was associated with Ravel. In their role as muses, they would inspire an outpouring of French song. Indeed, the presence in Paris of a group of such talented singers who were able to exert tremendous influence on a group of major French song composers has never been repeated. 610 It is a primary explanation for the creation of a large body of repertoire for flute and soprano by French composers. SOPRANOS AND THE CREATION OF OPERATIC ROLES Over the course of history, singers maintained a substantial influence over 611 The list of great voices at the Paris Op?ra from 1789 to 1850 would not be complete without mentioning Laure Damoreau-Cinti, who made her debut in 1826, at the end of the Restoration and the year of Madame Branchu?s retirement. Damoreau-Cinti was the great interpreter of Rossini?s French operas. F?tis wrote, ?Never has anyone been heard to sing with such perfection in the old temple of vocal drama.? Although she was a native of Paris, Damoreau-Cinti first sang at the Th??tre-Italien, where she attracted Rossini?s attention. She soon equaled Henriette Sontag and Maria Malibran in popularity. In 1829, however, and again in 1830, these three opera stars joined together on the stage of the Op?ra in performances of separate acts from different operas. According to Castil-Blaze, it was ?the best singing you could imagine.? Madame Grassini and Madame Crescentini were also acclaimed by Parisian audiences, although their nationality and their Italian repertoire denied them access to the Op?ra stage. On the other hand, the opening of the Th??tre-Italien in 1801 brought to Paris, one by one, the greatest of the Italian virtuosos. Many of them had already won international acclaim and they introduced the Paris audience to an entirely different vocal technique. [The criticism most often voiced in the press about French singers was that they were being taught to force their voices, to shout rather than to sing.] Mongr?dien, French Music from the Enlightenment to Romanticism, 69. 612 In the Op?ra-Comique, the most important female role was the chanteuse ? roulades, a light coloratura role that usually dominated the score to a much greater extent than either of the females in the grand opera formula. The second female role in the opera comique was the dugazon (a name taken from the eighteenth-century op?ra comique star Louis Dugazon); this part was taken by the performer who could act 294 operatic events during much of the nineteenth century and beyond. In the process of mounting a new production, the selection of a roster of singers was always the first step in the construction of an operatic season. It was only after hiring the performers that contracts would be given to the composers and librettists. Decisions regarding music, subject matter, and characters were subsequently made with particular artists in mind, and composers were acutely aware that the success or failure of their stage works rested with the vocalists. 611 By the second half of the nineteenth century, singers had become intimately involved with the composers in the creation of their roles, though after the turn of the century, vocalists lost much of their influence and became less and less involved in this process. In addition, at mid-century, with the rise in the prima donna, female heroines dominated the French opera and many were conceived with a female as the central dramatic character. 612 However, over the course of five decades (from 1850-1900), there well but whose voice was not developed enough to execute chanteuse ? roulades or major dramatic roles. Such a part almost never included extensive coloratura. Often the dugazon was a "trouser" role. By 1880, the most popular works of this era were: Gounod's Mireille (1864), Thomas's Mignon (1866), Bizet's Carmen (1875), and Massenet's Manon (1884). Ibid. 613 Ibid. 614 The term ?coloratura? may be used to describe the florid figuration or ornamentation in a piece of music and operatic roles in which such passages are prominent. It can also refer to a particular class of sopranos who specialize in florid singing and operatic roles in this style and who had an extended high range, usually E or F above the staff. Amelita Galli-Curci, Henriette Sontag, Jenny Lind, Lily Pons, and Joan Sutherland are all examples of this voice type. Pleasants, The Great Singers, 189-211. 295 would be striking changes in vocal types, as the castratos (for male roles) gave way to the lyric tenor, and the coloratura soprano (for female roles) was supplanted by the lyric and mezzo-soprano. The drop in tessitura continued through the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, giving way to a concentration on baritones and heroic tenors. By 1950, the development of spoken drama in singing voices, along with the desire for realism, produced operatic roles in which performance demands were similar to the vocal differentiation in a play. 613 GREAT SOPRANOS IN THE YEARS PRIOR TO 1850 The terms dramatic soprano, lyric soprano, and coloratura soprano are all well-established designations for certain types of voices. Until the mid-nineteenth century every female singer was expected to be a mistress of coloratura, 614 and it was also assumed that she could sing dramatically and lyrically. All sopranos sang the same repertoire. Certain singers were superior to others in coloratura and more inventive in ornamentation, while others sang more dramatically or more lyrically, but a soprano was 615 Pleasants, The Great Singers, 189-211. 616 Ibid., 137-318. 296 a soprano. 615 One notes the roles which speak to the position of the soprano in the early- nineteenth century, for instance Giuditta Pasta (1797-1865) created the roles of Desdemona in Rossini's Otello, Anna Bolena in Donizetti's opera of the same name, Amina in Bellini's La sonnambula, and Norma in Bellini's opera of the same name. Maria Malibran (1808-1836) performed Rosina in Rossini's Il barbiere di Siviglia as well as Desdemona, Cinderella, and Semiramide. Fanny Persiani (1812-1867) created the role of Lucia in Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor. Giulia Grisi (1811-1869), in a remarkable career, created the roles of Emma in Rossini's Zelmira (1828), Juliet in Bellini's I Capuleti ed I Montecchi (1830), Adalgisa in Bellini's Norma (1831), Adelia in Donizetti's Ugo, Conte di Parigi (1832), Elvira in Bellini's I Puritani (1835), Elena in Donizetti's Marin Faliero (1835), and Norina in Donizetti's Don Pasquale (1843). Henriette Sontag (1806-1854) created the title role in Weber's Euryanthe (1823) and was chosen by Beethoven to sing the first performance of his Symphony No. 9 and Missa solemnis (1824). She also sang Rosina in Rossini's Il barbiere de Siviglia and Semiramide in the opera of the same title. Jenny Lind (1820-1887) appeared as Anna in La sonnambula, Anna Bolena in the opera of the same name, Norma in Bellini's opera, Alice in Robert le diable, and she created the role of Amalia in Verdi's I Masnadieri (1847). 616 Each soprano, then, was an artist of distinctive vocal, dramatic, and personal characteristics, and yet the repertoire, drawn from the popular operas of Rossini, 617 Pleasants, The Great Singers, 189. 618 Ambroise Thomas, in his opera Hamlet, includes a mad scene for Desdemona that contains a long cadenza for the soprano with the flute. Most likely, he was inspired by the same orchestration in Donizetti?s Lucia de Lammermoor. 297 Donizetti, Bellini, and Meyerbeer, remained much the same for each. 617 All of these sopranos appeared at the Th??tre-Italien and the Op?ra-Comique prior to mid-century, making the Italian style of singing, with its long, coloratura phrases, an accepted fashion in France. French composers such as Louis Auber, Gustave Charpentier, F?licien David, Fromental Hal?vy, Victor Mass?, Auguste Panseron, and Ambroise Thomas rushed to create operatic works in the Italian style. From 1800 until 1850, these singers (and their adoring public) largely determined the operatic practices in France. As a result of the influence of Bellini, Donizetti, and Rossini, French composers such as Adam, David, D?libes, Mass?, and Thomas would write op?ra comique works filled with arias of bird songs and love. With their sixteenth-note runs and cadenzas, these pieces were typically showpieces for the coloratura singer and, in many instances, these pieces were orchestrated as duets between the singer and the orchestra's flutist 618 . THE COLORATURA SOPRANO It is difficult for us to fully grasp this relatively short-lived idiom today. Most of the operas and, in some cases, the composers themselves are virtually forgotten. Jules Massenet is remembered, of course, and Manon and Werther are still in the repertoire. But what of Cl?op?tre, Esclarmonde, Gris?lidis, H?rodiade, La navarraise, Tha?s, and Sappho? We still hear Samson et Delilah, but what of Saint-Sa?ns's H?l?ne and Phryn?? 619 Pleasants, The Great Singers, 181-211. 298 Mignon is still heard from time to time, but who recognizes Ambroise Thomas' Hamlet, Psych?, or Le songe d'une nuit d'?t?? Gustave Charpentier lives intermittently as the composer of Louise. Carmen seems imperishable, but Bizet's La jolie fille de Perth, Djamileh, and Les p?cheurs de perles clearly are not. Indeed, many works of this era and their creators are totally forgotten. Camille Erlanger's Aphrodite, Henri F?vrier's Monna Vanna, Xavier Leroux's La reine fiammette, F?licien David's Lalla-Roukh, Victor Mass?'s Une niut de Cl?op?tre, and Gabriel Piern?'s La fille de tabarin are unknown to us. Yet, these operas were immensely popular among the Parisian public of 1850. Why? Because there was a new breed of soprano known as the coloratura. Today we tend to think of the coloratura soprano as a sweet-voiced girl with more or less secure high notes and with the agility and fluency to get through the arias of Zerbinetta or The Queen of the Night. But there have been coloratura sopranos who could do more than that, women who could ascend to the high E or F without resorting to a detached, tricky head voice and who, in lyrical and dramatic passages, could sing persuasively and beautifully. A lineage of such singers could persuasively be charted through Henriette Sontag (1806-1854), Jenny Lind (1820-1887), Adelina Patti (1843-1919), Nellie Melba (1861-1931), Luisa Tetrazinini (1871-1940), Amelita Galli-Curci (1882-1963), and, most recently, Lina Pagliughi (1907-1980). 619 Sopranos of this type were not favored by the evolution of the repertoire during 620 These sopranos inspired an entire genre of operatic composing in which the coloratura ?mad scene? became a feature in several nineteenth-century operas, such as: Anna Bolena (1830) by Gaetano Donizetti; La sonnambula (1831) and I Puritani (1835) by Vincenzo Bellini; Dinorah (1859) by Giacomo Meyerbeer; and Hamlet (1868) by Ambroise Thomas. The romantic era mad scene developed as a result of musical, literary, and social influences of the eighteenth and early-nineteenth centuries. These influences included: the French grand opera tradition; the influence of Rossini and his musical style that included vocal ornamentation and sequencing of musical numbers; the popularity of ?gothic? style literature which emphasized mystery, ghosts, hallucinations, and insanity; and the dirth of young, coloratura sopranos as operatic heroines, who combined vocal flexibility and fragility to dramatic effect. Grove, A Short History of Opera, 315-341. 621 Pleasants, The Great Singers, 190. 622 Ibid. 623 Sontag was only seventeen when she created the title role in Euryanthe in 1823 and only eighteen when she sang in the premiere of Beethoven's Symphony no. 9. Ibid., 191. 299 the twentieth century. 620 Throughout the nineteenth, however, they excited an enthusiasm that has never been accorded to any other type of singer (except, perhaps the castrati), one that in our own time, has been directed only at pop stars such as Frank Sinatra, Elvis Presley, or the Beatles. Called nightingales by their fans and warblers by more moderate admirers, they had beautiful voices that were lighter and more girlish than the type of voice fashionable among sopranos today. 621 Singers of this sort had a special, highly appealing communicative quality, one that suggested a kind of eternally youthful femininity. 622 And they were, indeed, young. Three of the greatest coloratura sopranos of the nineteenth century (chronologically), Henriette Sontag, Jenny Lind, and Adelina Patti were phenomenally early beginners. The ages at which they made their formal operatic debuts were extraordinary by today's standards: Sontag was fifteen, Lind seventeen, and Patti sixteen. 623 They took Paris and, indeed, the world by storm, conquering houses such 624 Kuhn, Baker?s Dictionary of Opera. 625 Henriette Sontag, born in 1806 in Germany, made her debut in Prague as Princess of Navara in Boieldieu's Jean de Paris. She followed this with Rosina, Zerlina, and Agathe, among many others. In 1826, she accepted a two-month trial contract at the Th??tre-Italien in Paris and made her debut there as Rosina. Rossini, Cherubini, Auber, and Boieldieu were in the audience, and she was a great success. She spent the next several years traveling between London and Paris, singing the roles of Desdemona, Cinderella, and Pisaroni. A rivalry with Maria Malibran arose upon her return from America. Sontag retired from the stage in 1830 after a secret marriage to Count Carlo Rossi. Jenny Lind was born in Sweden in 1820, and although she studied with Manuel Garcia in Paris, she never performed there. By the time she was twenty-one, she was a star of a magnitude that Stockholm had never known and during her career would sing the roles of Euryanthe, Pamina, Julia, Alice, Donna Anna, Lucia, and Norma. From 1844 to 1849, she sang in Berlin and was greatly admired by Mendelssohn and Clara Schumann. She also attracted the notice of Meyerbeer, who pursued her relentlessly to create his lead female roles. She sang often in London and toured America with Phineas Barnum from 1850 to 1852. Adelina Patti was born in Madrid in 1843 and made her debut in Paris at the Th??tre-Italien in 1862 in the role of Amina. She became famous for her portrayals of Zerlina, Rosina, Norina, Elvira, Martha, Adina, and Gilda, and is widely regarded as one of the greatest coloratura sopranos of the nineteenth century. Kuhn, Baker?s Dictionary of Opera, 753, 451, 594. 300 as the Op?ra and Op?ra-Comique in Paris, the Metropolitan in New York, La Scala in Milan, La Monnaie in Brussels, Covent Garden in London, and the Karlstheater in Vienna. 624 For several decades, these sopranos, with the help of Rossini, Donizetti, and Bellini, ruled the operatic world. 625 Many of the bird songs for flute and soprano that have been noted elsewhere in this study were written for these sopranos and for later generations of coloratura sopranos, such as Nellie Melba and Lily Pons. SOPRANOS OF THE LATE-NINETEENTH AND EARLY-TWENTIETH CENTURIES The verismo operas of the young Italian composers and the lyric operas of the French composers were made to order for sopranos of the next generation, such as Emma Calv? (whose Santuzza quickly eclipsed Bellincioni's original), Claire Croiza, Geraldine Farrar (whose Madame Butterfly was unrivaled for many years), Mary Garden, Maria Malibran, Nellie Melba, Sybil Sanderson, and Rosine Stoltz. During this particular 301 period, the French idiom typically centered on the projection of exotic and otherwise fascinating females, one that provided an even more congenial setting than the Italian operas had for the art of Calv?, Garden, and Farrar. In the context of this study, it would be useful to examine briefly the careers of these singers individually. MARIA MALIBRAN (1808-1836) Maria Malibran (1808-1836) was the daughter of famed tenor Manuel Garcia. Born in Paris, she studied voice with her father and showed a precocious talent at an early age. She was seventeen when she made her debut in 1825, filling in for a sick colleague in the role of Rosina in Il barbiere de Seviglia by Rossini. Performances in London and America soon followed, and it was in America where she met her soon-to-be husband, Eug?ne Malibran. In 1826 she returned to Paris and the following year made her debut at the Op?ra in Rossini's Semiramide, to sensational effect. Now an operatic star, Malibran was subsequently engaged at the Op?ra and the Th??tre-Italien, where she appeared as Desdemona, Ninetta, Romeo, Rosina, Susanna, and Zerlina. Her fame surpassed that of either Giuditta Pasta or Henriette Sontag, the reigning stars of the day, and it would be difficult to overestimate the extent of her celebrity. She died at age twenty-eight after falling from a horse and was publicly mourned; a show of feeling that included elegiac poetry by Alfred de Musset. ROSINE STOLTZ (1815-1903) Rosine Stoltz (1815-1903) was a French mezzo-soprano who made her Paris debut at the Op?ra as Rachel in Hal?vy's La juive. Subsequently, she created the role of 626 The following story regarding the cadenza with flute in Lucia di Lammermoor appears in Lahee: A little anecdote was told concerning a performance of Lucia in Paris, which tends to show the kindly disposition of the young prima donna. She was, in the mad scene, accompanied in a most delicious manner by the flutist in the orchestra. One was often puzzled during the celebrated duet to determine which were the notes of the flute and which were those of the singer. Now and then a pathetic vibration would reveal the human voice and cause it to rise triumphant above the instrument. She taxed the skill of the musician to the uttermost to follow her through the intricate mazes of sound. When, through nervousness, she for a moment forgot the words of her song, the humble musician came to her rescue and improvised a few sparkling variations to enable her to regain her breath and recollect the lost phrases. At the end of the duet, two powdered footmen advanced from the wings a gigantic basket of flowers, which had been sent to her from Rome by some friends. She selected the finest rose and, advancing to he footlights, handed it to the leader of the orchestra to be passed on to the flute player. 302 Ascanio in Berlioz's Benvenuto Cellini (1838), as well as L?onore in La favorite (1840) and Zaida in Dom S?bastien (1843), the latter two by Donizetti. She apparently became intimate with Leon Pillet, the manager of the Op?ra from 1844 and, through him, wielded considerable influence on the appointment of new singers at the Op?ra. After a series of attacks in the press, however, she resigned her contract with the Op?ra in 1847. NELLIE MELBA (1859-1940) Nellie Melba (1859-1940) was born in Australia but studied voice with Madame Marchesi in Vienna. She subsequently made her debut in London in La sonnambula in 1880. She was soon singing the lead roles in Lucia di Lammermoor and other Italian operas. She sang in Italy and then, in 1883, came under contract to the Op?ra-Comique in Paris. She made her first appearance there as Zora in David's Perle du Brazil (1883). She was warmly received when she toured Europe in 1885, and Thomas admired her as an interpreter of his Mignon. She made her debut at the Op?ra in 1889 as Ophelia in Hamlet. This performance was such a critical success that she stayed on to appear in Rigoletto and Lucia di Lammermoor. 626 Melba later collaborated with Camille Saint-Sa?ns and would Lahee, Famous Singers, 233-234. 627 Nellie Melba toured with Australian flutist John Lemmon?, who also became her manager. Ibid. 628 Hervey, Saint-Sa?ns, 357. 303 appear in the title role in the premiere of H?l?ne in Monte Carlo in 1903. Saint-Sa?ns had spoken of his project with such enthusiasm that she cancelled the second half of her American tour 627 and learned the role while traveling between engagements. Saint-Sa?ns was deeply impressed by her stage presence and later observed: ?She did not play. No. She lived the Helen I had dreamed of.? 628 Melba was known for her beauty of tone and polished technique, and it was these qualities that attracted the notice of Charles Gounod, who coached her in the roles of Juliette (Rom?o et Juliette) and Marguerite (Faust). EMMA CALV? (1859-1942) By all accounts, Emma Calv? (1858-1942) had an unusual range (from A below the staff to F above high C) which enabled her to create the role of Carmen at the Op?ra-Comique, as well as the roles of Lucia (Lucia di Lammermoor) and Lakm? by L?o D?libes (Lakm?). In addition, Jules Massenet had her specifically in mind as he developed the roles of Anita in La navarraise (1894) and Sappho in the opera of the same name (1897). Calv? also created the title role in Reynaldo Hahn's La carm?lite (1902). By 1904 she had given 1,000 performances of Carmen at the Op?ra-Comique, an extraordinary number in any age. As an interpreter, she was dramatic and impulsive, and her career extended into the recording era, which permitted the documentation of her interpretive style. 629 In the late nineteenth-century, St. Petersburg was another city known for its patronage of opera and of singing. Several French singers made concert tours of the Russian capital, including Sybil Sanderson, Pauline Viardot, and Maria Olenina-d?Alheim. French composers Claude Debussy also traveled extensively in Russia, where he heard the music of Tchaikovsky and Rimsky-Korsakov. Fitzlyon, The Price of Genius, 123-142. 304 SYBIL SANDERSON (1865-1903) Sybil Sanderson (1865-1903) was born in America and made her debut in 1888 in The Hague in a production of Manon. A few months later she was in Paris, studying at the Conservatoire with Massenet and performing at the Op?ra-Comique, where she created the role of Esclarmonde (which Massenet had written for her). Massenet also wrote Tha?s (1889) for her, and Saint-Sa?ns was equally enchanted by Sanderson's singing, creating the role of Phryn? (1893) with her in mind. She was very popular in both Paris and St. Petersburg. 629 MARY GARDEN (1874-1967) Mary Garden (1874-1967) was born in Aberdeen, Scotland, but later immigrated to the United States. She studied singing in Paris with Trabadello and Lucien Fug?re and made her debut at the Op?ra-Comique in 1900, taking over the title role of Louise for an ill colleague. This debut was a musical sensation and, as a result, she remained at the Op?ra-Comique until 1906. There, she would go on to create the role of Diane in Piern?'s La fille de Tabarin (1901), although she is principally known as the creator of the role of M?lisande in the world premiere of Debussy's Pell?as et M?lisande (1902). As a result of this collaboration, she became the center of a controversy when Maurice Maeterlinck, the author of the drama, voiced his violent objection to her assignment, his choice for the 630 The quality of her voice has been described as warm but limpid, ideal for dramatic soprano roles. Halbreich, Arthur Honegger, 96-97. 631 Ibid. 305 role being Georgette Leblanc, his common-law wife. Maeterlinck subsequently withdrew from the production. Nevertheless, Garden's role in this opera was a turning point in her career. She was known as a singer of exceptional ability, as well as a skillful actress. CLAIRE CROIZA (1882-1946) Claire Croiza (1882-1946), n?e Claire Connolly, was born in Paris on September 14, 1882 to an Italian mother and an American father of Irish origin. In 1906 she launched herself on a brilliant career at the Th??tre de la Monnaie in Brussels, singing Dalila, Carmen, Berlioz?s Dido, Clytemnestra (in the operas by Gluck and Richard Strauss), and Erda. She was first heard at the Op?ra in 1908 as Dalila and at the Op?ra-Comique in 1926. She inspired the role of P?n?lope in Faur?'s opera of the same name and gave its first performance. Beginning in 1922, she taught at the ?cole Normale and, in 1934, became a professor of voice at the Conservatoire. With her instinct for the French language and her intelligence, clarity of tone, and passionate reserve, Croiza was much admired by musicians such as Debussy, Duparc, Faur?, d'Indy, and Saint-Sa?ns, as well as by poets alike. 630 Paul Val?ry said that she had the most sensitive voice of her generation 631 and a number of composers dedicated songs to her, including Arthur Honegger, Darius Milhaud, and Francis Poulenc. Honegger would write Judith with Croiza in mind. 632 Orledge, Charles Koechlin (1867-1950): His Life and Works, Appendix B. 633 Ibid., 288-289. 634 In 1922, Francis Poulenc and Darius Milhaud went to Austria with the singer Marya Freund. Polish by birth but a resident of France, Freund was renowned as a singer of Lieder and also of many contemporary works. She had recently given the first performance in France of Schoenberg?s Pierrot lunaire with Milhaud conducting. During their visit to Austria they repeated this performance in a double program, contrasting their interpretation of the work with that of Schoenberg and the German singer Erika Wagner. While in Vienna, they met Mahler?s widow, Alma, who introduced them to Schoenberg, Berg, and Webern. Milhaud left the following remembrance of the performance: 306 SOPRANOS AND THE CREATION OF M?LODIE AND CHAMBER MUSIC FOR FLUTE AND VOICE Many sopranos not only inspired operatic roles by French composers, but also m?lodie and chamber music for flute and voice. Rose F?art (1881-1957) was a singer primarily associated with Andr? Caplet and Charles Koechlin, premiering many of their vocal works. 632 She sang the first M?lisande at Covent Garden and later became a professor of voice at the Conservatoire. She created the role of La vierge Erigone in Debussy?s Le martyre de Saint-Sebastien and performed the premiere of the work in 1911. She is known to have performed Maurice Emmanuel?s Trois odelettes anacr?ontiques for flute, soprano, and piano for a concert of the Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire on March 20, 1921 with Philippe Gaubert conducting. Arthur Honegger also dedicated his Six po?mes de Jean Cocteau (1920) to F?art, and she premiered Honegger?s P?ques ? New York (1920) with the Pro Arte Quartet. 633 Marya Freund (1876-1966) was a Polish singer who performed the Paris premiere of Arnold Schoenberg's Pierrot lunaire at the Salle des Agricultures on December 15, 1921. The flutist for this performance and several subsequent performances in Paris, London, Italy, and Brussels was Louis Fleury. 634 She would remain in Paris, performing Erika Wagner, who sang Schoenberg?s works in Germany, happened to be in Vienna at the same time as we, and Frau Mahler thought that it might be a good idea to organize a double performance of Pierrot lunaire in German and French versions. Schoenberg agreed, and we used the same instrumentalists.?It was a most exciting experience; Schoenberg?s conduction brought out the dramatic qualities of his work, making it harsher, wilder, more intense; my reading, on the other hand, emphasized the music?s sensuous qualities, all the sweetness, subtlety, and the translucency of it. Erika Wagner spoke the German words in a strident tone, with less respect for the notes as written than Marya Freund, who if anything erred on the side of observing them too closely. Schmidt, Entrancing Muse, 107-109. 635 Ibid. 636 A Ravel Reader, edited by Arbie Orenstein, 9-12. 637 Kuhn, Baker?s Dictionary of Opera, 287. 307 works by Poulenc, including his Le bestiaire (for soprano, flute, and chamber ensemble) at the Th??tre de la Vieux-Colombier in 1921. 635 Madeleine Grey (1897-1979) was initially a piano student with Alfred Cortot at the Conservatoire before being recognized as a soprano. She was admired by Gabriel Faur? and Maurice Ravel, and she sang the premiere of Faur?'s Mirages, op. 113 and made recordings of Ravel's Chansons hebra?ques and Chansons mad?casses, which the composer himself regarded as the definitive interpretations of these works. 636 She eventually toured Spain with Ravel as accompanist and performed in a number of memorial concerts after his death in 1937. Her lengthy concert tours abroad helped to further the appreciation of modern French song in the United States and Italy. 637 Claire Croiza was a close friend of Francis Poulenc, who met the soprano at age eight, at whose home he played piano accompaniments during his sister Jeanne?s voice 638 Ibid., 15. 639 Ibid., 173. 640 Kahan, Music?s Modern Muse, 250. 641 Apparently, Croiza and Honegger began an affair in the years 1924-1925, while he was working on the opera Judith. Croiza eventually gave birth to Honegger?s illegitimate child, Jean-Claude Honegger on April 2, 1926 in Paris. Nevertheless, Honegger married Andr?e Vaurabourg (Vaura) on May 17, 1926. Honegger and Vaura had been companions for ten years, having met in Maurice Emmanuel?s music history class at the Conservatoire, and Vaura accepted Honegger?s terms for the relationship: that they continued to live apart even though married. Although Honegger continued to see Croiza and his son weekly as well as supporting her financially, there is no doubt that his marriage to Vaura hurt her deeply. Despite this, Croiza continued to perform Honegger?s works and during World War II, Honegger remained in Paris during the Occupation, not able to abandon her or his son. Halbreich, Arthur Honegger, 37, 101-102, 105, 107. 308 lessons. 638 Croiza and Poulenc would collaborate musically for the rest of her life, she performing many of his songs and recording his Le Bestaire (for soprano, flute, and chamber ensemble) in 1928. 639 She also premiered Poulenc?s Po?mes de Ronsard at the salon of the princesse de Polignac on April 7, 1925. 640 Through Poulenc she met Georges Auric, Arthur Honegger, and Henri Sauguet, all of whom wrote works for flute and voice. Croiza was also the muse and lover of Arthur Honegger. 641 She premiered his Chanson de Ronsard (for soprano, flute, and string quartet) on May 15, 1924 at a concert organized by La Revue Musicale in honor of the French poet Pierre de Ronsard. The performance took place at the Th??tre de la Vieux-Colombier. After Honegger?s falling out with Croiza, his Trois chansons de la petite sir?ne (for soprano, flute, and string quartet) was premiered by the lesser known soprano R?gime de Lormoy, flutist R?mon, and the Roth Quartet at the Salle Pleyel on March 22, 1927. Suzanne Peignot was another soprano associated with Poulenc as well as Auric, 642 On the same program, Marcel Moyse performed Durey?s Sonatine for Flute and Piano, with Andr?e Vaurabourg (Honegger?s wife) at the piano. Schmidt, Entrancing Muse, 175-176. 643 The setting of each poem by Ronsard was dedicated to a different soprano: ?Attributs? to Peignot, ?Le tombeau? to Marya Freund, ?Ballet? to V?ra Janacopoulos, ?Je n?ai plus que les os? to Claire Croiza, and ?A son page? to Jane Bathori. Ibid., 142. 644 The comtesse Jean de Polignac (Marie-Blanche) was the daughter of the famous French designer Jeanne Lanvin. She was equally well-known as a singer and a fashion icon. With the composer and teacher Nadia Boulanger, she held Sunday evening gatherings at her mother?s home in Paris and was very active in the salon of her aunt, princesse Edmond de Polignac. Kahan, Music?s Modern Muse, 312-325. 645 Ibid., 186. 309 Durey, Honegger, Milhaud, and Tailleferre. She performed Poulenc?s Le bestiaire with the composer on December 14, 1929 at the Salle Pleyel, as well as Auric?s Huit po?mes de Jean Cocteau, and Six m?lodies by Auric, Durey, Honegger, Milhaud, Poulenc, and Tailleferre on December 18, 1929. 642 Poulenc dedicated his Po?mes de Ronsard 643 to Peignot and his Quatre chansons de Max Jacob. Poulenc?s Cinq po?mes de Max Jacob (for soprano, flute, oboe, bassoon, clarinet, and trumpet) was premiered by Peignot on May 24, 1932 at a recital at the Ancien Conservatoire with Poulenc at the piano. He dedicated each movement to five sopranos in his life: Marie-Blanche de Polignac, 644 Madeleine Vhita, Suzanne Peignot, Suzanne Balguerie, and Eve Curie. 645 Poulenc subsequently introduced Peignot to Henri Sauguet, and she later premiered Sauguet?s Six po?mes de Andr? de Richaud at the ?cole Normale de Musique in 1947. Jane Hatto (1879-1970) was a French soprano who studied at the Conservatoire and made her debut at the Op?ra in 1899. She made her debut at the Paris Op?ra in 1899 as Brunehild in Reyer?s Sigurd. She continued to sing at the Op?ra until 1922, creating roles in several French operas, including Chausson?s Le roi Arthur (1903), Saint-Sa?ns?s 646 For a complete list of these premieres see Orledge, Charles Koechlin (1867-1950): His Life and Works, Appendix B. 647 Tumanov, The Life and Artistry of Maria Olenina-d?Alheim, 51-61. 310 Les barbares (1901), and Xavier Leroux?s Astarte, (1901). She gave a number of premieres of works by Charles Koechlin and was chosen by Maurice Ravel to be the soloist in the first performance of his song-cycle Sh?h?razade on May 17, 1904. Ravel dedicated the first song of the cycle ?Asie? to Hatto. 646 Ninon Vallin (1886-1961) made her debut in Paris at the Concerts Colonne singing Debussy?s La demoiselle ?lue on April 2, 1911. She was also the soprano chosen to sing the premiere of Debussy's Le martyr de San Sebastien later in 1911 (along with Rose F?art) and the composer's songs on texts of Mallarm? in 1914. For the next four years she sang at the Op?ra-Comique, specializing in the role of Mica?la in Bizet's Carmen, and in 1920 made her debut at the Op?ra in the role of Tha?s. Today, she remains known for her interpretations of the songs of Chausson, Debussy, Faur?, and Reynaldo Hahn. Her prodigious recording career began in 1913 and ended in 1956 with a discography of over 400 songs. As noted above, Vallin premiered Roussel?s Deux po?mes de Ronsard for flute and soprano, and she is one of its dedicatees. Maria Olenina-d'Alheim (1869-1970), a Russian soprano who came to Paris in the early 1900s, became known as an interpreter of the songs of Mussorgsky and, indeed, she introduced Mussorgsky's music to the Parisian public and to French musicians through her recitals. 647 Olenina-d'Alheim developed friendships with Andr? Caplet, Alfred Cortot, Darius Milhaud, and Maurice Ravel, and she began the concert series known as La 648 Ibid., 144-194. 649 Lectures were accompanied by readings from Victor Hugo, Lamartine, Alfred de Vigny, and Paul Verlaine. One was devoted to the French lyric in all its diversity, including modern French poetry and the lyric verse of the trouv?res and the troubadours. Tumanov, The Life and Artistry of Maria Olenina-d?Alheim, 172-174. 650 Olenina-d?Alheim found herself financially destitute in Paris, and although she continued performing, her friends looked upon the concert series as a kind of charity. Tumanov, The Life and Artistry of Maria Olenina-d?Alheim, 206. 311 maison du lied, which promoted Russian and French song before and after World War I. 648 La maison du lied was not limited to music, but also presented lectures on poetry, music, art, and psychology. 649 These lectures touched on musical problems, such as the link between music and text or the relation between music and gesture. La maison du lied also published programs for its concerts, which provided detailed notes on the musical, poetic, historical, and aesthetic background to the performance program. Soon, La maison began publishing its own Bulletin, which contained articles by Hector Berlioz, Andr? Chevrillon, and Pyotr d'Alheim (Olenina-d'Alheim's husband), among others. After the Russian revolution in 1917 and the death of her husband, Olenina-d'Alheim remained in Paris until 1959, continuing her concert series and cultivating the friendship of fellow soprano Jane Bathori. She stopped singing about 1926, and she was never admitted as a professor to the Conservatoire, despite efforts by her friends to obtain a position there for her. 650 Several sopranos of this era deserve special attention for their unique contributions to the development of French operatic roles and for their involvement in the new French music for voice and piano and for voice and instruments. These women are Pauline Viardot, Caroline Miolan-Carvalho, Adelina Patti, and Jane Bathori. 651 Rossini wrote the role of Almaviva in Il Barbiere de Siviglia for Garcia, and he premiered the opera in the United States in November, 1825 in New York at the Park Theater. Fitzlyon, The Price of Genius, 32. 652 Liszt was her piano teacher, and she fell in love with him at the tender age of fifteen. Liszt admired her as a pianist and, later, as a singer and a personality, but not, apparently, as a woman. They did, however, remain friends all of their lives. Fitzlyon, The Price of Genius, 34. 653 Apparently, some of Chopin?s happiest moments were spent making music with Viardot at Nohant, the summer home of George Sand. Fitzlyon, The Price of Genius, 37. 312 PAULINE VIARDOT (1821-1910) Pauline Viardot (n?e Garcia) was born on August 29, 1821. Her father was Manuel Garcia, an extremely well-known tenor and teacher in Paris. The family had come to Paris in 1807, and Garcia found success, though this may have been as much a matter of personality as of voice. 651 Pauline grew up in a milieu of professional musicians and artists, and her sister, Maria Malibran, would also achieve great fame as a soprano. Both were trained by their father and, at his death in 1832, Maria supported Pauline and their mother. Pauline was also a remarkable pianist and remained an outstanding pianist all of her life. Adolphe Adam, Liszt, 652 Mocheles, Saint-Sa?ns, and Clara Schumann were just some of the distinguished musicians who left enthusiastic accounts of her playing. 653 On September 23, 1836, Pauline?s sister, Maria Malibran, died in Manchester after a fall from a horse. She was only 28 years old and was mourned by poets and artists, as well as musicians. In the romantic spirit of the day, she was considered more than an opera singer; she was a symbol. As a result, she was mourned not only as an artist and a woman, but as something more important, but also indefinable ? as an embodiment of the spirit of the age. She had been both an incarnation of, and an inspiration to, the 654 Pleasants, The Great Singers, 148-152. 655 Christiansen, The Prima Donna, 70-71. 656 It was at the salon of Madam Jaubert that she met the poet Alfred de Musset, who wrote some years later: ?It was La Malibran?s voice, we said, but with a wider range, more velvety, fresher ?? Fitzlyon, The Price of Genius, 44. 313 romantic movement. 654 Pauline was expected to take up her sister's the mantle and become an opera singer. However, as she grew older, it became increasingly clear that she would not be a beautiful woman, quite the opposite, in fact. Her voice was not beautiful, however, not unlike Maria Callas in the next generation, she overcame her vocal deficits with superior theatrical skill on stage. Her singing was described by Chorley: The peculiar quality of Madame Viardot?s voice?its unevenness, its occasional harshness and feebleness, consistent with tones of the gentlest sweetness?was turned by her to account with rare felicity, as giving the variety of light and shade to every word of soliloquy, to every appeal of dialogue. A more perfect and honeyed voice might have recalled the woman too often to fit with the idea of the youth. Her musical handling of so peculiar an instrument will take place in the highest annals of art. 655 She studied in Brussels and made her debut there in 1837, subsequently embarking on a tour of Germany where she met Clara Wieck (later Clara Schumann), with whom she struck up a close friendship. Meanwhile, back in Paris, Madame Jaubert launched Viardot?s musical career at a salon concert in her home in 1838. 656 Pauline?s first operatic performance took place on May 9, 1839, in London at Her Majesty's Theater where she played Desdemona in Rossini's Otello. There, she met Louis 657 On April 18, 1840 Pauline married Louis Viardot after a protracted courtship and with the urgings of both George Sand and Pauline?s mother. Ibid. 658 Despite Viardot's growing fame, Giulia Grisi (1811-1869) was the reigning soprano at the Th??tre-Italien after 1840, while Rosine Stoltz (1815-1903) reigned at the Op?ra. Pleasants, The Great Singers, 179-180. 659 Sand?s novel Consuela is based on Viardot?s life. 660 Scheffer fell in love with her, but continued to conceal the true nature of his feelings for her for eighteen years. 661 Fitzlyon, The Price of Genius, 44. 314 Viardot, 657 who was the director of the Th??tre-Italien in Paris and a friend and counselor to Maria Malibran. He arranged for Pauline?s Paris debut there, and she sang Desdemona at the Th??tre-Italien on October 8, 1839. 658 This association with the Th??tre-Italien would secure operatic roles for Pauline for most of her life. Soon afterwards, she met George Sand, probably through Viardot, and they became fast and lifelong friends. 659 Viardot, meanwhile, began to cultivate an active salon at her home in order to cultivate the friendship of musicians, artists, and writers and to expand her influence among them. There she met the painters Eugene Delacroix and Ary Scheffer. 660 She also met Fr?d?ric Chopin through Sand, and they often made music together. Pauline sang with Chopin at the piano, or they played duets or read through scores together. Both of them seemed to have achieved much happiness, satisfaction, and spiritual communion from these sessions. Pauline, encouraged by Chopin, wrote m?lodies and, in 1843, she published an album of her compositions, illustrated with lithographs by Ary Scheffer and Soltau. 661 As noted above, Viardot?s salon would be the entry point to Parisian musical society for young French composers such as Adam, David, Gounod, and Mass?. These 662 In Germany, she met the young Brahms, who seems to have fallen in love with her. Christiansen, Prima Donna, 72. 663 Louis Viardot eventually negotiated a contract for Pauline with the Imperial Theaters in St. Petersburg, and they left for Russia in 1843. Viardot made her St. Petersburg debut in Rossini's Il barbiere de Siviglia on November 3, 1843. It was an astounding success, and she did many more performances. Her greatest Russian triumph would be, however, in performances of Lucia di Lammermoor. Glinka became a fervent admirer and she studied Russian with Ivan Turgenev. It was the beginning of a long and complicated relationship. The Russian author fell in love with her and would continue to love her until his death, following her around Europe in order to be near her. Meanwhile, her performances in Russia continued, and she premiered the role of Norma on November 30, 1844, once again to great acclaim. In 1846, she went to Berlin and, with the help of Meyerbeer, was received enthusiastically into German musical society. She performed in Beethoven's Fidelio, Gluck's Iphig?nie, Hal?vy's La juive, and Meyerbeer's Robert le diable. In 1847, Meyerbeer negotiated a contract with the Paris Op?ra for Pauline to appear in the premiere of his Le proph?te, after writing the role of Fid?s expressly for her. The performances were to take place from September, 1848, until May, 1849, but in February, the revolution broke out, and Pauline spent much of the time in London, where many French musicians had gone into exile, including Chopin, Berlioz, Grisi, Persiani, and the singer Jenny Lind. This did not dampen Viardot's performing career; she appeared in La sonnambula in London on May 9, 1848. She made her biggest mark in London in a performance of Meyerbeer's Les Huguenots and then in the premiere of Le proph?te, which took place on April 16, 1849. Fitzlyon, The Price of Genius, 158-220. 315 composers later went on to write music for flute and soprano, perhaps as a result of their associations with Viardot. In Paris, Viardot performed in a number of Italian operas, including Rossini's La Cenerentola, Tancredi, La gazza ladra, and Semiramide, and Fioravanti's Le cantatrici villane. She was soundly criticized in the press for her performances and endured a season of hostile articles in journals such as Revue des Deux Mondes and Revue Ind?pendente. As a result, she left Paris and began touring Europe as a soloist. In Prague she met Meyerbeer, who had known and admired her sister, and who did his best to make her stay in Prague both agreeable and profitable. 662 After trips to Russia and Germany, Pauline eventually returned to Paris. 663 In 1849 she met Charles Gounod and introduced him to librettist Emile Augier, with the idea that they would collaborate on an opera. Gounod responded with Sappho, a star 664 As a result of these events, Turgenev left France for Russia. Later, he would ask Viardot to take in his illegitimate daughter, which she agreed to do. He also wrote the play A Month in the Country, a semi- autobiographical account of their relationship. Christiansen, Prima Donna, 72. 665 Gabrielle Krauss (1842-1923) was an Austrian soprano who was popular at the Th??tre-Italien from 1867 to 1870. The Franco-Prussian War forced her to flee Paris, but she returned to the Op?ra in 1875, and remained with the company until 1888. She was admired for her roles in Meyerbeer?s operas, and created the role of Catharine of Aragon in Saint-Sa?ns?s Henry VIII (1883). Pleasants, The Great Singers, 242, 269, 272. 666 De Bovet, Charles Gounod, 17-18. 316 vehicle for her, and she went on to introduce him to her circle of friends, including George Sand and Turgenev. Sappho premiered on April 16, 1851 to rumors that Gounod and Viardot had become lovers during this time, rumors she strenuously denied. 664 Gounod's favorite singers were Pauline Viardot, Caroline Miolan-Carvalho, and Gabrielle Krauss (1842-1906). 665 According to De Bovet, Gounod heard Pauline Viardot sing his Sappho on the operatic stage while working as a superintendent on the rehearsals at the Op?ra in 1851. Of Gounod's reaction, De Bovet recalled: From the lips of the illustrious sister of Malibran the first notes of the arioso of the third act, Sois b?ni par une mourante, his work seemed to him transfigured. What he had conceived with his whole soul, and written down with tears, had been assimilated by an ear worthy of his own, and the pathos of that intense passage was rendered still more touching by the emotion that moistened the eyes of the prima donna. 666 A more sober assessment of Viardot's talents came from a literary critic of the day: Less richly endowed with physical means than her illustrious sister, Madame Malibran, Pauline's powerful voice was wanting in suppleness, softness, and melting sweetness, but she covered those defects, and more than atoned for them, by her consummate skill in vocalization, a rare understanding of her art, the purity of her diction, the elevation of her style, and the force of her dramatic feeling. Her "creations" are not forgotten; she has never been equaled in the part of Fid?s in Le Proph?te. The pathetic style of Gluck's muse specially suited her talent, and she 667 Ibid., 81-82. 317 has brilliantly revived the heroic characters of Alkestis and Orpheus. 667 She continued to the end of her life to cultivate a glittering salon that included the artists of the new generation: the composers Hector Berlioz, C?sar Franck, Henri Reber, Gioacchino Rossini, Camille Saint-Sa?ns; the painters Eugene Delacroix, Alfred Cortot, Scheffer, and Gustave Dor?; the writers Emile Augier, Henri Martin, Ponsard, Renan; the philosopher Jules Simon; the politician and historian Pierre Lanfrey; and the Italian patriot Daniele Manin. Through Scheffer, who was painting his portrait, she also met Charles Dickens in 1855. In 1859, she collaborated with Berlioz to create the role of Cassandra in Les Troyens, even assisting with the piano transcription of the score. During this period, Berlioz seems to have fallen in love with her and, with his direction, she was engaged in a revival of Gluck's Orph?e, another success for her. In 1860, she met Wagner while he was in Paris for concerts at the Th??tre-Italien. She disliked his music and even before his visit, she had taken up with anti-Wagnerians, such as Julius Rietz and Claude Debussy. Apparently Louis Viardot could not reconcile himself to the imperial regime and in 1863, the Viardots left France and settled in Baden-Baden. Around 1864, she met Johannes Brahms while he was staying in Baden-Baden. By 1870, however, the Franco-Prussian War forced the Viardot's to flee to London, where they remained until 1871, when they returned to Paris. To the end of her life, she was a collaborator with composers on new operatic roles and, in 1872, when Jules Massenet was introduced into 668 Art?t was engaged by Meyerbeer to sing in Le Proph?te at the Op?ra in 1858. She also had the distinction of being briefly engaged to Tchaikovsky. Kuhn, Baker?s Dictionary of Opera, 27. 318 the Viardot circle, she championed his work and starred in his Marie Magdeleine. It was the last new role she was to create and one of her final performances. Toward the end of her life, she taught at the Conservatoire, where one of her more famous students was D?sir? Art?t. 668 She died in 1910 at the age of 98. Viardot was not only an admired singer, but also an astute businesswoman and a grand dame in the society of her time. She understood the power of the salons in Paris and cultivated them partly for her own advancement. Her personal magnetism, like that of her Viennese counterpart, Alma Mahler, seems to have been instrumental in her friendships with male composers, writers, and artists. Many exceptional operatic and literary works were created for her and her life long travels enabled her to influence several generations of composers in a number of different countries. CAROLINE MIOLAN-CARVALHO (1827-1895) Caroline Miolan-Carvalho (1827-1895) was the wife of L?on Carvalho, who was the artistic director of the Th??tre-Lyrique (1856-1867) and later the Op?ra-Comique (1867-1887). She studied at the Conservatoire and began her performing career by touring France with French tenor, Gilbert-Louis Duprez (1865-1949). She made her stage debut at the Op?ra in 1849 in a benefit performance for Duprez, singing the first act of Lucia di Lammermoor. She was immediately engaged by the Op?ra-Comique and, with the help of her husband, a steady operatic career ensued. She created roles in four of Charles Gounod's operas: Marguerite in Faust (1859); Baucis in Phil?mon et Baucis 669 Miolan-Carvalho?s most well-known student was another soprano who performed works for flute and soprano, Emma Calv?. Christiansen, Prima Donna, 247. 670 Kuhn, Baker?s Dictionary of Opera, 127. 319 (1860); Mireille (1864); and Juliette (1867). She was very successful, too, in the roles of Zerlina, Cherubino, and Pamina. 669 She promoted the career of the young Camille Saint-Sa?ns, acting as a mentor in order to cultivate roles for herself. Around 1868, Saint-Sa?ns persuaded L?on and Caroline Carvalho to listen to the music for Le timbre d'argent. Eventually he was asked to present his opera to them in the informal setting of the Carvalho's home. When he found himself flanked at the piano by husband and wife, he suspected that their gracious manner betokened a refusal but gradually their musical taste overcame their initial reluctance. Carvalho declared the opera a masterpiece and insisted that it go into rehearsal immediately. There was, however, an obstacle, for the principal female role was that of a dancer and the soprano had a smaller share of the music. For Madame Miolan- Carvalho, this would not do. The problem was temporarily solved by Barbier, who provided the words for "Le bonheur est chose L?g?re." This song was added to the opera and later transcribed by the composer for soprano, flute, and piano. Old scripts were ransacked in an effort to enhance Miolan-Carvalho's share of the action, but never to her satisfaction. One beneficiary of all this was Faur?. In 1868, Saint-Sa?ns arranged for him to accompany Miolan-Carvalho on her tour of Brittany, for which she consented to sing his "Papillon et la fleur." 670 While Miolan-Carvalho's voice was not universally liked, she was a striking 671 Pleasants, The Great Singers, 125. 672 Le Figaro considered her debut so newsworthy and its triumph so emphatic, that the entire front page of the November 20 issue was devoted to an article concerning her early years, career, voice, and her portrayal of Amina. Ibid. 673 Cone, Adelina Patti, 55. 674 Ibid. 320 example of the extent to which intelligent perseverance can conquer natural defects. She was endowed with a flexible voice; hard work and artistic feeling gave her the perfect pitch and management of it, as well as an admirable style. She succeeded in artificially creating the deficient medium by linking her chest and falsetto registers; once she obtained marvelous oppositions between the two, she became the perfect prima donna, extending her lyric career beyond the time generally fixed by nature. 671 ADELINA PATTI (1843-1919) Adelina Patti (1843-1919) made her debut in Paris on November 16, 1862, at the Th??tre-Italien. It was such a triumph that she was presented to Emperor Napol?on III and Empress Eug?nie in the Imperial box following the performance. 672 She was acclaimed almost immediately by composers of the day as a singer of extraordinary talent. Daniel-Fran?ois Auber noted: ?I was twenty years old throughout the entire performance, which is exactly sixty less than the truth.? 673 Hector Berlioz wrote: ?Goddess of Youth, Hebe, in person.? Paul Bernard praised her in Le M?nestrel as a great singer: ?a consummate actress, ?an artist of the first rank.? 674 She soon sang the roles of 675 She made a poor impression on Rossini by singing the aria ?Una voce poco fa,? from his opera Il barbiere di Siviglia, with ornaments that the composer found vulgar and overly expressive. She later apologized to him and he eventually became one of her great admirers, accompanying her in many subsequent performances of his music. Cone, Adelina Patti, 60. 676 Ibid., 69-78. 321 Amina, Lucia, Norina, Rosina, and Zerlina, receiving 1,500 francs a night for thirty-seven performances, an enormous sum in those days. The next year the Th??tre-Italien doubled her fee. Patti participated in the salons of Paris, making the acquaintance of Rossini at one of his celebrated soir?es held at 2, rue de la Chauss?e d'Antin. 675 Many well-known musicians, artists, politicians, socialites, and commercial people attended these gatherings. Her renown was enhanced by the Royal patronage of Emperor Napol?on III and Empress Eug?nie, who showered her with jewels and attended her performances, including a benefit performance in February, 1863. She left Paris that year and returned a year later. The highlight of the 1864 season was Patti's portrayal of the heroine in Linda di Chamounix, a role that would create a sensation for her. She also studied the role of Marguerite, in Faust, with the composer, Gounod. 676 For the next several years, Patti's professional activities centered in Paris and London, where she sang the premiere of Giuseppe Poniatowski's Don Desiderio and Verdi's Giovanna d'Arco. She remained the star at the Th??tre-Italien, and she continued to spend her time socializing at various salons, including those of Vicomte Paul Daru, the celebrated illustrator Gustave Dor?, the Marquis de Caux, Christine Nilsson, Baron de Saint Amant, the French actor Jean Mounet-Sully, and Russian Baron Thal. At these 677 Apparently, Dor? was very much in love with Patti, but she spurred his advances. He eventually found solace in the arms of the French actress Sarah Bernhardt. Cone, Adelina Patti, 82. 678 Ibid., 97. 679 Blakeman, Taffanel: Genius of the Flute, 23. 322 affairs, she charmed guests with the latest fashions, such as magnificent gowns or her hair encrusted with jewels. Patti especially enjoyed the soir?es at the Dor? household, where she sometimes joined the host in song, listened to his violin playing, or participated in tableaux vivants, the rage at the time. 677 Aubert, Rossini, and Verdi were her greatest admirers among composers; Verdi said that she was Gilda [italics mine]. 678 Apparently, she was greatly admired by flutist Paul Taffanel, who heard her at the Th??tre-Italien and who modeled his ideas about tone production from Patti, saying: ?in times past I often went to the Th??tre-Italien, and I must say that for me she [Patti] was an invaluable model of sound production and limpid tone.? 679 He later went on to incorporate ideas about singing into his techniques for tone on the new Boehm instrument. In the 1870s she moved into roles such as Desdemona in Rossini's Otello, Valentine in Meyerbeer's Les Huguenots, Caterina in Auber's Les diamants de la couronne, and Elvira in Verdi's Ernani. She performed the titled heroines in Verdi's Luisa Miller (1874) and Aida (1876), and in Rossini's Semiramide (1878). By 1880 she had also performed at the Th??tre de la ga?t? and at Th??tre des nations. Rossini and his wife, Olympia, gave a dinner party in her honor on February 14, 1893, the night before 680 Ibid., 55-56. 681 As noted above, Di?mer collaborated extensively with flutist Paul Taffanel through his Soci?t? Moderne des Instruments ? Vent. Blakeman, Taffanel: Genius of the Flute, 61-62. 682 Apparently, Bathori decided to change her name at the urging of her voice teacher, Mme. Brunet-Lafleur, because there was another singer in Paris named Jeanne Berthier. Her teacher suggested that a different name would protect her professional identity, so Bathori chose her new name by chance, from an encyclopedia. Cuneo-Laurent, ?The Performer as Catalyst,? 7. 323 her season farewell. 680 During the meal, Patti sat between Rossini and Aubert, and afterward Rossini's prot?g?e, Louis Di?mer, entertained at the piano. 681 Patti's voice was not powerful, but possessed a wide range with perfect evenness and flexibility. Her career spanned a time of enormous change in France, both musical and social, beginning during the reign of Louis Napol?on and ending just prior to World War I. During these years, she became a catalyst in the development of lyric opera by French composers such as Gounod, Massenet, and Bizet. She was also the inspiration for many m?lodies written by these same composers. She was extremely famous for her portrayals of Lucia and Dinorah, both coloratura roles with cadenzas for the soprano and flute. JANE BATHORI (1877-1970) Perhaps the singer who was the most instrumental in the development of contemporary French m?lodie is Jane Bathori. Bathori was born Jeanne-Marie Berthier, 682 the only child of parents of modest means. The family acquired a piano when she was seven and, at that age, she began studying with Hortense Parent. As she got older, it became clear that her hands were too small to become a professional pianist, so she 683 Ibid. 684 Cuneo-Laurent, ?The Performer as Catalyst,? 11. 685 The list of composers whose works she premiered, including composers mentioned in this dissertation, is staggering, and spans several decades: Louis Aubert, Georges Auric, Fred Barlow, Jacques Benoist- M?chin, Pierre de Br?ville, Andr? Caplet, Jean Cartan, Henri Cliquet-Pleyel, Claude Debussy, Maurice 324 began voice lessons with Mme. Brunet-Lafleur, wife of the celebrated conductor Charles Lamoureux. By 1897, she had made her Paris debut, attracting the attention of Emile Engel, an established and well-known tenor, who had built a reputation around his performances of Chabrier and other contemporary composers. His connections helped Bathori to develop her operatic career. 683 Soon, Bathori and Engel together gave concerts devoted to contemporary music. They called these concerts Une heure de musique and would present them in Paris and Brussels for over a decade. Bathori became known as a respected opera singer of light mezzo-soprano roles, as well as a sensitive accompanist, gifted sight-reader, and an insightful interpreter of contemporary music. By 1912, she was receiving reviews that praised her artistry: Regarding Mme. Jane Bathori, those who have heard her only in concert or in intimate settings, where her voice and her art perform each day so many services to music, can only imagine how interesting and arresting she is, how communicative her emotion is, and how profoundly the simplicity of her acting, joined with the perfect style and variety of her singing, moves the spectator. 684 Perhaps as a result of World War I, and partly as a result of own propensities, Bathori eventually gave up her operatic career to concentrate on the promotion and performance of new music. She began a long series of involvements with composers of the day, which was intended to develop new vocal works that she, in turned, premiered. 685 Delage, Roger D?somi?re, Claude Duboscq, Louis Durey, Marius-Fran?ois Gaillard, Gabriel Grovlez, Reynaldo Hahn, Arthur Honegger, Jacques Ibert, Maxime Jacob, Maurice Jaubert, Charles Koechlin, Paul Lacombe, Paul Le Flem, Guy de Lioncourt, Georges Migot, Darius Milhaud, Robert Montfort, Pedro Morales, P. Petridis, Jacques Pillois, Francis Poulenc, Maurice Ravel, Jacques Rivier, Alexis Roland- Manuel, Albert Roussel, Gustave Samazeuilh, Eug?ne Samuel-Holeman, Erik Satie, Henri Sauguet, Florent Schmitt, Germaine Tailleferre, and Jean Wiener. Ibid. 686 Bathori also arranged a meeting with Debussy and his publisher (Durand) on December 10, 1916, to enable the composer to hear his Sonate pour fl?te, viola, et harp. (She also wished to receive Debussy?s ?interpretive? advice on Ravel?s Trois po?mes de St?phane Mallarm?.) The reading of the works was given by flutist Manouvrier, violist Darius Milhaud, and harpist Jeanne Dalli?s, which they had premiered at Bathori?s home shortly before, on December 3, 1916. It was Milhaud?s one and only meeting with Debussy, who was suffering from cancer at the time, and died less than two year later, in 1918. Cuneo-Laurent, ?The Performer as Catalyst,? 38. 687 Larner, Maurice Ravel, 91-92. 325 Her first collaborations were with Claude Debussy, whose Pell?as et M?lisande she admired and had performed in concert with Emile Engel. Her first performance of his music was at the ?cole Normale with the composer at the piano. She chose Chansons de Bilitis and later recorded the work in 1929. Bathori premiered two other works by Debussy, Trois chansons de Charles d'Orl?ans (1908), and Trois chansons de France (d'Orl?ans, L'Hermite, 1904). 686 Over the course of her life, she continued to give concerts featuring Debussy's music and, in 1953, wrote an interpretive booklet for his songs entitled Sur l'interpr?tation des m?lodies de Claude Debussy, published by Editions ouvrieres, Paris, in 1953. At the same time, Bathori cultivated a working relationship with Maurice Ravel as they developed the chamber piece Sh?h?razade (1904), for voice and orchestra. It was the first of seven works by Ravel for which she was the chosen interpreter for the premier. The following year, she gave the first performance of No?l des jouets with Ravel at the piano, and later, with orchestra and Ravel on the podium. 687 688 Bathori recalled the occasions as follows: It was? a concert of the Soci?t? nationale which at this time brought together all the musicians of Paris. The hall was full, Ravel accompanied, I sang with joy this music which I dearly loved.?The audience, quite reserved at the outset, became exasperated by the last songs, ?Le martin-p?cheur? and ?La pintade?. If they didn?t throw their footstools at me it was because they had none! I knew that the row came from a group of musicians from the Schola, pupils of Vincent d?Indy, totally lacking in comprehension. You know, those people with blinders.? Cuneo-Laurent, ?The Performer as Catalyst,? 19. 689 Larner, Maurice Ravel, 136-139. 326 In 1907, she gave the first performance of Ravel's Histoires naturelles, which contained whimsical animal sketches by Jules Renard. In this piece, Ravel asked the vocalist to drop the traditional final "e" sound to certain French words, choosing instead to imitate true French speech patterns. This novel technique caused a scandal at the concert and set the warring pro-Wagner and anti-Wagner factions against one another. 688 However, Ravel's next composition, Trois po?mes de St?phane Mallarm? (for soprano, flute, and chamber ensemble) was enthusiastically received at the 1914 premiere, which took place in a concert of the Soci?t? musicale ind?pendente, with D?sir?-Emile Inghelbrecht (1880-1965) conducting and Bathori performing the voice part. 689 Bathori's next collaboration with Ravel was in 1926, when she premiered the revolutionary Chansons mad?casses for soprano, flute, cello, and piano. These songs, settings of translations of Madagascan texts by the eighteenth-century poet Evariste Parny (1753-1819), were the result of a commission by the American patroness Elizabeth Sprague Coolidge. Even though Ravel failed to meet the performance deadline, a gala concert was given at the H?tel majestic in the fall of 1925, where the single completed song, "Aoua!," was performed by Bathori (voice), Alfredo Casella (piano), Hans Kindler 690 Ibid., 198-199. 691 More specific information regarding the premieres includes: Trois melodies, op. 15 (Leconte de Lisle), premiered by Bathori on February 23, 1908, at Concerts Symphoniques d?Angers; Deux po?mes d?Andr? Ch?nier, op. 23, premiered by Bathori on March 23, 1916, at Concert au benefice du foyer Franco-Belge, Salle des Agricultures; Quatre melodies, op. 35, premiered by Bathori with Koechlin at the piano, May 7, 1908, at Concert Engel; Huit melodies sur des po?mes de Sh?h?razade de Tristan Klingsor, op. 84, premiered by Bathori and Marius-Fran?ois at Galliard at Salle ?rard; and Album de Lilian, (first volume) op. 139, premiered by Bathori with Darius Milhaud at the piano on June 13, 1934 at the salon of Mme B?riza. Nos. 1-9 of the Album de Lilian were not premiered with flute until 1986 by Fenwick Smith (flute), Judith Kellock (soprano), and Martin Amlin (piano) on January 17, 1986, at Boston University School of Music. Orledge, Charles Koechlin (1867-1950): His Life and Works, Appendix B. 327 (cello), and Louis Fleury (flute). 690 Bathori also became the preferred interpreter of Emmanuel Chabrier (1841-1894), Gabriel Faur? (1845-1924), Charles Koechlin (1867-1951), Albert Roussel (1869-1937), and Reynaldo Hahn (1874-1947). By 1908, she and Emile Engel had become known for their duo concerts of songs by Chabrier, including Ode ? la musique (1890) and L'Isle heureuse (1890). That same year, she performed Faur?'s songs at the Soci?t? nationale de musique, including La bonne chanson (Verlaine, 1892), with Faur? at the piano. Although Koechlin was a decade older than Bathori, they developed a strong friendship, and Bathori gave many first performances of his songs, including Quatre po?mes (Harcourt, 1895), Trois po?mes (de Lisle, 1897-1900), Quatre m?lodies (Verlaine, Bourget, 1900), Six m?lodies (Samain, 1906), Deux m?lodies (Ch?nier, 1900), Cinq chansons de Bilitis (Lou?s, 1916), which was dedicated to her, and Sh?h?razade (Klingsor, 1926). 691 Bathori had the distinction of premiering the first works that Roussel presented to the public after abandoning his career as a marine officer: Quatre po?mes d'Henri de R?gnier (1903) at the Soci?t? nationale de musique on April 21, 1906. And her lifelong 692 The list of songs dedicated to Bathori is long, and includes more than sixty works by composers such as Louis Aubert, Georges Auric, Alfred Bruneau, Maurice Delage, Louis Durey, Arthur Honegger, Jacques Ibert, Charles Koechlin, Paul Lacombe, Georges Migot, Darius Milhaud, Jacques Pillois, Francis Poulenc, Maurice Ravel, Alexis Roland-Manuel, Albert Roussel, Erik Satie, and Emile Vuillermoz. Cuneo-Laurent, ?The Performer as Catalyst,? 64. 693 Cuneo-Laurent, ?The Performer as Catalyst,? 64. 328 friendship with Reynaldo Hahn yielded a number of first performances of his songs and dedications, 692 including Chansons gries (1887), Offrande (1892), D'une prison (1892), Etudes latines (de lisle, 1900), La pastorale de no?l (Greban, 1908), and L'Isle du r?ve (1913). By 1914 she had established herself as an accomplished singer of contemporary French music. Not only was she known for her ambitious collaborations with composers in which they developed new music, but for her interpretations of French works. Musician L?on Vallas wrote in a newspaper review in 1914: Jane Bathori occupies a special place in the large group of contemporary singers. First, she possesses a very secure vocal technique, which is not common. Next, no less rare, she is an accomplished musician, a brilliant and perfect singer, an artist full of intelligence and sensitivity. Finally, she is devoted with complete disinterestedness to modern music, especially French music, and for more than ten years there has not been a young composer who is not indebted to her for the first performance of one of his works. It is even possible to believe that, without Mme. Bathori, certain works might never have been written: some pieces were certainly conceived for her, such as the Histoire naturelles of M. Maurice Ravel, or the No?l des jouets.?Hardly another singer has dared to take up the songs of which she was the first interpreter. 693 One of Bathori's most significant contributions to the artistic life of Paris was her work as director of the Th??tre du Vieux-Colombier from 1917 to 1919. She was offered the opportunity to assume the directorship of the theater by its regular director, Jacques Copeau (1879-1949), while his theater troupe spent two years in New York. The Th??tre 694 Schmidt, Entrancing Muse, 44-45. 695 Cuneo-Laurent, ?The Performer as Catalyst,? 98. 329 du Vieux-Colombier had been the home of the ?cole-Th??tre d'application Engel-Bathori in 1911 and, in 1912, Bathori and Engel had organized a concert series there entitled La musique ? travers les po?tes et les ages. Bathori entered into extensive renovations of the theater to make it suitable for the performance of musical theater and the chamber music that she encouraged from contemporary French composers. 694 The outbreak of World War I brought about profound changes to the musical life of Paris. Many musicians, including Auric, Caplet, Honegger, Poulenc, and Ravel were mobilized; some were maimed or killed in action. Most major concerts were suspended, yet Bathori struggled to continue to promote performances at the Th??tre du Vieux-Colombier. She described the desperate state of affairs in a letter to Jacques Copeau, dated March 24, 1918: My friend, it is in a very sad mood that I write to you today, I am making the decision to close the Vieux-Colombier today and Tuesday?nothing else to do at the moment?since the air raids there has already been a perceptible reduction in the take, and for two days Paris had been under bombardment (which in itself is nothing very frightening, I assure you)?but people are leaving, or they don't go out, in any case they aren't coming to hear music. And I don't have money to live. Everything is difficult, communications are partly cut off, no more subway, no more mail!?Believe it, we are crazy!! In brief, I will let our public know that the sessions are interrupted, and will reopen at a better time. I don't know what they're saying in America, but a bizarre life awaits us, and what a waste of time for the good cause, that is to say, my friend, for ours, the only thing that ought to matter. 695 By all accounts, the theater was extremely successful, despite the financial 696 In a letter to his friend Pierre Margaritis, Martin du Gard wrote: ??great, incontestable success. Hall full to bursting always. They say it is one of the rare places in Paris to hear good music at the moment. It is presented simply, intimately. Usually chamber music.? Cuneo-Laurent, ?The Performer as Catalyst,? 91. 697 Ibid., 95. 698 Myers, Emmanuel Chabrier and His Circle, 76-77. 699 Milhaud, Notes Without Music, 154-157. 330 difficulties suffered during the war years. 696 A great variety of music was presented there, including music of Les six, Caplet, and Satie, along with traditional repertoire. Notably, the performances included lectures by writers of the day with musical illustrations, one of which Bathori described to Copeau in a letter of December 2, 1917, while he was still in New York: The Monday talk by Apollinaire, which, after some blunders, he gave to Bertin to read. [Apollinaire had received a serious head injury during the war and was not well] That went, but must not be repeated, and I confess that for next Tuesday I tremble a bit, for it is [L?on-Paul] Fargue who must speak of the necessity of music. He tried to get me to change the date; I sent him express letter after express letter and I'm preparing myself to harass him tomorrow. 697 In this manner, the Th??tre brought together writers, musicians, and artists in collaboration to produce ambitious theatrical productions. Two works by Chabrier were presented, for example: parts of Le roi malgr? lui (1887) and Une education manqu?e (1879). 698 These revivals stimulated the interests of other artists in Paris to the extent that Diaghilev wished to fully mount Une education manqu?e as a full operatic production. At Satie's suggestion, Diaghilev asked Milhaud to write the recitatives and fill out the work, which was then presented during the 1923-24 season with stage design and costumes by artist Juan Gris. 699 700 The 1918 season saw the premieres of Arthur Honegger?s Six po?mes d?Apollinaire and Sonata pour violin et piano, Louis Durey?s Gaspard et Zo?, Germaine Tailleferre?s Sonatine pour cordes, Francis Poulenc?s Rapsodie n?gre and Po?mes S?n?galais, and Alexis Roland-Manuel?s Sept po?mes de Perse, among others. Cuneo-Laurent, ?The Performer as Catalyst,? 105. 701 An example of such a collaborative session is recounted by Halbreich: It was at this time that the pianist Ricardo Vi?es introduced his favorite eighteen-year-old pupil to the Sunday musical gatherings organized by the singer Jane Bathori in her house. One day Andr? Caplet, a regular visitor there, brought along the Three Unaccompanied Part Songs for Mixed Chorus by Ravel, published only the previous year. A sight-reading session promptly began, as Poulenc recalls: Naturally, Bathori and some of her pupils took the soprano and mezzo lines, while the bass and 331 Bathori arranged for the revival of many works by contemporary French composers that had received foreign premieres, but were still unknown in Paris, including: Charles Koechlin's Trois po?mes op. 18 (Rudyard Kipling, 1899-1901) and Cinq chansons de Bilitis op. 39 (Lou?s, 1898-1908); Louis Aubert's Le for?t bleu (1904); Pierre de Br?ville's Eros vainqueur (1905); Reynaldo Hahn's Pastorale de no?l (1904), Noctem quietam (1917), Etudes latines (1917), and Le ruban d?nou? (1915); Andr? Caplet's Inscriptions champ?tres (1914); and Arthur Honegger's Le dit des jeux du monde (1918). Indeed, all the members of Les six received the first performances of their early works at the Th??tre de Vieux-Colombier. 700 Soon, composers were developing pieces specifically for Bathori that were designed to be performed by her and a small band of musicians that were attached to the Th??tre de Vieux-Colombier, working deliberately to fit these pieces into the theater's small performance space. Many writers, artists, and musicians worked without pay to mount these productions. The composers themselves often performed their own works, sometimes with chamber orchestras, sometimes with two piano arrangements of their scores. 701 Jane Bathori, Francis Poulenc, and Germaine Tailleferre were all accomplished baritone parts went to my teacher Charles Koechlin, with his beard like that of some river god, to Honegger, and to myself, among others. Halbreich, Arthur Honegger, 40-41. 702 Cuneo-Laurent, ?The Performer as Catalyst,? 116. 703 Ibid. 332 pianists, while Darius Milhaud played viola and Arthur Honegger violin. Foremost among their performers was pianist Ricardo Vi?es, the Catalan musician who had promoted Maurice Ravel's music and who taught piano to Francis Poulenc as well as mentoring him in composition. Other professional musicians of the day who lent their support to the performances at the Th??tre de Vieux-Colombier were Julietter Meerovitch, and Marcelle Meyer, and Andr?e Vaurabourg (who later became Honegger's wife). 702 Other singers, in addition to Bathori and Engel, who performed works at the theater included Rose Armandie, Pierre Bertin, Rose F?art, J. Feiner, and M. Herent. 703 Instrumentalists included flutists Ren? Le Roy and Manouvrier, as well as violinists Yvonne Astruc, Yvonne Giraud, and H?l?ne Jourdan-Morhange, and cellist F?lix Delgrange. The singer Claire Croiza (1882-1946), a regular at the Th??tre-Italien, occasionally performed, lending credibility to the smaller venue. Many artists participated in the productions as well. Fernand Ochs? painted sets and designed costumes as well as composing. Guy-Pierre Fauconnet designed costumes for Chabrier's Une education manqu?e, while Jeanne Ronsay created choreography, and Louise 704 Cuneo-Laurent, ?The Performer as Catalyst,? 120. 705 Apparently, the princesse de Polignac had been at a ?Festival Satie-Ravel? performance at the Salle Huyghens on April 18, 1916 where Bathori had performed. The princesse told Bathori that she was anxious to meet Satie, and asked Bathori to arranged an introduction. Satie and Bathori came to dinner at the avenue Henri-Martin later that summer, and the commission was made. Kahn, Music?s Modern Muse, 203-204. 706 Cuneo-Laurent, ?The Performer as Catalyst,? 133. 333 Autan-Lara directed the choirs. 704 Late in his life, Bathori was instrumental in reviving and promoting the music of Erik Satie (he died in 1925). They met in 1916 through the efforts of Alexis Roland-Manuel, and Bathori immediately suggested that Satie write more songs. He responded with Trois m?lodies (1916) to a text of Fargue, M. Godebski, and Chalupt, and it would be the beginning of a productive collaboration. Bathori arranged for Satie (who, at this time in his life, was impoverished) to meet the Princesse de Polignac, which produced a commission for a work drawn from the Dialogues of Plato, entitled Socrate (1918). 705 The first performance took place at the bookstore of Adrienne Monnier; the audience included many friends and followers of Satie, including: Georges Braque, Paul Claudel, Andr? Derain, L?on-Paul Fargue, Andr? Gide, Pablo Picasso, Igor Stravinsky, and Paul Val?ry. 706 Bathori later premiered Satie's Quatre petites m?lodies (1920) and, in 1923, she arranged a concert devoted to Satie's works and the works of Caplet, which she called Cours-Auditions. In 1923, she participated in another concert dedicated to Satie, giving the first performance of Ludions (Fargue, 1923). Even after his death in 1925, she continued to perform his works, giving performances of Les fleurs, Mercure, Parade, 707 Kahn, Music?s Modern Muse, 207-215. 708 Later, in a letter to Bathori, Durey would recall these years: ?I could never forget the devotion with which you always supported the cause of French musicians ? and especially, that despite my distance from Paris you have never forgotten me, while so many others have?? Cuneo-Laurent, ?The Performer as Catalyst,? 148. 334 Socrate, and Trois po?mes d'amour. Bathori was largely responsible for a general acceptance and appreciation of Satie's works in Paris. 707 Her association with the composers of Les six continued during the postwar period, and a remarkable number of their works were dedicated to her. Louis Durey was particularly appreciative of her efforts on his behalf, and he wrote a number of song settings for her, including Le printemps au fond de la mer (Cocteau, 1920), Six Madrigaux de Mallarm? (1919), Trois quatuors vocaux (Mallarm?, Val?ry, Teilhade, 1926), and Voyage d'Urien, (Gide, 1916). 708 In addition, she premiered Francis Poulenc's Vocalise (1927), Airs chant?s (Mor?as, 1927-1928), and Po?mes de Ronsard (1924-1925). Although Honegger rarely worked in the form of m?lodie, he did compose some early works for Bathori, which she performed with him: Quatre po?mes (Fontainas, Laforgue, Jammes, Tchobanian, 1914-1919) and Six po?sies de Jean Cocteau (1920-1923). Germaine Tailleferre was not particularly interested in song writing, but Bathori encouraged her to write what became Six chansons fran?ais (1930), which the singer then premiered with the composer. She had a particularly fruitful relationship with Darius Milhaud, with whom she maintained a close friendship throughout her life. The two often gave concerts together, with Milhaud accompanying her at the piano; eventually they recorded together. Among 709 Milhaud, Notes Without Music, translated by Donald Evans, 161-229. 710 Satie wrote in a letter to Rolf de Mar? on October 12, 1923: ?What is the ?cole d?Arcueil? On the 14th of last June, I had the honor of presenting (at the College of France) four young musicians.?They took the name ?cole d?Arcueil out of friendship for an old inhabitant of this suburb (of Arcueil, just outside of Paris). Yes. I won?t speak to you of their merits (being neither proctor nor critic ? happily). The public is their only judge. It alone has the power to decide. Personally, I am happy about the arrival of this group into the musical arena: it replaced Les six, naturally split up, of which several members have gone on to glory.? Dumesnil, Histoire de la music, 175-176, note 1. 335 the first performances of his works with Bathori were Alissa, op. 9 (Gide, 1913), Po?mes juifs, op. 34 (1916), Deux petits airs, op. 51 (Mallarm?, 1918), Soir?es de P?trograde, op.55 (Chalupt, 1919), Feuilles de temperature, op. 65 (Morand, 1920), Hymne de Sion: Isra?l est vivant, op. 88a (1925), Pi?ce de circonstance, op. 90 (1926), and Pri?res journali?res, op. 96 (1927). 709 Bathori also was responsible for helping to launch the careers of the young prot?g?s of Satie, the ?cole d'Arcueil, or the nouveaux jeunes as he called them. These composers included Henri Cliquet-Pleyel (1894-1963), Roger D?somi?re (1898-1963), Maxime Jacob (1960-1977), and Henri Sauguet (b. 1901). 710 In 1923, Bathori performed a number of their works at the Coll?ge de France, including D?sormi?re's Quatrains (Jammes), Jacob's Guide du gourmand and Calligrammes (Apollinaire), Sauguet's Trois m?lodies (Cocteau, Radiguet) and Cliquet-Pleyel's Le mirliton d'Ir?ne (Cocteau). Sauguet dedicated his Plumes for voice and piano (1922) to Bathori, and she premiered the work with the composer at the keyboard in 1923 at the Concerts de L??cole d?Arcueil. She premiered several other works by Sauguet, including Six Sonnets (1927) and Polym?tres (1931). 711 Honegger, I Am a Composer, 104. 336 CHAPTER 12 THE COMPOSERS AND THE MUSIC FOR FLUTE AND VOICE There are better days, fortunately. A musician sometimes experiences the joy of contact with the most eminent artists of his time, poets or novelists. This is the reward for many a rebuff, and it most usefully feeds the spring of individual invention. 711 ?Arthur Honegger 712 The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2 nd Edition. 337 All of the French composers in this dissertation who wrote music for flute and voice were subject to the forces described in the previous chapters. Since this study encompasses a period of one hundred years, these influences on this particular repertoire are highly varied. This chapter will specifically discuss several composers from the annotated bibliography and will assess their reasons for choosing flute and voice chamber music as a mode of musical creation. The composers are presented in chronological order, by their date of birth. AUGUSTE PANSERON (1795-1859) Auguste Panseron was a teacher and composer active early in the mid-nineteenth century. He entered the Conservatoire in 1804, winning the Prix de Rome nine years later. From his post as accompanist at the Op?ra-Comique, he eventually saw his operas produced there. His style was been described by Jules Lovy, a critic at the time, as representing the echo of the distant past and, indeed, his musical lineage harkens back to Gr?try and Gossec. He was admired by many composers of his day, including Auber, Hal?vy, and Thomas. 712 Panseron was prolific in the romance form, composing more than 500 songs in that genre. Most of his instrumental pieces were transcriptions of operatic arias by composers such as Bellini, Donizetti, and Hal?vy. His two pieces for flute, voice, and piano, Philomel and Deux rossignols are in the so-called bird style. Both employ texts about birds, while the flute performs the part of the bird, and the soprano imitates the 713 Hagan, F?licien David, 25-33. 338 flute. These works are frivolous salon pieces, inspired by the florid, Italian operatic writing in vogue at the time and were intended purely as entertainment. They contain traditional, romantic harmonization with an accompaniment of repetitive, arpeggiated figures in the piano. The bird figures employed in the flute part are reminiscent of Handel's Sweet Bird, which contains repetitive trills and rapid tremolos on the interval of a fourth (Handel favored the interval between A and D above the staff). While this style was not destined to survive, it did thrive in the early years of the reign of Louis Philippe. Panseron, a composer of his time, supplied the public with all manner of romances, nocturnes, lyriques, and chansonnettes. F?LICIEN DAVID (1810-1876) F?licien David began his musical education at the Ma?trise de Saint Sauveur in Aix-en-Provence, after the death of both of his parents. He was soon composing motets and hymns, and he gradually discovered the sacred works of Haydn, Mozart, and Cherubini. He was eventually admitted to the Conservatoire, where he studied counterpoint with Millault and F?tis and organ with Fran?ois Benoist. He was not successful at the Conservatoire, however, and eventually left the institution with no prizes in 1831. 713 Soon after this departure from the conventional musical establishment, he encountered the Saint-Simonian movement, whose program of equality and social realignment received considerable encouragement from the July Revolution of 1830. At 714 Tunley, Romantic French Song: 1830-1870, vol. 2, xxi. 715 Hagan, F?licien David, 43-86. 339 the meetings of the society, David met the artist Jean-Dominique Ingres (1780-1867) and the sculptor James Pardier (1790-1852), who in turn introduced him to Daniel-Fran?ois Auber (1782-1871), as well as writers, composers, and musicians such as ?mile Souvestre, Raymond Bonheur, George Sand, Sainte-Beuve, Franz Liszt, Hector Berlioz, and opera star Adolphe Nourrit. 714 When the movement was disbanded in 1832, David left for the Orient, traveling to Constantinople, Smyrna, Jaffa, Jerusalem, and finally Egypt, where he discovered a powerful source of musical ideas. David, apparently, traveled with a small piano and devoted a good deal of his energy during these travels to composing songs and piano pieces in an Oriental mode. He stayed on in Cairo for nearly two years, giving music lessons and exploring the desert. 715 Upon his return to Paris in 1835, David introduced to Parisian music listeners the melodies of the Orient. During this period he composed the orchestral piece Le d?sert (1844), which was an instant success. This initiated descriptive works in many genres that reflected the French passion for Oriental and exotic subjects, which can be seen for several generations in the works of Reyer, Gounod, Bizet, D?libes, Saint-Sa?ns, Albert Roussel, and Olivier Messiaen, among others. Charmant oiseaux, the coloratura aria with flute obbligato taken from David's first opera, La perle du Br?sil (1851), became widely known and is still sometimes performed today (it is one of the few works for flute and voice from this era still in print). The opera was performed at the Op?ra-Nationale and the Th??tre-Lyrique and remained 716 Apparently, the Italian style of composition of Aubert and Rossini influenced David?s operatic writing. Hagan, F?licien David, 139. 717 These works were marked by Saint-Simonian values and ideas and were used as propaganda pieces to spread Saint-Simonian doctrine to the general public. Tunley, Romantic French Song: 1830-1870, vol. 2, xvi. 718 Hagan describes the influence of David?s Le perle du Br?sil as follows: Not only was a French semi-serious opera type congenial to David?s lyrical talent, but it paved the way over which younger composers like Massenet and Saint-Sa?ns could escape the persiflage of one musical theater and the pomposity of the other. The op?ra mixte, as lyric opera has been called, appealed to both composers and audiences, and it is this temperate genre which gave rise to the most durable of the works selected for the French stage in the second half of the century. Among these was David?s own Lalla-Roukh (1862), preceded by Gounod?s Faust (1859) and followed by operas with various appellations which succeeded by means of the qualities to be noted in David?s Pearl. With the exception of Bizet?s Carmen (1875), which is genuinely dramatic, all of them?Thomas? Mignon (1866), Saint-Sa?ns?s Samson et Dalila (1877), D?libes? Lakm? (1883), Massenet?s Manon (1884)?are relatively non-dramatic works making their appeal 340 in the repertory for over thirty years, even though it was more decorative than dramatic. The flute part is technically demanding with running sixteenth notes, arpeggios, trills, and thirty-second note effects. It certainly reflects the introduction of the Boehm flute into the orchestra, which would have enabled the performance of such an exposed and difficult part. The piece also reflects the influence of Italian vocal writing, which stressed the placement of the melodic line in the voice part, with a minimal accompaniment in the orchestra, and sometimes with one instrument as an obbligato. 716 The voice part has a lilting, folksong melody in 3/8 time that is simple and charming. David wrote hundreds of romances along with Saint-Simonian choruses, 717 choral works, and orchestral works. The musician and historian R?ne Dumesnil regarded David as second only to Berlioz among French composers of his time, and it is true that David exerted an influence on a whole generation of composers such as Gounod, Thomas, Lalo, Saint-Sa?ns, and Massenet, who composed operas in a similar style. 718 through sentimental melody, effective choral writing, and delicate orchestration. Hagan, F?licien David, 142. 719 De Bovet, Charles Gounod, 41-80. 720 Ibid., 81-98. 721 Gounod had a falling out with Viardot around 1852. There is speculation that he may have been having an affair with her. She became pregnant and withdrew from society and his company. He, in turn, began to spend much of his time at the home of his teacher, Pierre Zimmermann, and quickly fell in love with 341 CHARLES GOUNOD (1818-1893) Charles Gounod began musical study with his mother before attending the Conservatoire in 1836. There, he studied with the operatic composers Hal?vy, Le Sueur, and Pa?r. He won the Prix de Rome in 1839 and spent his time in Rome studying church music, particularly the vocal works of Palestrina. He also studied theology for two years, but chose not to take Holy Orders. He decided, instead, to devote himself to composing sacred music and religious choruses. 719 Soon, however, he tried his hand at stage music, and his first opera, Sappho, was produced at the Op?ra in 1851. The work was a vehicle for soprano Pauline Viardot, whom he had met soon after her triumph in Meyerbeer?s Le proph?te (1850). Viardot introduced Gounod to musical Paris through her salon, and she arranged for him to collaborate with librettist Emile Augier on Sappho. 720 Unfortunately, the opera was not a commercial or an artistic success, though it did attract the notice of Ernest Reyer and Georges Bizet, who began to champion Gounod in the operatic world. The composer's association with Viardot remained fruitful, and he enjoyed a close rapport with the Viardot family 721 and their circle of friends, including the Russian writer Ivan Turgenev, Zimmermann?s daughter Anna. They were married, and an even deeper rift developed between Gounod and Viardot following the return of a wedding gift from her. Huebner, Charles Gounod, 36. 722 Ibid., 132. 723 Kuhn, Baker?s Dictionary of Opera, 127. 342 French writer G?rald de Nerval, and French authoress George Sand. Gounod employed librettos by the writing team of Michel Carr? and Jules Barbier several times, beginning with La nonne sanglante in 1854. The opera Faust was also a result of the collaboration with librettists Michel Carr? and Jules Barbier as well as the impresario L?on Carvalho of the Th??tre-Lyrique. Gounod's interest in Goethe's Faust as a possible source for an opera was longstanding, and Gounod familiarized himself with the French translation by G?rald de Nerval. It was, indeed, the most successful French opera of the nineteenth century, with performances in the major operatic capitals of the world, and its appeal did not diminish over a century of changes in musical taste. 722 Gounod collaborated with sopranos other than Pauline Viardot, notably Caroline Miolan-Carvalho, the wife of L?on Carvalho. Indeed, Miolan-Carvalho inspired the character Marguerite in Faust (1859), and she was the soprano for the title role in Mireille (1864,) Juliette in Rom?o et Juliette (1866), Baucis in Phil?mon et Baucis (1860), and Sylvie in La colombe (1860). 723 Gounod wrote several works for flute, voice, and piano during a time span of two decades: S?r?nade: quand tu Chant (1866), Barcarolle o? voulez-vous aller? (n.d.), O l?g?re hirondell? (1887), and P?re du soir (n.d.). Clearly, Gounod was primarily a composer of opera, and his chamber pieces for flute and voice show the influence of the 724 Gounod would have been very familiar with Taffanel?s playing and teaching through their joint associations at the Conservatoire, the Op?ra orchestra, and the Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire. Tchaikovsky?s diaries relate at least one instance in which Gounod?s works were played by Taffanel during a performance in Paris, along with other solo works featuring the flute. Gounod seems to have supported Taffanel?s application as conductor at the Op?ra. Later, when Gaubert assumed the teaching post at the Conservatoire, was appointed conductor of the Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire, and became chief conductor of the Op?ra, he also had many occasions with which to collaborate with Gounod. Blakeman, Taffanel: Genius of the Flute, 84, 140-143, 147, 150. 343 lyrical style of his operatic writing, which is evident in the voice and flute parts. These pieces focus on a beautiful vocal melody that is arch-like in its structure and step-wise in construction. Most of the pieces are strophic, with a flute obligato included between each verse that mimics the previous vocal line. In most of the pieces the flute doubles the melody at the third. Gounod employed a narrow range in the writing for the instrument, and the flute parts are never virtuosic or technically challenging. Unlike David, he never uses the flute to personify the bird or to imitate bird figures. He is most occupied with beauty of tone for the flutist as well as the vocalist, showing the influence of the teachings of Conservatoire flute professors Paul Taffanel and Philippe Gaubert. 724 Like David and Panseron, the role of the flute in Gounod's chamber pieces is still as an obligato instrument. However, Gounod elevates the flute to the level of melody on a regular basis. CAMILLE SAINT-SA?NS (1835-1892) When Camille Saint-Sa?ns was a boy, Chopin, Mendelssohn, and Schumann were alive; Meyerbeer was the supreme master of opera; Berlioz was still striving hard for recognition; Wagner and Verdi were at the beginning of their careers; Gounod, having lately won the Prix de Rome, was earning his livelihood as an organist; Balzac, Dumas, 725 In addition to Saint-Sa?ns, some of the composers to emerge during this brilliant period were C?sar Franck, Reyer, Lalo, Georges Bizet, Leo D?libes, Jules Massenet, Guiraud, Paladilhe, Charles-Marie Widor, Gabriel Faur?, Emmanuel Chabrier, and, during the latter part, Vincent d'Indy, Alfred Bruneau, Claude Debussy, and Gustave Charpentier, among others. Saint-Sa?ns was a particularly remarkable prodigy. He was compared to Mozart after making his first concert performance at the age of four. His debut took place when he was ten. Cooper, French Music, 14-26. 726 In London, Saint-Sa?ns met Julius Benedict and became familiar with Benedict?s pieces for flute and voice, his so-called bird pieces, such as The Wren. The two formed a friendship and eventually performed together in London. Saint-Sa?ns returned to France and later wrote several pieces for flute and soprano. Hervey, Masters of French Music, 107-172. 344 Hugo, and George Sand were at the height of their fame; and Louis Philippe, the citizen king, ruled over the French. Out of this environment, Saint-Sa?ns became one of the chief protagonists of the period, a period that would extend from 1870 to the end of the century and which constituted a veritable renaissance of French music. 725 Aubert was at the head of the Conservatoire when Saint-Sa?ns entered the institution in 1850 to study organ with Fran?ois Benoist and composition with Fromental Hal?vy. Among his classmates were Georges Bizet and L?o D?libes. By 1858, he was appointed organist of the Church of the Madeleine and, in 1860, he took the post of professor of composition at the ?cole Niedermeyer in Paris. There, he taught Gabriel Faur? and Andr? Messager, as well as the organists Eug?ne Gigout and ?douard Marlois. Saint-Sa?ns met Wagner in 1861 when Tannh?user was being performed at the Paris Op?ra. In 1868, he composed a piano concerto (G minor, no. 2, op. 22) for Anton Rubinstein, who conducted the orchestra and performed the work at its premiere. He was eventually decorated with the Legion d'honneur. He was one of the founders of the Soci?t? nationale de musique, whose purpose was to encourage popular interest in works by French composers. During the Commune, he, like Gounod, took refuge in London. 726 727 Blakeman, Taffanel: Genius of the Flute, 8. 728 Ibid., 3. 729 Blakeman, Taffanel: Genius of The Flute, 40-41. 345 Saint-Sa?ns was particularly familiar with the flute as a result of his close friendship with Paul Taffanel. Taffanel probably met Saint-Sa?ns when the later visited Bordeaux to conduct the first performance of his symphony Urbs Roma, which had won the first prize in a competition sponsored by the Soci?t? Saint-C?cile. 727 Although Saint- Sa?ns was almost ten years older than Taffanel, they became colleagues and close friends, with Saint-Sa?ns greatly admiring Taffanel?s playing and Taffanel never ceasing to champion Saint-Sa?ns? music. At a performance of his Romance for flute, Saint-Sa?ns later wrote: He [Taffanel] played as only he can play, with a voice which seems not to come from an instrument, which is not even of this world?a sigh, a fleeting breath across the night, a long drawn phrase which Tamino and his magic flute would have envied, then a short intermezzo, some capricious decoration, a cadenza from a supernatural bird, and a return to the languorous, contemplative line?playing like this is akin to an act of creation. 728 Saint-Sa?ns's most well-known work for voice and flute, Une fl?te invisible (Victor Hugo, 1886) was written late in the composer's life, after he had seen Samson et Delila (1877), the Symphony in C minor (1886), and the opera Proserpine (1887) produced. It was premiered at a Soci?t? nationale de musique performance on January 8, 1886 by flutist Alfred Lef?bvre (who replaced the absent Taffanel). 729 Une fl?te invisible shows the influence of the romantic movement in poetry and in music, as well as the influence of Taffanel?s teachings on tone. Set to the same poetry to which Andr? Caplet 730 ?Spleen? was the term the adult Faur? used to describe the periods of depression that assailed him from young adulthood onwards. Apparently, he also suffered from migraines and vertigo. Duchen, Gabriel Faur?, 12-15. 731 Caballero, Faur? and French Musical Aesthetics, 57-75. 346 would turn to thirteen years later, the work is in the lyrical style that was prevalent in opera houses at the time and is clearly influenced by Gounod. The voice part rises through stepwise progression in thirds to form a flowing line that is legato in conception. The flute acts more as an interlude for the vocalist than asan independent voice. Saint-Sa?ns still conceived of the flute as an orchestral instrument and, as such, it had a supporting role. However, Saint-Sa?ns employed a full two-octave range for the flute part, acknowledging the growing acceptance of the Boehm flute and its increased range, volume, and tonal possibilities. GABRIEL FAUR? (1845-1924) Gabriel Faur? was, by all accounts, a charming, sociable, diplomatic, and witty man who could also be stubborn and depressed. 730 Born during the romantic era, his writing heralded twentieth-century music composition in France, a turning away from the trends of the previous half-century, including Wagnerian excesses, Orientalism, whole-tone writing, gamelan effects, or any number of other tendencies, which in the works of many of his contemporaries were regarded as representative of their era. 731 Faur?'s voice was unique in the history of French music. Charles Koechlin described Faur?'s style: At present, we are, perhaps, attempting the impossible, by trying to put Faur?'s sensibility into words. It is both charming and forcible. Opposite poles: too often 732 Koechlin, Gabriel Faur?, 72. 733 Ibid., 64. 347 one sees only the first. But the balance of his art is held delicately: in his technique, original discipline and freedom; in his soul, that mixture of tenderness and inner energy (although a certain will-power was lacking, in that he did not always know how to refuse); finally, in his general aesthetic, that essentially Greek equilibrium between feeling and logic. 732 Faur?'s most important teacher at the ?cole Niedermeyer, as well as his lifelong friend, was Camille Saint-Sa?ns, a composer who differed completely from him in character and musical style, but who encouraged and supported Faur? unstintingly throughout his career. Koechlin again describes his compositional procedures and harmonic style: What is most striking, first of all, is that feeling for plainchant, which has been manifest since his youth.?This was new; for the composers of the XVIIIth Century and the first half of the XIXth Century had forgotten the scales in use at the time of the Renaissance. This very marked preference of Faur? shows itself in the employment of certain of the Gregorian Modes. 733 Faur?'s harmonic style includes a large number of progressions little known before his time. In general, he discovered them; sometimes he made them his own by a treatment so appropriate to the feeling and so felicitous, that they became personal to him. The elements, apart from common chords, are merely different kinds of seventh chords, sometimes ninth chords, with few complicated "alterations"?he leaves those to the imitators of Tristan. Alfred Bruneau described his writing in an article for Le matin (1905): In [Faur??s work], we find above all a striking and wondrous originality in melody and harmony. Hear two measures of Faur?, and you can put a signature to them immediately. His music does not resemble any other music, old or recent, 734 Caballero, Faur? and French Musical Aesthetics, 76. 735 Duchen, Gabriel Faur?, 28-35. 736 The war had a lasting effect on many French composers, who responded with patriotic music, including Gounod?s Gallia, Franck?s Paris, and Saint-Sa?ns?s Marche h?ro?que. Ibid. 348 and yet it is neither bizarre, nor contorted, nor pretentious, nor vague, nor hostile, nor decadent. It is beautiful, natural, sincere, and new. 734 The unique curriculum of the ?cole Niedermeyer introduced Faur? to instrumental performance on the organ, to choral singing, and to sacred music from the early renaissance through the baroque era. This would influence his work for the rest of his life. Since he never won the coveted Prix de Rome, Faur? instead began to earn his living as a church organist, eventually securing a position as second organist to Charles-Marie Widor at the church of Saint Sulpice. The Franco-Prussian War and the horrors instituted by the Commune had a significant impact on Faur?, who fought in many battles and was awarded a croix de guerre. 735 Afterward, his music acquired a new somberness, a dark sense of tragedy that shunned external bombast or undue indulgence. This was especially evident in his songs of this period. 736 It may also explain Faur?'s turn away from opera, which he so heavily emphasized before the war, and his preoccupation with instrumental and chamber genres. Faur? was also instrumental in the establishment of new concert societies for the performance of French music, one of which was the Soci?t? nationale de musique, which was co-founded by Saint-Sa?ns and the singing teacher Romain Bussine and with the close collaboration of Bizet, Duparc, Franck, and Massenet, among others. Bearing the motto "ars gallica," the society was staunchly nationalistic, being run by and for French 737 Duchen, Gabriel Faur?, 34-35. 349 musicians, in specific opposition to the current dominance of German music in Paris and elsewhere. Each member contributed to the cost of concerts and works were selected for performance by vote. 737 For fifteen years, the society weathered the blast of financial difficulties and social and critical denigration to present all that was best in French music of the time. The society's existence certainly prompted Faur? to place a greater emphasis on composing chamber music, which was performed by the group. It was the beginning of Faur?'s considerable activities to champion chamber music and French music, in particular. Faur?, in particular, benefitted from the salon traditions in Paris and was introduced into Parisian musical society through the salon of soprano Pauline Viardot, who became a significant force in his life, both musically and personally. In her salon on the rue de Douai, Faur? found himself playing charades on Sunday evenings with the Russian novelist Ivan Turgenev and Saint-Sa?ns, before an audience that included Gustave Flaubert, Charles Gounod, George Sand, and the revolutionary Louis Blanc. There, Faur? also met Viardot's daughter, Marianne, when she was eighteen years old, and he soon fell passionately in love with her. She responded to Faur?'s overwhelming ardor somewhat timidly and, after a protracted engagement, this difficult romance ended badly when she broke off the engagement. Faur? subsequently broke with the Viardot family. The episode left a deep impression on the thirty-two-year-old composer, whose melancholy streak intensified and whose music further darkened in its emotional 738 Gabriel Faur?, His Life through His Letters, edited by Jean-Michel Nectoux and translated by J.A. Underwood, 153-193. 739 The Princess de Polignac would be instrumental in bringing together the Russian impresario Serge Diaghilev, from the Ballets Russes, with Paris? finest composers, some of whom wrote ballets for him, including Ravel?s Daphnis et Chlo?, Satie?s Parade, and Stravinsky?s Firebird. Kahan, Music?s Modern Muse, 148-191. 740 The A major Violin Sonata is thought to be at least part of the inspiration for the evocative Violin Sonata by ?Vinteuil? which evokes in one of the book?s central character, Swann, a myriad of emotions and associations. Duchen, Gabriel Faur?, 88. 741 Founded by Octave Maus, Les vingt was a group of twenty young Belgian artists who had banded together to form an anti-establishment association. They organized exhibitions of their work to which every member would invite an equal number of guest exhibitors from Belgium and abroad who represented forward thinking in art. These included Rodin, Whistler, Redon, and Sargent. Les vingt also organized concerts, and Faur? met the virtuoso violinist Ysa?e at one of their meetings. Ibid., 90. 350 qualities. 738 Later, Faur? began frequenting the gatherings of Winnaretta Singer, who was destined to become the princesse de Polignac (1865-1943). With her great passion for culture, especially music, she established in her home, on the rue Cortambert a grand salon, with an exquisite miniature Hall of Mirrors where she held formal gatherings. 739 Here, Faur? met Marcel Proust, whose monumental work, A la recherch? du temps perdu, is one of the pinnacles of French literature during this period. Proust, it seems, adored Faur?'s works, and he may have modeled some episodes in his novel on Faur?'s music. 740 Other than the salons, Faur? also spent his evenings socializing and networking in the active avant-garde artistic life of Paris and Brussels, where he appeared in concert for the group Les vingt. 741 Faur? is widely regarded as the greatest master of French song. He wrote songs throughout his life and these works have been grouped in three collections: 1879, 1897, 742 Meister, Nineteenth-Century French Song, ix-xiii. 743 Duchen, Gabriel Faur?, 50-52. 744 At the same time, Wagner's influence was by now being felt throughout the Western musical world. This included Wagner's advocacy of the Gesamtkunstwerk, which inextricably linked music with text, drama, and staging in a single, vast, ongoing musical panorama, as well as his introduction of degrees of chromaticism that pushed tonality almost to its limits. Meister, Nineteenth-Century French Song, ix-xiii. 351 and 1908, each volume containing twenty pieces. His most successful works are those where the music is inspired directly by a poetic form. While Faur? has been criticized for choosing poetry of dubious nature, his settings of Verlaine, Baudelaire, Leconte de Lisle, Hugo, and Samian are indeed masterpieces. 742 Throughout the 1870s, Faur?'s vocal writing changed in nature, in part due to the lasting impression made upon him by his friend Duparc's song L'Invitation au voyage. 743 For Faur?, the song demonstrated the extent to which profound musical invention could be achieved in the m?lodie. Examples of his growing mastery of m?lodie would be his compositions Apr?s un r?ve (1877), an evocation of a vision of lost love, and Automne (1881), a masterpiece of intense expression of inward drama and despair. These songs were being written at a time when the output of French grand opera was in a slow decline. 744 Largely as a result of Faur??s influence, French m?lodie and chamber music enjoyed a renaissance among contemporary French composers. Faur?'s work for voice, flute, and piano, Nocturne, op. 43, no. 2 (1886), was composed to a text by Villiers de l'Isle Adam. The same year he wrote the Pavane for orchestra, opening the work with a flute solo that exploits the instrument's dark, low register and imbues the piece with a mood of melancholy. (Invariably, Faur?'s works for 745 Koechlin, Gabriel Faur?, 21. 746 Faur? knew Taffanel well enough that he played the organ at Taffanel?s wedding, along with Saint-Sa?ns. Blakeman, Taffanel: Genius of the Flute, 51. 747 Duchen, Gabriel Faur?, 124-146. 352 flute are written as sarabandes, with lilting melodies that are haunting.) Koechlin described Faur?'s Nocturne: He showed himself worthy of Villiers de l'Isle-Adam by two admirable songs: Nocturne, op. 43, no. 2 (1886); and Les presents, op. 46, no. 1 (1887). They are held in insufficient esteem by the general public; the profound mystery of the first, the elegance of the second, as enigmatic and somewhat distant, though extremely sensitive, keep the masses at arm's length. Actually, they count amongst the most beautiful of the second volume. 745 Again, Faur? seems to have been influenced in his writing by the flute-playing of Paul Taffanel, whom he accompanied several times, and whom he had heard on numerous occasions through concerts at the Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire. 746 Faur?'s works for flute and voice emphasize the pastoral qualities of the instrument and, like Debussy, he focuses not on technical display, but on sonority. A number of composers were direct decedents of Faur? through his teaching, and the influence of Faur?'s style can be seen in the works of Louis Aubert, Louis Auric, Roger-Ducasse, Pierre-Octave Ferroud, Arthur Honegger, Jacques Ibert, Charles Koechlin, Georges Migot, Darius Milhaud, Francis Poulenc, Maurice Ravel, Alexis Roland Manuel, Florent Schmitt, and Germaine Tailleferre, all of whom benefitted from Faur?'s emphasis on chamber music, song, and his fascination with the world of the interior. 747 Many of these composers went on to write chamber music for flute and voice. 748 The Norton Grove Dictionary of Women Composers, 112-114. 749 Citron, C?cile Chaminade: a Bio-Bibliography, 12. 750 Citron, C?cile Chaminade: a Bio-Bibliography, 19. 353 C?CILE CHAMINADE (1857-1944) C?cile Chaminade received her earliest musical training from her mother, herself a pianist and singer. Because of paternal opposition to her studying at the Conservatoire, she studied privately with members of its faculty, including F?lix Le Couppey, Antoine Marmontel, M.-G.-A Savard, and Benjamin Godard. In the 1880s, Chaminade began to compose in earnest, and to this period belongs her piano trio, op. 11 (1880), the Suite d?orchestre, op. 20 (1881), and the op?ra comique La S?villane, (1882). 748 Over the course of her life, she would publish over four hundred compositions and become one of the few women composers of the era to make a living from her career as a composer. 749 With the death of her father in 1887, Chaminade?s compositional activities became a necessity. This may explain her move away from absolute music, such as the sonata or opera, to the more popular salon pieces of the day. Many of these pieces are for the piano, and these character pieces are technically geared to the level of an amateur. In addition, she was a prolific composer of m?lodie. Her use of titles like Romances sans paroles, Arabesque, and Tristesse, were obviously for mass appeal and for women, her primary market. As a result, she became extremely popular with women?s clubs, especially in the United States. By 1904, there were one hundred Chaminade clubs listed in the magazine L?Echo Musical. 750 Despite the fact that Chaminade had not studied officially at the Conservatoire, 751 Blakeman, Taffanel: Genius of the Flute, 188-190. 752 The Norton Grove Dictionary of Women Composers, 74-75. 753 G?liot, Mel Bonis, translated by Florence Launay and Michael Cook, 5. 354 she was sufficiently well-known in French musical circles for Paul Taffanel to commission a concours piece from her in 1902. 751 Two years later, Chaminade?s Portrait (Valse chant?e) for flute, soprano, and piano was written. The first performance was given in April 1904 at the Salle Aeolian in Paris, with Jeanne Leclerc, vocalist; Buenaventura Emilio Puyans, flute; and Chaminade, piano. Puyans had been in Taffanel?s class in 1902, when Chaminade?s Concertino was performed for the concours. It is likely that he performed her music at this time. M?LANIE H?L?NE BONIS (1858-1937) M?lanie Bonis was a self taught pianist until the age of twelve, when her parents enrolled her at the Conservatoire. There, she studied harmony with Ernest Guiraud and piano with C?sar Franck, who also showed an interest in her first compositions. 752 Her classmates were Claude Debussy and Gabriel Piern?. It was at this time that she adopted the pseudonym of Mel Bonis in order to avoid any feminine connotations in her name. 753 Unfortunately, a love affair with the singer and fellow student, Am?d?e Land?ly Hettich, caused her parents to force Bonis to leave the Conservatoire, despite a premi?re prix in harmony and a deuxi?me prix in accompaniment. In 1883, she was forced into an arranged marriage with Albert Domange, a businessman twenty-five years her senior, twice widowed, with five sons. She raised his five children and the three they had 754 Apparently, she met up again with Hettich later in her life, and he encouraged her interest in composition, introducing her to the publishing house of Alphonse Leduc. She began to collaborate with Hettich, accompanying his students and settings his poems to music. They later had an illegitimate child together as a result of their doomed love affair. G?liot, Mel Bonis, translated by Florence Launay and Michael Cook. 755 Toff, Monarch of the Flute, 71. 355 together and continued to compose. 754 Bonis also collaborated with musicians of the day, including flutist Louis Fleury. A member of the Soci?t? des compositeurs, whose prize she had won in 1898, she befriended a number of musicians, including Fleury, for whom she wrote both the Suite (1903) for flute, violin, and piano and a Sonata (1904) for flute and piano. 755 It is likely that she wrote her three works for voice and chamber ensemble, Le chat sur le toit, op. 93 (for soprano, 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons, 2 horns, harp, string quartet, bass, and cymbals), Le ruisseau, op. 21 no. 2 (for soprano, flute, oboe, clarinet, cornet, harp, string quartet, and bass), and No?l de la vierge Marie, op. 54 no. 2 (for soprano, flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, string quartet, and bass), with both Hettich and Fleury in mind. MAURICE EMMANUEL (1862-1938) Maurice Emmanuel was a composer and musicologist who struggled for acceptance in the musical institutions of his day due to his experimental and revolutionary ideas about musical harmony and melodic structure. Although he was a contemporary and fellow student with Debussy, he never succumbed to the influences of impressionism, pursuing, instead, his interests in folksong, Greek and Hindu modes, and 756 Maurice Emmanuel et son temps (1862-1938), ?Revue Internationale de Musique Fran?ais,?June 1983: 7- 88. 757 Ibid. 356 free rhythmic structures. 756 He was an intellectual, and his scholarly endeavors brought him his greatest recognition. He wrote for leading Parisian journals, published numerous significant books in musicology and, in 1909, was elected to the chair of musicology at the Conservatoire. As a young student he became familiar with the modal structure and irregular phrase patterns of French folksong. He soon attempted to incorporate these elements into his own compositions but, in so doing, provoked venomous denunciations from his composition professor at the Conservatoire, Th?odore Dubois. This prompted extreme self-doubt in the young composer and pushed him increasingly toward musicological pursuits. As a result of his studies, he wrote a dissertation on Greek dance and began studies of Greek modes and rhythmic patterns. He also compiled an extensive collection of Burgundian folksongs. Emmanuel tried again to compose, but felt that music had become imprisoned by the major/minor tonal system and the four-bar phrase. As a result, he began experimenting with irregular phrase structures and non-Western scale patterns, as well as Greek poetic meters. 757 Emmanuel was born in Bar-sur-Aube and came from an intellectual and artistic family. He developed a keen interest in art history and traveled with a sketchbook. At age seven, he began studying the piano and came to the Conservatoire in 1880, entering the class of A. Savard and Th?odore Dubois. By 1884, he had progressed to the composition 758 Carlson, ?Maurice Emmanuel and the Six Sonatines for Piano,? 9. 759 Maurice Emmanuel et son temps (1862-1938), ?Revue Internationale de Musique Fran?ais,?June 1983: 7- 88. 760 Ibid. 357 class taught by L?o D?libes, but D?libes did not encourage him, believing that a conservative compositional style was necessary to win votes for the prestigious Prix de Rome. Emmanuel's desire to experiment only irritated his professors. 758 During the summers, Emmanuel worked with wine-grower Charles Bigarne in the C?te d'or, where the wealth of stories and earthy language fascinated him. Bigarne, too, was remarkable for his vast knowledge of the folksong of the area, which he would perform with gusto. Bigarne decided to publish a collection of these folksongs and asked Emmanuel to notate them as he sang them. Emmanuel soon found that major and minor keys would be inadequate if he were to notate these songs accurately. 759 He showed this work to D?libes, but his teacher denounced him, and he was excluded from the Prix de Rome and almost expelled from the Conservatoire. But Emmanuel received encouragement from his music history teacher, Louis Bourgault-Ducoudray, himself a teacher of both Greek and liturgical modes and an investigator of French folksongs. 760 C?sar Franck offered to teach him privately, but he instead became a private student of Guiraud, with the help of Charles R?ty. Debussy was also a student of Guiraud. Debussy and Emmanuel began to renew their acquaintance from the Conservatoire, but they were never close friends, even though they shared the 761 Lockspeiser, Debussy: His Life and Mind, 26-28. 762 Maurice Emmanuel et son temps (1862-1938), ?Revue Internationale de Musique Fran?ais,?June 1983: 7- 88. 763 Carlson, ?Maurice Emmanuel and the Six Sonatines for Piano,? 15-16. 764 Emmanuel had a great influence on Messiaen, teaching him private composition lessons in addition to his classes in music history at the Conservatoire. Joaqu?n Rodrigo and Jean Rivier also studied composition privately with Emmanuel. His students in music history include musicians Georges Migot, Marguerite B?clard d?Harcourt, Jacques Chailley, Suzanne Demarquez, Robert Casadesus, and Yvonne Lef?bure. Ibid. 358 belief that the "tyranny of C" should be overcome. 761 Meanwhile, Emmanuel spent his summers traveling in Europe, assimilating the folksongs of various countries. He also studied history and philology during these years, receiving the Licence ?s-lettres in 1886. 762 As a result of the crisis for the Prix de Rome, Emmanuel left the Conservatoire and pursued other interests, receiving the Doctorat ?s-lettres in Greek music from the Sorbonne in 1895. He was unable to find a position at a university, and so he taught art history in the lyc?es from 1898 to 1904. He stayed in touch with the music world, however, with his articles on music, his music criticism, and his lectures at the Schola Cantorum in 1903-1904. In 1909, Louis Bourgault-Ducoudray nominated his former student as his successor to the chair of musicology at the Conservatoire. As well, Massenet nominated him for a musical prize from the Conservatoire, in large part to mitigate the exclusion from the Prix de Rome and the censure of the past from D?libes. 763 Emmanuel became professor of musicology at the Conservatoire, 764 a post he was to retain for twenty-eight 765 During this time, he wrote several important musicological works, including Histoire de la langue musicale, XXX Chansons bourguignonnes du pays de Beaune, and an article on Greek music for the Encyclop?die de la musique. Ibid. 359 years. 765 In this position, he taught music history to the next generation of French composers, and his scholarship on French folk music would have a tremendous influence on their compositions. Emmanuel's Trois odelettes anacr?ontiques, op. 13 (1911) for flute, soprano, and piano were written during his period of experimentation with Greek modes and irregular versification. In this regard, Emmanuel would pave the way for composers such as Delage, Ravel, and Roussel to write music for voice and flute that employed a chromatic harmonic palate and that looked to the east, to folksong, and to ancient times for musical inspiration. One of the few genuine independents in French music, Emmanuel sought to liberate it from all its limitations, deriving his material from sources almost entirely outside the classical and romantic traditions. Emmanuel's writing for the flute and voice in his Trois odelettes anacr?ontiques is a marked departure from his predecessors in this genre and is clearly a twentieth-century work. The vocal line is narrow and declamatory, with shorter phrases that serve the text. The flute part has been elevated to the status of equal with the vocal part. Emmanuel uses the full range of the instrument, from middle C, to A2 above the staff. Here, the influence of the Boehm flute is apparent. The piece employs all manner of technical difficulties for the flute, including sixteenth-note runs, thirty-second note flourishes, tongued passages of sixteenth notes, sustained playing on low C (the entire second movement rests mainly on this note), and chromatic skips. While each movement 766 Lockspeiser, Debussy: His Life and Mind, 25-34. 767 Blanche-Ad?la?de Vasnier was an amateur singer whom Debussy met while accompanying the pupils of Madame Moreau-Sainti. Most of his songs from this early period are written for her, and he apparently 360 of the work is written with the key signature of E major, Emmanuel makes use of enharmonic notes and key changes to suggest other tonalities. In addition, he uses free chromaticism between the flute, voice, and piano to modulate throughout the piece. His harmonic conception is intervallic, and he employs flats, sharps, and naturals throughout the work in defiance of the key signatures. This is a work that deserves performance and a place in the standard chamber music repertory. CLAUDE DEBUSSY (1862-1918) Claude Debussy entered the Conservatoire in 1873. He studied piano with Marmontel, music theory with Lavignac, and music history with Emmanuel, but did not take well to formal academic instruction. However, he persevered, studying harmony with Durand and accompaniment with Bazille, winning the first prize for score reading, accompanying, and extemporizing at the piano. Debussy's harmonic imagination might be described as hyper-developed. From the first, his improvisations at the piano included the then-unfamiliar sequence of tonalities for which he is now famous (parallel 4ths, 5ths, and 9ths). 766 He won the Prix de Rome, not on the first try, but the second, and soon afterward he developed a relationship with patrons Pierre and Mme. Vasnier. Debussy fell in love with Mme. Vasnier and dedicated his first songs to her, but the exact nature of their relationship remains unknown. 767 Later, he met Mme. Von Meck in 1880, became a piano became intimate with her family, describing them as ?my second family.? He made his first public appearance as a composer in association with Madame Vasnier, accompanying her at the piano. Ibid., 68. 768 Ibid., 40-55. 769 Lockspeiser, Debussy: His Life and Mind, 62-72. 361 teacher to her children, and with this family he traveled to Russia in 1882. Debussy met Borodin there and perhaps Tchaikovsky, and he heard performances of Boris Godunov and Tableux d'une exposition by Mussorgsky. 768 Since the creation of the Chansons de Bilitis for narrator, two flutes, two harps, and celeste is intimately connected with his friendship with the poet Pierre Lou?s, it would be appropriate in this context to consider the various literary influences which, at one time or another, were reflected in Debussy's work. This began with his personal association with writers and poets. In 1890, Debussy met Edmond Bailly, the proprietor of a bookshop and publishing house in the Chauss?e d?Antin known as the Librairie de l'art ind?pendente. This was a meeting place for the elite of the Parisian literary and artistic world and had been so for some time. It also had been the headquarters of the Revue Ind?pendente, presided over by ?douard Dujardin, the poet and writer who is widely regarded as the inventor of the literary technique known as the monologue int?rieur [interior monologue]. Modernist writers such as William Faulkner, Franz Kafka, James Joyce, and Virginia Woolf subsequently exploited this technique with greater success. It was at this bookstore that Debussy first encountered the writers and artists whose pictures he was to admire and whose poems he was to set to music. 769 770 In 1885, Debussy won the Prix de Rome and took up residency in the Italian capital. That same year, Mallarm? began to attend the weekly Lamoureux orchestra concerts and published the influential essay, Richard Wagner, reverie d?un po?te fran?ais, in the newly founded Revue Wagn?rienne. Mallarm? was quickly becoming a leading master of the most adventurous younger writers, particularly those gathered around the symbolist movement. His disciples soon included Paul Claudel, Andr? Gide, Marcel Proust, and Paul Val?ry, as well as others who were closer to Debussy: Andr?-Ferdinand H?rold, Gabriel Mourey, Henri de R?gnier, and especially Pierre Lou?s. Ibid. 771 One aspect of his style is summarized by the term impressionism. This word was first applied to a school of French painting that flourished from about 1880 to the end of the century. Its chief representatives were Camille Pissarro (1830-1903), Alfred Sisley (1839-1899), Claude Monet (1840-1926), and Pierre Auguste Renoir (1841-1919). Their musical counterparts attempted to evoke moods and sensuous impressions mainly through harmony and tone color. Unlike the heavily programmatic music of earlier times, impressionism did not seek to express deeply felt emotions or tell stories but to evoke a mood, a fleeting sentiment, an atmosphere. There were also enigmatic titles, reminiscences of natural sounds, dance rhythms, characteristic bits of melody, and other, similar techniques to suggest the subject. Impressionism relied on allusion and understatement, the opposite of the forthright, energetic, deep expression of the romantics. Lockspeiser, Music and Painting, 49-66. 362 In addition, since 1885 the symbolist poet, St?phane Mallarm?, had been gathering about him poets, musicians, painters, literary critics, and musicians. Some of those who regularly joined Mallarm??s salon group were Stuart Merrill, Paul Verlaine, Gustave Viel?-Griffin, James McNeil Whistler, and Debussy. 770 During these assemblages at Mallarm?'s home, there were recitations of poetry and the principles of the current developments in symbolism and impressionism were freely discussed. By 1890, Debussy had begun to frequent Mallarm?'s gatherings, one result of which was his revolutionary idea that a style of music could be created using the principles of impressionist painting. By avoiding academic developments of musical ideas, by relaxing some of the conventional indications of tonality, and by using harmony largely as a means of colorist effect, he obtained results strikingly analogous to those of visual impressionism. 771 The first work in which Debussy attempted this procedure was the now-famous 772 Mallarm? published the final version of his poem, entitled ?glogue, after several tries. It was his first book and had a line drawing by ?douard Manet. By 1882, the fame of the poem had spread, mainly from a citation in the novel, ? rebours (Against Nature), by J. K. Huysmans. Debussy, now twenty, probably heard of Mallarm? through Huysmans or possibly from Bonheur. In 1884, he set to music Mallarm??s Apparition. Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun, Norton Critical Score, 9. 773 Apparently, carrying around a volume of Banville?s poems attracted Debussy?s fellow student at the Conservatoire, Raymond Bonheur (1851-1939). It was to Bonheur that Debussy dedicated his Prelude to the Faun. Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun, Norton Critical Scores, 4. 363 Pr?lude ? l?apr?s-midi d?un faune, suggested by Mallarm?'s poem of the same title and composed in 1892. 772 Here, Th?odore de Banville (1823-1891) forms a link between Debussy and Mallarm?. Banville was a leader of a group of poets that called themselves the Parnassians, and the members of this group were early admirers in France of the work of Richard Wagner (1813-1883). Many of their activities were designed to promote Wagner's music and his theories to other artists. The young Mallarm? looked up to the Parnassians as established masters. Banville had written a play, Diane au bois, and Debussy worked for many years to set it to music as an opera. Although he was ultimately unable to complete any music for play, he did set several of Banville's poems as songs, as well as a divertissement for orchestra (1884). Diane au bois also had some influence on the ideas, moods, and methods that went into the music of Mallarm?'s Faune. 773 In 1887 Debussy returned to Paris from Rome and obtained a copy of ?clogue, which had been published by the Revue Ind?pendente. 1889 was the year of the Paris World Exposition where, under the shadow of the new Eiffel Tower, Debussy repeatedly heard the Javanese gamelan. It was in this context of discovery of the Orient that 774 Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 77-96. 775 Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun, Norton Critical Score, 9. 776 In 1912, the Ballets Russes, which had been based in Paris since 1909, presented a new incarnation of the faune, which became almost as famous as the music or the poem, and undoubtedly increased the fame of both. The dance initiated associations that still cling to the music. Vaslav Nijinsky was the brightest star of Serge Diaghilev?s company, and with the faune, his first essay in choreography, he also proved to be a revolutionary creative artist. However, he did not especially like Debussy?s music. A composition more stark and archaic sounding would have better suited the frieze-like motion of the poem that Nijinsky and Diaghilev realized, with a row of six women as foil for Nijinsky. Odilon Redon created etchings for the sets and costumes of the work, but did not, in the end, collaborate with Diaghilev. The notoriety of the ballet and the unusual exertions of the company to produce it marred the success of at least two other new works that same season: Ravel?s Daphnis et Chlo? and Reynaldo Hahn?s Dieu bleu, with a scenario by Jean Cocteau. Cocteau and his friends would rise to fame by the contrast of their works with Debussy?s,and by their polemical interpretation of his work as old-fashioned and sentimental. Cocteau, who was at the beginning of his theatrical career, would eventually turn away from Hahn toward Satie and Picasso. Brody, Paris: The Musical Kaleidoscope, 190-212. 364 Debussy wrote La Pr?lude de l'apr?s-midi d'un faune. 774 According to musician Jean Dup?rier, the collaboration between Mallarm? and Debussy came about through a third party: Mallarm? had just written L'apr?s-midi d'un faune and wanted his eclogue (which was to be performed at this short-lived theater [Th??tre des arts]) set to music and sung, quite like a little opera. The poet therefore asked his friend H?rold to present Debussy for this purpose. The meeting took place at H?rold's home, and, I believe I remember correctly, in the presence of Pierre Lou?s. Debussy accepted the proposal of Mallarm? and went to work. The Th??tre des arts closed shop and the score remained unfinished. But even incomplete it was extant. H?rold saw it (Debussy played him fragments from it), he told me. 775 The work was premiered on December 22 and 23, 1894, by the Soci?t? nationale de musique with Gustave Doret (1866-1943) conducting, and the performance was judged a great success. 776 The opening of the piece features a solo for the flute built on a tri-tone, with no other sounds from the orchestra. This was a truly revolutionary effect at the end of the nineteenth century and the interpretation at the first performance by flutist 777 Toff, Monarch of The Flute, 18-19. 365 Georges Barr?re would eventually become as legendary as the solo itself. 777 Debussy again presented the flute without accompaniment in 1927, in the incidental music for a work of Mourey entitled Pi?ce for Psych? (Fl?te de Pan) (1913), later published as Syrinx (1927), the title by which it is known today. Two years later, Debussy composed the chamber piece, Sonata for flute, viola, and harp, which would be his last chamber piece to include the flute. He did, however, include extended solos for the flute in a number of his orchestral works. Debussy's works for flute are not as technically demanding as those by Caplet or Roussel, nor are they virtuosic showpieces like the flute works of David or Mass?. Instead, his works for flute are written to exploit the unique tonal possibilities of the instrument. They call for a suppleness of sound and a variety of colors. Again, this capacity was considered a hallmark of French flute playing and was exploited by Paul Taffanel and his students, including Georges Barr?re. According to Blakeman, Debussy?s works for flute would not have been possible without Taffanel?s teachings: Debussy, as a young student in Paris in the 1880s, would very likely have heard Taffanel play. Certainly his approach to writing for the flute, both in these pieces and elsewhere, underlines the suppleness of the French style, and the characteristic use of the low register so often remarked in Taffanel?s playing. It is also fascinating that the flute?s first note in l?apr?s-midi is the second-octave C- sharp?its open note (no closed keys), with the palest, least clearly focused sound. Did Debussy know that, and consciously exploit it? The French flute is often talked of as an impressionist instrument, but here in effect is the symbolist flute, more subtle and mysterious. From this point the flute moved on through the other ?isms? of the twentieth century, and none of them found it wanting in aesthetic resonance. It is unlikely, however, given the instrument?s earlier nineteenth-century history, that any of this could have been achieved without Paul Taffanel. He provided the aural background of a distinctive style that Debussy 778 Blakeman, Taffanel: Genius of the Flute, 182. 779 Two of the greatest French songwriters, Faur? and Duparc, were also pioneers in this field. It was Debussy whose settings of Baudelaire, Mallarm?, and Verlaine, in particular, were extraordinarily sensitive to the mood and intention of the poet. He used their texts for songs, opera, and instrumental preludes, and he regularly attended Mallarm?'s famous salon during the 1890s. Although not French, one of Debussy?s most fervent foreign admirers was the Italian writer Gabriele d?Annunzio, who referred to the French composer as ?Claude de France.? He also paid Debussy the compliment of inviting him, early in 1911, to compose incidental music for his own mystery play, The Martyrdom of St. Sebastian. Lockspeiser, Debussy: His Life and Mind, 135-150. 780 Another close, influential friend was Henri de R?gnier (1864-1936), likewise a leading young symbolist. Debussy also enjoyed a close friendship with composer Paul Dukas, who thought that literary connections played a larger part in the formation of Debussy's style than any musical model. Other writers as important to Debussy as the symbolists, especially in his formative years, were Th?odore de Banville, Charles Baudelaire, Paul Bourget, Anatole France, Leconte de Lisle, and Pierre Loti. The American gothic writer Edgar Allen Poe was important to Debussy as well. In addition, the composer was personally acquainted with Paul Bourget, Andr? Gide, Henri de Regnier, and Paul Val?ry. All these poets fortified Debussy's desire to deviate from common practice, sharpening his sensitivity to unique forms and recommending the use of implication and subtle suggestion rather than bald statement, and vivid, sensuous imagery rather than effusive emotion. Debussy sought and found the musical equivalents of their verbal techniques and, in Pell?as especially, gives musical embodiment to the linguistic attitudes of the symbolists. Indeed, one could regard Pell?as as an archetype of symbolism in musical form. Ibid., 150-159. 366 and other French composers grew up with. 778 Connections between Debussy and the symbolists have been traced in detail by Debussy's biographer, Edward Lockspeiser. The new poet-musician relationship showed that musicians began to be directly influenced by current literary trends. As a result, actual techniques of music and literature had now been brought closer together than ever before. It was only natural that, while the poets were borrowing from music, musicians would also have shown themselves to be especially sensitive to contemporary literature. 779 His closest friend at this time was poet Pierre Lou?s (1870-1925), the author of the Chansons de Bilitis and a disciple of the symbolists. 780 Debussy met Lou?s around 1893 when Lou?s was then beginning to attract attention in Parisian literary circles. In 781 In a letter to Lou?s written in 1903, Debussy declared: ?Among my friends you are certainly the one I have loved the most.? Lockspeiser, Debussy: His Life and Mind, 160. 782 Clive, Pierre Lou?s, 99-102. 783 Lockspeiser points out the numerous cross-identifications associated with this work between Gide, Lou?s, and Debussy, together with their mistresses or partners, which enmeshed them all in relationships of nearly impenetrable complexity. Lockspeiser, Claude Debussy, 175. 367 spite of the disparity in their ages?Debussy was thirty-one and Lou?s only twenty-two at the time of their first meeting?they soon became close friends and remained so for the next twelve years. 781 They had much in common temperamentally and shared the same predilection for rare and precious objects and sensations. Lou?s published Chansons de Bilitis in 1895 and dedicated the work to Andr? Gide. Lou?s tried to pass off the prose poems as a translation of works by a Grecian poetess, Bilitis, but that story was later revealed to be a hoax; Lou?s himself had written the poems and invented the Bilitis character. 782 Debussy set three of these poems as songs: La ch?velure (1897); La fl?te de Pan (1898); and Le tombeau des Ma?ades (1898). He dedicated the work to the author: "Pour Pierre Lou?s ? cause du 19 Octobre 1899 (this date is also the date of Debussy's marriage to Rosalie Texier). 783 The songs were not publicly performed until March 17, 1900 at the Soci?t? nationale, by singer Blanche Marot, accompanied by Debussy. Six months later, Lou?s was approached by Fernand Samuel, director of the Th??tre des vari?t?s, about creating a version of the Chansons de Bilitis to be recited and mimed. Lou?s asked Debussy to write an accompaniment to the scene; however, Debussy was not enthusiastic about the project and demurred. After some persuasion, Debussy eventually provided a score for voice, two flutes, two harps, and celeste. The 784 Clive, Pierre Lou?s, 170-171. 785 Ortledge, Charles Koechlin, 5. 368 performance was a tableau, a genre much in vogue at the time, in which a poem is recited with music and dancing, or movement which was presented as "frozen" scenes or tableau, in order to heighten appreciation of the poetry. The work was eventually performed at the Salle des F?tes of Le Journal on June 7, 1901, after which the score was forgotten until 1914, when Debussy arranged six of the pieces under the title of Six epigraphes antiques for both piano duet and piano solo. 784 In addition, the celeste part for the piece was lost and was eventually reconstructed by Pierre Boulez in 1954, as well as by keyboardist Arthur Ho?r?e in 1971. Because of the instrumentation and the loss in practice of recitation, the piece is rarely performed today. Curiously, the music is lyrical and beautiful, while the subjects of the poems are somewhat licentious, creating a mystical juxtaposition, rather than a musical expression of the text. CHARLES KOECHLIN (1867-1950) Charles Koechlin was born in Paris and came from a musical family. He left the ?cole Polytechnique during an illness and began to study music after introducing himself to Charles Lef?bvre (1843-1917), who agreed to take him as a private student. Already Koechlin was exhibiting his own "progressive" style of harmonization as an auditor in the harmony class of Antoine Taudou, after he was rejected from Th?odore Dubois' harmony class at the Conservatoire because of his advanced age. 785 But, he was also allowed to audit Massenet's composition class at the Conservatoire, and he studied counterpoint 786 Ortledge, Charles Koechlin, 10. 787 Ibid., 129. 369 there with Andr? G?dalge (1856-1926) in 1892. His lifelong interest in modal music was stimulated further by the music history classes of Louis Bourgault-Ducoudray (1840-1910) and, while at the Conservatoire, he was introduced to the songs of Claude Debussy. Soon, Koechlin was setting texts by Leconte de Lisle, for whose poetry he developed a special affinity, and by Tristan Klingsor. 786 Koechlin had a very personal, eclectic, and experimental style, one that incorporated chromaticism and polytonality among other procedures. In Ortledge's comments on Koechlin's style, he notes that the composer cannot be classified as a classic or romantic, expressionist or impressionist. But Ortledge is correct when he adds that it is equally impossible to mistake Koechlin's authorship for the work of any other composer, so individual was the stamp of his personality. As noted previously, because composers, writers, and artists all socialized and often worked together, they tended to gravitate to the same ideas and themes, and to be well aware of the stylistic developments at play around them. Koechlin often used the poetry of Tristan Klingsor, the same poet set by Ravel in his La fl?te enchant?e. Koechlin's settings of the Klingsor poems were conceived in 1914, after hearing the Ravel songs premiered by Jane Hatto on May 17, 1904. 787 Koechlin was by no means exceptional in his choice of subject matter, but, in truth, seascapes, Oriental imagery, and scenes of nature abound in late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century French music and art. Maurice Emmanuel and Gabriel Faur?, for example, favored subjects drawn from 788 Ortledge, Charles Koechlin, 232. 789 Harrison, ?Charles Koechlin and His Solo and Chamber Flute Works, 13. 370 Greek mythology. A striking parallel also exists between Koechlin and his friend Albert Roussel, who wrote a Po?me de la for?t, op. 7 between 1904 and 1906. Roussel used the dances of nymphs and satyrs in La naissance de la lyre, op. 24, composed between 1923 and 1924, and drew on Oriental sources in his ?vocations, op. 15, and his opera Padm?vat?, op.18. It is possible that Koechlin had Roussel's Joueurs de flute, op. 27 (1924) in mind (with titles like Pan and Tityre) when he composed his Chants de nectaire twenty years later. 788 Koechlin profited creatively from his friendships and collaborations with other musicians. He contributed scholarly articles about French music to the Lavignac and La Lavrencie encyclopedias, and he wrote biographies of Debussy, Faur?, and Satie. He was widely respected by his contemporaries, and Debussy entrusted him with the orchestration of his Egyptian ballet, Khamma. Koechlin also helped Cole Porter with the orchestration of his ballet Within the Quota. 789 Koechlin was at the center of Parisian musical life and, in 1909, he co-founded the Soci?t? musicale ind?pendente along with Caplet, Faur?, Ravel, and Schmitt, among others. He was invited by Satie to join the group he called Les nouveaux jeunes, which was later superseded by Les six in 1920. In 1937, he became professor of composition at the Schola Cantorum and was known for his eccentric dress in a shepherd's cloak and his long flowing beard. On the death of Roussel, Koechlin became president of the 790 Ortledge, Charles Koechlin, 21-48. 791 For instance, Koechlin?s Seven Stars? Symphony, written in the summer of 1933, was divided into seven sections, each of which was named after one of the seven stars of the cinema between World War I and World War II: Douglas Fairbanks, Lilian Harvey, Greta Garbo, Clara Bow, Marlene Dietrich, Emil Jannings, and Charlie Chaplin. Ortledge, Charles Koechlin, 160-168. 792 In the beginning, Lilian Harvey responded cordially to his correspondence, but over time, clearly rebuffed his inappropriate contact. She never acknowledged his film scenario or the music he wrote for her. Ibid. 793 In April, 1936, Koechlin decided to make a final attempt to contact Lilian Harvey, but his fear of meeting her finally triumphed, and he sent his wife Suzanne to visit her in Antibes and leave her a selection of his latest compositions. The fact that Harvey never acknowledged the work provoked a final letter to her from Koechlin, and its touches of bitterness and reproach show that he was deeply hurt by her indifference. Ibid. 371 Federation musicale populaire and seven years later, in 1942, was named president of the musical commission of the Association France-U.S.S.R., as well as the French section of the Soci?t? internationale de musique contemparaine. 790 Indeed, Koechlin was an eccentric man and had become spellbound by certain actors of early sound films, especially the American film star Lilian Harvey, who inspired over one hundred of his works. 791 The composer had seen her films and vicariously fell in love with her, with the resulting two-year infatuation continuing through a one-sided correspondence and a film scenario that he invented entitled Le portrait de Daisy Hamilton starring both himself and Lilian. 792 His Album de Lilian is another work inspired by the actress; it consists of two series of pieces written for various combinations of flute, soprano, and piano. In 1936, he sent his wife to show the composition to Lilian, but the actress's refusal to even look at the pieces which she inspired led him to begin composing his music for Ginger Rogers, another actress whom he greatly admired. 793 Koechlin's two pieces for voice and flute from L'Album de Lilian, op.139, no. 6 794 Ortledge, Charles Koechlin, 165. 795 Ibid., 163. 796 Ibid., Appendix B. 372 (Skating-Smiling) and no. 7 (En route vers le bonheur), were written in homage to Harvey and are his only late works of vocal chamber music, though the soprano part for both is a wordless vocalise. The former, inspired by his favorite skating sequence in the film Princesse ? vos orders, was originally called Sourire (Smile), and the conclusion of this graceful piece was intended to create an impression similar to that of both Faur?'s Shylock suite and the Sicilienne of Koechlin's earlier Sonatine, op. 59, no. 2. 794 Of the first Album de Lilian, Koechlin noted: "I wrote these pieces to please myself, and because I was taken by my subject. It is not we who choose our subjects; they seize hold of us." 795 Koechlin was an extremely productive composer for the flute, completing twenty-two pieces during his career. Many were dedicated to and premiered by his friend, flutist Jan Merry. Koechlin was also one of the first French composers to write pieces using the alto flute and piccolo. The series Les chants de nectaire, op, 198, op. 199, and op. 200, for solo flute, consists of three works with thirty-two movements in each, and the entire cycle was inspired by a scene from the novel La r?volte des anges by Anatole France. These pieces were premiered by Marcel Moyse and Jan Merry at various performances between 1945 and 1947. Koechlin also benefitted from his associations with other flutists who premiered his works, including Gaston Crunelle, Philippe Gaubert, Marcelle Hennebains, Ren? Le Roy, and Maurice Trembelland. 796 His flute works show his experiments to exploit the technical possibilities of the Boehm flute and 797 Orledge, Charles Koechlin, 114-118. 373 the superior abilities of the young flute virtuosos. As a composer and teacher, Koechlin spanned several generations of musical development and influenced many composers. For instance, it was Koechlin who first experimented with polytonality and who encouraged the explorations of his student, Darius Milhaud, in this field. Milhaud would later exploit polytonality in many of his works and would bring this technique into general acceptance among other musicians. 797 Yet, because of his musical experiments and his personal quirks, Koechlin never became a well-known composer with the public, and his music never entered the standard repertory. Nevertheless, many French composers wrote with admiration and respect of Koechlin's pioneering of compositional technique, and he was a pivotal figure in the development of twentieth-century French music and, in particular, music for the flute. ALBERT ROUSSEL (1869-1937) Albert Roussel had an acute interest in music, despite his early naval career. His delicate health forced him to resign from the military in 1894, and, as a result, his musical studies began at an age when most composers have already received a thorough grounding in the elements of their craft. His first studies with Eug?ne Gigout introduced him to the music of Bach, Handel, Mozart, and Beethoven. But Gigout also introduced Roussel to Vincent d'Indy, who persuaded him to enroll at the newly created Schola Cantorum, and, for the next nine years, Roussel followed d'Indy's lectures in 798 Deane, Albert Roussel, 1-10. 799 Ibid., 150-158. 800 Ibid., 22-26. 801 Ibid. 374 composition, orchestration, and musical history. 798 Roussel soon began composing in earnest and eventually became a professor at the Schola, where his students included composers as different as Stan Golestan, Guy de Lioncourt, Alexis Roland-Manuel, Erik Satie, and Edgar Var?se. Later, during the 1920s, he would be a mentor to another generation of composers, such as Conrad Beck, Jean Cras, and Bouslav Martinu. 799 The outbreak of World War I awoke feelings of patriotism in Roussel, and he re-enlisted in the navy. He was deeply moved by the holocaust of the war and was often sickened by what he saw. 800 As a result of his military experiences, and again after his marriage, Roussel traveled widely (he spent a good deal of time in India, visiting Agra, B?nar?s, Bombay, Delhi, Darjeeling, and Madras) and found himself attracted to the music of the east. The influence of Hindu music and dance on Roussel's style is notable, and even his early works show a certain exoticism which expresses itself in the composer's efforts to avoid harmonic conventionality. The modal variety of oriental scales undoubtedly encouraged him to apply the freedom of chromatic alteration to his own music. After the war, bi-tonality was aggressively presented as an important compositional element in his works. 801 Roussel began song composition as early as 1903, even though his teacher, 802 Deane, Albert Roussel, 26-32. 803 Roussel met Jean-Aubry around 1908, and the poet wrote the libretto of a one-act lyric drama entitled Le marchand de sable qui passe. Roussel?s arrangement was for string quintet, flute, clarinet, horn, and harp. His friendship with the distinguished writer was very valuable to Roussel. Deane, Albert Roussel, 140-149. 804 Other singers to whom he dedicated works and who also premiered these works were: Pierre Barnac ? Deux po?mes chinois, op. 35 (1927); R?gine de Lormoy ? Deux idylles, op. 44 (1931); Madame Bourdette-Vial ? Deux po?mes chinois, op. 47 (1932); and Madame Blanc-Audra ? Deux m?lodies, op. 55 (1935). Deane, Albert Roussel, Appendix A. 805 Ibid. 806 Several contemporary composers were asked to contribute works for this issue. It would ultimately include: Ronsard ? son ?me by Ravel; La fontaine d?H?l?ne by Aubert; Sonnet by Dukas; Chanson by Honegger; and Doux fut le trait by Caplet. Ibid. 375 d'Indy, ignored the genre almost completely and offered him no guidance in it at the Schola. 802 His first songs were set to the poetry of G. Jean-Aubry, 803 Henri de R?gnier, and H. P. Roch?. Later, he would be attracted to the writings of Leconte de Lisle (Odes anacr?ontiques, 1926) and Ren? Chalupt (Le bachelier de Salamanque, 1919). A number of pieces can be related directly to well-known sopranos of the day, including Quatre po?mes, op. 3 (1903) and Quatre po?mes, op. 8 (1907), premiered by Jane Bathori and dedicated to Mary Garden and Jane Bathori respectively; Deux po?mes chinois, op. 12 (1907), premiered by Jane Bathori and dedicated to Mary Pironnay; Deux m?lodies, op. 19 (1918), premiered by Lucy Vuillemin 804 and dedicated to Gaston Frager; and Deux m?lodies, op. 20 (1919), premiered by and dedicated to Lucy Vuillemin. 805 Deux po?mes de Ronsard (1924) for flute and soprano was composed for the Tombeau de Ronsard, published by the Revue Musicale in May of that year, to mark the fourth centenary of the poet's birth. 806 This work received its premiere on May 15, 1924, 807 Toff, Monarch of the Flute, 51-52. 376 at the Th??tre du Vieux-Colombier by soprano Ninon Vallin and flutist Louis Fleury. The first movement is dedicated to Ninon Vallin; the second movement to Claire Croiza. The piece is obviously inspired by these singers. As noted above, Roussel was well acquainted with the extraordinary flutists of the Conservatoire and had already written a piece, Joueurs de fl?te, op. 27, dedicated to Marcel Moyse, Gaston Blanquart, Louis Fleury, and Philippe Gaubert. Apparently, Georges Barr?re was also a close friend with Roussel; both taught at the Schola Cantorum during the same years. Toff describes their musical connection: His [Roussel?s] friendship with Barr?re would last for more than thirty years; no doubt his firsthand knowledge of Barr?re?s sound contributed to his effective orchestration of the Trio, op. 40, which Barr?re premiered, and the Andante et Scherzo, op. 51, which is dedicated to him. 807 At the time of its composition, Deux po?mes de Ronsard was a revolutionary work. Before this piece, there were no works by French composers for solo flute and voice. Afterward, however, several composers attempted this instrumentation, including Alexis Roland-Manuel, Andr? Caplet (indeed, Caplet wrote ?coute, mon coeur the next year), and Jacques Ibert. The harmonic procedures of Deux po?mes de Ronsard were considered radical at the time, with the flute and voice parts combining to form dissonant intervals such as the minor second and the major seventh. As well, the voice often takes a subordinate role to the flute, which has extended cadenzas and solo passages. While Roussel uses the instrument to imitate birdcalls, he does not employ the hackneyed devices of previous generations such as trills, tremolos of a fifth, or repeated notes. 808 Deane, Albert Roussel, Appendix A. 377 Instead, he uses chromatically altered thirty-second note flourishes and falling half-step appoggiaturas that are truer to real birdcalls. In this way, he influenced the work of Olivier Messiaen, who actually spent time in the woods recording the calls of birds and then attempted to recreate these calls on musical instruments. This was a significant change in writing for the flute. Roussel wrote several chamber works for the flute that were premiered by the leading flutists of the day and, in general, he collaborated with many of the flutists in the creation of new works. These included Divertissement, op. 6 (1906), premiered by the Soci?t? moderne des instruments ? vent with Louis Fleury on flute; Joueurs de fl?tes, op. 27, for flute and piano, premiered by Louis Fleury; Andante et scherzo, op. 51, for flute and piano, premiered by and dedicated to Georges Barr?re; S?r?nade, op. 30, for flute, violin, viola, cello, and harp, premiered by Ren? le Roy and dedicated to him; and Trio, op. 40, for flute, viola, and cello, premiered by Georges Barr?re, and dedicated to Elizabeth Sprague Coolidge. Roussel benefitted from the postwar activities of the Soci?t? musicale ind?pendente, which organized festivals of his works in 1925 and 1929 and performed concerts of his orchestral, vocal, and chamber music. 808 MAURICE RAVEL (1875-1937) Maurice Ravel was born in Basque country and was of Basque heritage. As a young boy, his mother sang him to sleep with Basque and Spanish songs, which was the 809 Orenstein, Ravel: Man and Musician, 7-9. 810 Orenstein, Ravel: Man and Musician, 13-46. 811 Larner, Maurice Ravel, 32-48. 812 Ravel confessed later in his life that A rebours by Joris-Karl Huysmans had dazzled him in his early youth. Ibid., 33-37. 378 beginning of a passionate interest in Spanish music for Ravel. 809 He was brought to Paris in 1875, after the comprehensive city planning of Baron Haussmann and the end of the Franco-Prussian War. Ravel witnessed the building of the Tour Eiffel, the Basilica of the Sacr? coeur, the Moulin Rouge, and the opening of the Exposition universelle in 1889, where he was exposed to French folk music, Spanish music, music from China and Southeast Asia, and the gamelan of the Javanese Village. 810 He also heard the music of Balakirev, Borodin, Mussorgsky, and Rimsky-Korsakov at the Exposition universelle, and it was a revelation for him. Ravel entered the Conservatoire in 1889, the same year as his friend Ricardo Vi?es, and studied harmony with Charles Pessard. But the most influential musicians in his life were to be found closer to his home in Montmartre, where he got to know Emmanuel Chabrier and Erik Satie. 811 Ravel was intrigued with symbolist aesthetics early in his life, and the books he read during these years were durable influences, although he hid much of what he read from his friends at the time. His favorite authors during these years were Villiers de l'Isle-Adam, Barbey d'Aurevilly, J.K. Huysmans, and Edward Allan Poe. 812 In his later years, Ravel felt that the most important lesson he had ever received about composing 813 Ivry, Maurice Ravel, 12. 814 Larner, Maurice Ravel, 84-86. 815 Even after Ravel was excluded from the Conservatoire in 1900, he continued to audit Faur??s class until 1903, and later dedicated to Faur? works such as Jeux d?eau and his string quartet. Ibid., 62-63. 816 Ibid., 50. 379 came from Poe's essay, "The Philosophy of Composition," which advocated thinking out every aspect of the work before setting it on paper. 813 This would become Ravel's approach to composition for the rest of his life, imposing discipline on a highly volatile creative imagination. After hearing Debussy's Pr?lude ? l'apr?s-midi d'un faune in 1894, Ravel became interested in Mallarm? and began setting his works to music. This piece awakened Ravel to the flute's potential in both orchestral and chamber works. His Introduction et allegro for flute, harp, clarinet, and string quartet (1905) was a later outgrowth of the influence of Debussy. 814 Meanwhile, a shake-up in the faculty at the Conservatoire resulted in the resignation of Jules Massenet as professor of composition, and he was replaced by Gabriel Faur?. Ravel joined Faur?'s class in 1898, along with students Georges Enescu, Charles Koechlin, and Raoul Laparra. 815 He also studied with Andr? G?dalge, who gave considerable attention to the works of Bach and Mozart, uncommon at the time. Ravel later wrote of his Conservatoire experiences: ?I am happy to say that I owe the most precious elements of my craft to Andr? G?dalge. As for Faur?, the encouragement of his artistic advice was no less profitable for me.? 816 Faur? introduced Ravel into the salons of the day, including that of Madame Ren? 817 Kahan, Music?s Modern Muse, 106. 818 In 1938, Cipa?s daughter Mimie wrote, ?I think my parents were Ravel?s adopted family. When they moved to rue d?Ath?nes he rented a room in a very modest hotel opposite their apartment where he stayed whenever he came to Paris from Montfort l?Amaury.? Larner, Maurice Ravel, 83-85. 819 Ravel progressed in Faur??s composition class, and a report from January 18, 1900 referred to his ?very artistic temperament? and his ?notable maturity.? However, in that same month, he took part in some kind of academic protest with five other students who, having entered the fugue competition, refused to submit their work for the examination. This was not in itself very serious, since he had a second chance to achieve the necessary distinction before the end of the year. But when he submitted his fugue six months later, it was rejected as ?impossible? by the director of the Conservatoire, Th?odore Dubois. In consequence, as the rules required of any student who failed twice in successive competitions, he was expelled from the composition class. As well, on his first entry for the Prix de Rome, he was eliminated at the preliminary stage, his fugue and his choral piece being judged incompetent. Ravel would never win the Prix de Rome, and the controversy would eventually bring about substantial changes in the administration at the Conservatoire. Orenstein, Ravel: Man and Musician, 27-46. 380 de Saint-Marceaux, where Debussy, Vincent d'Indy, and Andr? Messager were regular visitors and to the home of Winnaretta Singer, later the princesse de Polignac. She commissioned works from many composers, including Ravel, who produced Pavane pour une infante d?funte for her in 1899. 817 At the salon of Cipa Godebski, Ravel made the acquaintance of Odilon Redon, who became a close friend, and he met the artists Pierre Bonnard, Henri de Toulouse-Latrec, and ?douard Vuillard; the writers Jean Cocteau, Andr? Gide, Valery Larbaud, and Paul Val?ry; and the composers Erik Satie and Albert Roussel. Later, at a dress rehearsal for the Concerts du Conservatoire, Ravel met soprano Jane Bathori. In the coming years she premiered a number of Ravel's songs, including Histoire naturelles (1907), Trois po?mes de St?phane Mallarm? (1913), and Chansons mad?casses (1926). 818 After a struggle with the academic authorities at the Conservatoire, Ravel was expelled from the school in 1900. 819 Nevertheless, he continued to attend Faur?'s composition classes as an auditor, rather than as an official Conservatoire student, and he 820 Ravel?s efforts were surprising since he must have known that by 1900, as an indication of a young composer?s potential, the prize did not mean much. The vast majority of the Prix de Rome winners from previous generations did not go on to have successful composition careers. (Indeed, those who either failed to win the prize or never troubled to compete were composers such as Emmanuel Chabrier, Ernest Chausson, Gabriel Faur?, C?sar Franck, Vincent d?Indy, ?douard Lalo, Albert Roussel, and Camille Saint- Sa?ns.) He must have felt that the former prestige of the prize, along with the income and accommodation at the Villa Medici in Rome for two years, was worth the effort. Orenstein, Ravel: Man and Musician, 27- 46. 821 In fact, this view was shared by others in the musical world, including Romain Rolland, who describe the situation as the affaire Ravel. Ibid. 381 persisted in his laborious efforts to win the Prix de Rome. 820 In 1901, Ravel progressed through the preliminary stage and submitted a cantata, Myrrha, which won the consistent support of Massenet in the prolonged judgment of the final round. The jurors who preferred settings of the same text by Andr? Caplet and Gabriel Dupont outvoted Massenet, however. After much discussion as to whether a first prize should be awarded, Caplet was given the 1st Grand Prix, Dupont the upper 2nd Grand Prix, and Ravel the lower 2nd Grand Prix. So he tried again and in successive years, yet again, he reached the final stage on both occasions without securing the top prize for either of his cantatas, Alcyone in 1902, and Alyssa in 1903. In 1904, he refrained from competing, but in 1905? his last chance, since he was now in his thirtieth year?he submitted himself to the process again. The result was embarrassing, though not so much for Ravel as for the jury, which stopped him at the preliminary stage. Since Ravel was by now a published composer with several public performances to his credit, Ravel suspected that there were political motives behind his treatment at the Conservatoire and from the Prix de Rome jury. 821 Perhaps as a consolation for these failures, in the early 1900s Ravel began to 822 Apparently, the group was all male, Maurice Delage stating that their cardinal rule was to ?keep women out of the place as much as possible.? Ivry, Maurice Ravel, 27. 823 Jeux d?eau was a revelation to Ravel?s friends because, as Fargue recalled, they were at the time ?soaked body and soul in the impressionism of Debussy? and this impressionism was quite different. Ravel, too, believed he had discovered something new: ?Jeux d?eau is the origin of all the pianistic innovations people have claimed to find in my work.? If the group had heard anything like it before, it would have been in Liszt?s Les jeux d?eau ? la Villa d?Este, where a similar technique of arpeggios at the top of the piano keyboard is used to simulate the sound and the movement of water in a fountain. Ravel affirmed this characterization by heading the published score with the evocative line Dieu fluvial riant de l?eau qui le chatouille (river god laughing at the water that tickles him) from R?gnier?s ?F?te d?eau.? Larner, Maurice Ravel, 66-69. 382 spend time in an informal group known as Les apaches, 822 which included poets L?on-Paul Fargue (who was admired for his brilliant conversation) and Tristan Klingsor (who wrote the Sh?h?razade poems that Ravel set to music in 1903), conductor D?sir?-Emile Inghelbrecht, pianist Ricardo Vi?es, and composers Andr? Caplet, Maurice Delage, Manuel De Falla, Florent Schmitt, and Deodat de Severac, among others. The group met regularly on Saturdays at the home of Paul Sordes, a painter and excellent pianist. While there was a preponderance of visual artists in the group, there were also writers who came to read their latest work and musicians who played their latest compositions. Ravel performed his Jeux d'eau for the first time for this group, whose members declared it a revelation. The work was premiered publicly on April 30, 1902, two days before the first night of Debussy's epoch-making Pell?as et M?lisande at the Op?ra-Comique. 823 Ravel also frequented other artistic circles, including members of La Revue Blanche, to which Faur? introduced him. At these gatherings, Ravel met the group's co-founder Thad?e Natanson and got to know the poet Henri de R?gnier, whose poems he set to music on more than one occasion, and Jules Renard, author of the Histoire 824 A Ravel Reader, edited by Arbie Orenstein, 3-4. 825 In a letter to Koechlin, Ravel wrote to explain his reasons for the new group: Societies, even national, do not escape from the laws of evolution. But one is free to withdraw from them. This is what I am doing by sending in my resignation as a member. I presented 3 works of my pupils, of which one was particular interesting, Like the others, it too was refused. It didn?t offer those solid qualities of incoherence and boredom, which the Schola Cantorum baptizes as structure and profundity.?I am undertaking to form a new society, more independent, at least in the beginning. This idea has delighted many people. Would you care to join us? Orenstein, Ravel: Man and Musician, 61-62. 383 naturelles that Ravel set to music in 1906. After La Revue Blanche closed down in 1903, Ravel joined the Tuesday reception of the members of Mercure de France, where he met music critic Jean Marnold, who became a valuable ally. Nevertheless, until World War I dispersed them, it was from Les apaches that Ravel drew his most fervent artistic stimulation. 824 Although Ravel was having little trouble getting his own works performed by the Soci?t? nationale de musique, he was becoming increasingly unhappy about the conservative way in which the group was being run by the influential Wagnerian, Vincent d'Indy, from his powerful base at the Schola Cantorum. On January 19, 1909, Ricardo Vi?es gave the successful premiere of Gaspard de la nuit (1908) at a concert presented by the Soci?t? nationale at the Salle ?rard. However, only a week later, Ravel resigned from the committee in protest at the exclusion of works submitted by three of his pupils, including one by Maurice Delage (Cont? par la mer) which Ravel considered particularly worthy of performance. 825 Within months, Ravel, Koechlin, and several students of Gabriel Faur? formed the Soci?t? musicale ind?pendente and persuaded Faur? to become its president, while, 826 Duchen, Gabriel Faur?, 170-171. 827 Larner, Maurice Ravel, 74-77. 828 Ibid. 829 Ibid., 75. 384 somehow, Faur? retained the equivalent position with the Soci?t? nationale and, moreover, remained on friendly terms with d'Indy. 826 For the first concert of the Soci?t? musicale ind?pendente on April 20, 1910, Ravel produced a work for two pianos: Ma m?re l'oye, which he later orchestrated. Klingsor's Sh?h?razade poems might have been written specifically to appeal to Ravel; the title was taken from the Rimsky-Korsakov symphonic suite that Ravel admired so much, and the poems themselves offered him ample opportunity to satisfy his longing for the exotic, left unfulfilled when he abandoned a Sh?h?razade opera project some five years earlier. 827 In addition, he was attracted to the form of the poems, their unrhymed, rhythmically free verse seemed particularly well suited to the addition of music. According to Klingsor, when Ravel set a poem to music, he was: ?transforming it into an expressive recitative, intensifying the inflections of the words into song, heightening all the possibilities of the words without subordinating them to the music. 828 This song cycle, dating from 1903, had a great deal in common with Debussy's Pell?as et M?lisande, which, as Ravel confessed, had "at least a spiritual influence." 829 In La fl?te enchant?e, the sound of the flute is meant to be felt as a lover's kiss, shaping a metaphor of music as erotic experience and, overall, the song has a correspondingly 830 According to Ivry, Ravel initially wrote this work with a male singer in mind. However, it was premiered by a soprano and has been sung by women ever since. Ivry, Maurice Ravel, 39. 831 Ravel took umbrage at the comparison, believing that his compositional style and Debussy?s were quite different. Musician Louis Laloy insisted in the journal La Revue Musicale that the comparison should not be taken literally and that Ravel should not be dismissed as an ?imitator? of Debussy. Larner, Maurice Ravel, 76. 832 This work by Mallarm? was published in the journal Nouvelle Revue Fran?ais. Ibid., 138. 385 melodious sensuality. It is clear that the flute part is a solo extracted from the orchestration, with the instrument used as coloration and not as an equal voice. Like Debussy, Ravel writes for the flute in a way that exploits its beauty of tone and its ability to change tone color. The tempo is slow and languorous, and the harmonic treatment and grouping of runs are reminiscent of Pr?lude ? l'apr?s midi d'un faune. The premiere was given by soprano Jane Hatto 830 at the Soci?t? nationale de musique on May 17, 1904, with Alfred Cortot conducting. The work was well received and comparisons between Debussy and Ravel can be dated from this point in Ravel's career. 831 It is clear from Ravel's letters of 1913 that he originally intended to write only two Mallarm? song settings for what eventually became the Trois po?mes de St?phane Mallarm?. In what can only be described as a coincidence, Ravel and Debussy were working on the same Mallarm? texts at the same time, though it is not so surprising that they both turned to Mallarm? in the early months of 1913: an important complete edition of the poet's work had just been published. 832 It is not certain whether Ravel set a third poem before or after he learned that Debussy had set a third Mallarm? poem, but eventually he did set three poems: "Soupir," "Placet futile," and "Surgi de la croupe et du bond." 833 Later, Ravel was quite frank about this influence of Schoenberg on the Trois poems saying: ?You should never be afraid of imitating. I joined the Schoenberg school to write my Po?mes de Mallarm?. . . . If it didn?t become quite Schoenberg it is because, in music, I am not so wary of charm, which is something he avoids to the point of asceticism, martyrdom even.? Larner, Maurice Ravel, 137. 386 While Ravel, at this time, was not familiar with Schoenberg's Pierrot lunaire, 833 he was aware of Schoenberg's work and certainly knew Stravinsky's Three Japanese Lyrics. Stravinsky, on the other hand, did know Pierrot lunaire, having been present at its 1912 premiere in Vienna. He was particularly impressed with the instrumentation and used a very similar instrumental ensemble in his Japanese Lyrics. Ravel's instrumentation for Trois po?mes is identical to that of Stravinsky's. The Three Japanese Lyrics and Trois po?mes de St?phane Mallarm?, along with Delage's Quatre po?mes hindous, were premiered on January 14, 1914 at the Soci?t? musicale ind?pendente concerts, sung by Jane Bathori. In these exceptional songs, there are parts for two flutes, which are not prominent voices until the second and third movements. In the first movement, the two flutes act as member of a chamber ensemble where the strings play a leading role. Ravel uses arpeggios on string harmonics to give the piece an "otherworldly" effect. In the next two movements, Ravel introduces not only the flute, but also the piccolo, which is the first appearance of octavino in French flute and voice chamber music. The flute and piccolo have extended duet passages that interplay, as well as a short cadenza with flute, voice, and piano at the end of movement two. Like La fl?te enchant?e, the tempo of each movement is slow, with chromatic flourishes (Ravel uses flats and sharps in the same line and in one measure) written for the flute in the instrument's third octave. He uses the piccolo almost as an extension of the range of the flute, with several lyrical solos in the 834 Larner, Maurice Ravel, 189-193. 835 Ibid., 188. 836 Ibid., 189. 837 Ravel apparently preferred the singing of Madeleine Grey, and she eventually performed and recorded the work several times. A Ravel Reader, edited by Arbie Orenstein, Appendix F. 387 second and third octaves of the piccolo (sounding the same as the third and fourth octaves on the flute). The Chanson mad?casses for flute, cello, soprano, and piano was written as the result of a commission from the American patroness, Elizabeth Sprague Coolidge, who sponsored a new chamber work from a leading composer every year. 834 In turning to the poetry of Evariste Parny, an eighteenth-century disciple of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Ravel made a surprising choice, which he thus explained: They [Chanson mad?casses] seem to me to introduce something new, dramatic? indeed erotic?arising from the subject matter of Parny's poems. 835 The poems were not, in fact, collected from Madagascan natives as Parny had claimed, but were his own prose poems written to present both an appealing exoticism and the poet's anti-colonial political sentiments. Ravel had set no texts as unusual as these since Sh?h?razade, and he described the piece in the following terms: "It is a sort of quartet, where the voice is the principal instrument. Simplicity dominates." 836 The work was premiered by soprano Jane Bathori at the American Embassy in Rome on May 8, 1926 837 and, when the Paris performance took place at the Salle ?rard on June 13, 1926, the work was greeted as a masterpiece. When the score was published, it included three 838 Clearly, the Chanson mad?casses foreshadows musical works by French composers of the primitive movement, Andr? Jolivet?s Chant de linos an example of a primitivist work for flute and chamber ensemble from the next generation. 388 woodblock prints by Jean-Luc Moreau as illustrations which are still included in the current Durand edition. The Chansons mad?casses is an especially different work from the two previous pieces written by Ravel for flute, voice, and chamber ensemble. The treatment of each instrument is highly soloistic, with extended passages included for all. The writing for each instrument is exceptionally idiosyncratic, with solo passages written for the cello in the highest range for the instrument and solo passages written for the flute in the lowest range of that instrument. These extremes are technically challenging for each instrument, and the sounds produced by the instruments are eerie and disturbing. The erotic element is not excluded, but it is expressed through other means than the caressing instrumental textures of Sh?h?razade and Daphnis et Chlo?. Like the Trois po?mes, Ravel asks the flutist to switch back and forth between flute and piccolo, with several extended solos on piccolo. Harmonically, the piece is dissonant and pungent, making use of bitonality, modes, and polytonality. The melodies are repetitive and terse, far removed from the sensuousness of his pieces from previous decades. The voice part, some of it written on the nonsense word "Aoua," is more of a primitive cry than a melody. 838 Its message of revolution evokes the cries of oppressed natives, and Ravel took it upon himself to add the dramatic opening war cry to Parny's text. The difference between the circumspect flute solo at the beginning of "Il est doux" and the seductive cadenza in "La fl?te enchant?e" from Sh?h?razade is a striking example of the development of the composer's 839 Caplet met Debussy after returning from a trip to Rome, soon after the premiere of Pell?as et M?lisande. As the music director of the Boston Symphony, Caplet was also instrumental in introducing American audiences to the works of Ravel. Some of the works that Caplet programmed in America included L?Enfant prodigue, Pell?as et M?lisande, and Martyre de Saint Sebastian. Baker?s Biographical Dictionary of Musicians, 8 th edition, 157. 840 Spencer, ?The Influence and Stylistic Heritage of Andr? Caplet,? 55-61. 389 sensibilities in the intervening twenty-three years. ANDR? CAPLET (1878-1925) Andr? Caplet studied at the Conservatoire, receiving the Prix de Rome in 1901. He became a member of Les apaches, including composers Maurice Delage, Maurice Ravel, Ricardo Vi?es, and Florent Schmitt; writers L?on-Paul Fargue, D.E. Inghelbrecht, Tristan Klingsor, and Abb? L?once Petit; and designer Emile Seguy, among others. This group had a passion for Chinese art, for Mallarm? and Verlaine, for C?zanne and Van Gogh, for Chopin and Couperin, for Whistler and Val?ry, and an admiration for the Russian five and for Debussy. This group nourished Caplet's early tendencies for the exotic and heard many of his new works. This group was also responsible for preparing the groundwork for Caplet's association with Debussy. 839 Caplet had a flourishing career as a composer and as a conductor. He was appointed conductor of the Boston Opera and the Boston Symphony from 1910 to1914 and, while at the Boston Opera, he collaborated with many of the great European sopranos of the day, including Emma Calv? and Mary Garden, among others. 840 Caplet centered his compositional efforts on the female voice, publishing virtually nothing for piano or orchestra. His songs are numerous and include settings for the poetry of Charles Baudelaire, Victor Hugo, Henri de R?gnier, Pierre Gravollet, Jean de la Fontaine, and 841 An article in the Boston Globe from October, 1910, announced: ?The new conductor [Caplet] has already been introduced to Boston through the performances by the Longy Club of three compositions of his for wind instruments ?The Quintet will be played this winter for the first time in New York by the Barr?re ensemble, an organization of wind instruments of like nature to our Longy Club, assembled and directed by George [sic] Barr?re, the first flute of the New York symphony orchestra.? Spencer, ?The Influence and Stylistic Heritage of Andr? Caplet,? 55. 842 Toff, Monarch of the Flute, 40. 390 Pierre de Ronsard, among others. Caplet was associated the flutist Georges Barr?re, both in France and in the United States. As a member of the Soci?t? de Saint-C?cile, Barr?re performed works by Caplet, as he did with his own Barr?re Ensemble. 841 Barr?re also gave the first performance of Caplet's R?verie et petite valse in 1897, which has since become a staple of the flute repertory. Toff describes their association: Caplet?s collaboration with Barr?re was already two years old; his first published pieces, R?verie et petite valse for flute and piano, were issued by his hometown publishers, Hurstel of Le Havre, in 1897 and dedicated to Barr?re Although Caplet entered the Conservatoire in 1896, just after Barr?re left, he was a friend there of Volaire and Flament, who earned their first prizes in 1898, and studied with Leroux, also Barr?re?s harmony teacher. While still a student, he became assistant conductor of the Colonne Orchestra, so through one or both of these routes, the orchestra or the closely knit community of woodwind players, he quickly met Barr?re. The flutist would become his greatest champion as a chamber music composer?well before Caplet forged his fruitful collaboration with Debussy or gained fame as a composer of mystical and deeply religious choral music?and the quality of his music would in turn reflect well upon the Soci?t? moderne. Indeed, Barr?re?s colleagues credited him with ?discovering? Caplet as a woodwind composer. (The Barr?re-Caplet friendship continued for many years, later strengthened by their mutual residence in the United States, when Caplet was director of the Boston Opera from 1910 to 1914.) 842 Caplet wrote several chamber pieces for flute that were premiered by the well-known flute virtuoso and Conservatoire professor, Philippe Gaubert, including Quintette (1900) for piano, flute, oboe, clarinet, and bassoon (which was awarded the 843 Ortledge, Andr? Caplet, 88. 391 first prize by the Soci?t? des compositeur de musique) and Viens! Une fl?te invisible soupire (Victor Hugo, 1900) for flute, soprano, and piano. Caplet's Viens! Une fl?te invisible soupire is very different from the setting by Saint-Sa?ns some thirteen years before. While both pieces begin with the flute, the use of the instrument has changed dramatically from one of obligato accompaniment to one of independent voice. Caplet uses double-dotted notes with thirty-second note flourishes to give the flute line a floating quality. Technically, there are all manner of trills and arpeggios, and Caplet writes the flute part mainly in the upper register of the instrument, which projected better on the Boehm flute than the low register. The construction of the piece is markedly different than Saint-Sa?ns's piece, with changes in key and in tempo that give a climax to the song towards the middle of the work. The vocal and piano writing are equally as dramatic as that of the flute, and the effect of the song is one of a musical development, rather than repetition of verses. Caplet was relative young, a twenty-year-old composer, when he wrote his first piece for flute and voice, and it reflects traditional compositional techniques, with a lyrical voice part, an arabesque style of flute writing, and an arpeggiated piano accompaniment. As Ortledge, the composer's biographer, describes it: The flute arabesques and certain harmonic progressions in an early song like Viens! Une fl?te invisible soupire ?obviously owe a debt to Debussy's L'apr?s-midi d'un faune, but the spacious vocal lines that combine with the flute in effortless counterpoint are already Caplet's own. Like many of his early songs, this is an unhurried miniature cantata with a quasi-orchestral piano part that is far more than mere accompaniment. 843 392 It was a much different composer who wrote ?coute, mon coeur for flute and soprano in 1925. Instead of relying upon the romantic poetry of Victor Hugo, now twenty years later, Caplet is drawn to the works of Rabindranath Tagore (as was his mentor, Ravel). ?coute is the first movement of a larger three-movement work entitled Corbeille de fruits (1925), in which the first and third movements are written for soprano and flute, and middle movement for soprano and piano. ?coute, mon coeur takes its inspiration from Roussel, with writing only for flute and soprano and with techniques that, in 1925, were considered "contemporary," including: arpeggios, pentatonic harmony, trills, flutter tongue effects, and free chromaticism. The vocal line is sustained, both lyrically and stepwise, as the flute flutters around in its upper register. The works from the two ends of his life hardly resemble one another in compositional style or technique. Clearly, modern flute playing, represented by Georges Barr?re, Ren? Le Roy, Marcel Moyse, and others influenced Caplet to conceive of music for the flute in a radically different manner after 1900. JEAN CRAS (1879-1932) Jean Cras was the son of a distinguished naval surgeon, and he would later enter the navy as well. Unlike his friend Roussel, Cras remained in the service for the rest of his life and had a brilliant naval career, rising to the rank of rear admiral and receiving numerous decorations for heroism during World War I. Cras' initial musical education was in Paris, not at the Conservatoire, but in private lessons with Henri Duparc, who immediately recognized his gifts. As it happened, Duparc provided the only formal training in composition that Cras received and a lifelong friendship between the two men 844 The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2 nd edition, vol. 5, 647. 845 Ibid. 846 Toff, Monarch of the Flute, 290-291. 393 began. 844 Beginning in a Franckian style, Cras developed his own eclectic impressionism, one that combined Celtic folksong and sacred elements with the exoticism gathered during his travels. Cras embraced symbolist poetry and produced more than seventy songs, most of them products of fruitful collaborations with his friends among the post-Parnassian poets, including Gide, Samian, and Verlaine, all of whom he knew well. Overall, Cras' chamber music shows an acute understanding of instrumentation and nuance. He wrote several chamber pieces with flute, including Suite en duo (1927) for flute and harp and Quintette (1928) for flute, violin, viola, cello, and harp. 845 Even though he was not in France, Barr?re was aware of this work and performed the Quintette on his programs in the United States with the Barr?re Ensemble of Wind Instruments and the Barr?re-Britt Concertino. 846 Cras also wrote two pieces for voice and flute with chamber ensemble, both of which were settings of poetry by Lucien Jacques: Fontaines (1923) for voice, flute, violin, viola, and cello; and La fl?te du Pan (1928) for voice, pan flute (or piccolo), violin, viola, and cello. Allusions to Pan and to the pan flute or panpipes are abundant in the history of the flute. Several contemporary French composers had already written pieces for the flute that were inspired by the myth of Pan, including Syrinx by Claude Debussy, La fl?te de 847 Thomas, ?Three Representative Works of Maurice Delage,? 14-15. 394 Pan by Jules Mouquet, and Pan! by Joannes Donjon. Cras's use of the piccolo to imitate the pan flute is interesting and must have solved the immediate performance problems of locating a pan flute and a performer sufficiently versed in pan-flute technique. As well, the part for pan flute is difficult and by no means limited in its range of notes. There are several changes in key, constant variations in tempo, and technical flourishes in the part that would make it extremely difficult to perform on panpipes. The sound of the piccolo, almost two octaves above, is almost ethereal with the strings. There are a few extended solo passages, but the piccolo part serves as a harmonic enhancement to the ensemble, which is clearly written as a supporting cast to the vocalist. The undulating, arpeggiated string writing and the use of the piccolo are reminiscent of Ravel in his Chanson mad?casses. Cras attempted to achieve a "flowing" feeling to the piece by speeding up and slowing down the tempo through omnipresent accelerandos alternating with ritardandos. This makes the work particularly difficult to perform from an ensemble point of view. Through these devices, Cras attempted to assimilate the work of other composers and to evoke the exoticism he experienced in his travels. MAURICE DELAGE (1879-1961) Maurice Delage turned to music after hearing Debussy's Pell?as et M?lisande in 1902. According to the poet L?on-Paul Fargue, his performance of still unpublished opera interludes at a gathering of Les apaches so impressed Ravel in 1903 that the composer invited Delage to study with him. 847 Delage soon became a regular member of 848 Ibid., 18-20. 849 Gordon, ?Maurice Delage: A Stylistic Analysis of Selected Vocal Works,? 9-11. 850 Between 1911 and 1913 a friendship between Delage and Stravinsky began to develop. They visited each other often and corresponded on a regular basis. This correspondence has been collected by Robert Craft, in his Stravinsky: Selected Correspondence, vol. 1 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1982). 395 Les apaches, and he purchased a garden pavilion in the suburb of Auteuil for their weekly meetings. There, the musicians shared works-in-progress as well as premieres. One such premiere was Ravel's Miroirs, the last of which is dedicated to Delage. It was through this group, too, that Stravinsky and Delage became close friends. When the Soci?t? nationale, then under the leadership of Vincent d'Indy, refused to perform Delage's first orchestral work, Cont? par la mer (1909), reportedly because he asked for the use of a note for horn outside its usual range, his colleagues (including Ravel) rallied behind him by forming a rival organization, the Soci?t? musicale ind?pendente, which featured this work and Delage's first songs in its inaugural season of 1910. 848 Delage shared with Ravel a fascination for the music of the Orient and, later, the sounds of factories. 849 In 1912, while he was in his early thirties, he traveled with his parents to India and Japan. It would later become his life's work "trying to find those Hindu sounds that send chills up my spine," as he told Stravinsky. 850 Quatre po?mes hindous (1912-1913) for soprano, flute, and chamber ensemble was a result of this effort, and the music demonstrates how the recordings he collected on his trip served as models. The work was transcribed by the composer to exploit the various timbres of the instruments, as Gordon describes: Delage arranged his Quatre po?mes hindous for voice and chamber orchestra 851 Gordon, ?Maurice Delage: A Stylistic Analysis of Selected Vocal Works,? note 35, 25. 852 One review of the performance by Georges Auric in the March 1937 edition of Marianne stated: Here are the Po?mes hindous of Maurice Delage. It is 1913, and for many listeners like me, his name is still unknown. However, a few minutes suffice and here I am entranced, won over by the art of an author that I will henceforth never forget. Gordon, ?Maurice Delage: A Stylistic Analysis of Selected Vocal Works,? 26. 853 Apparently, Delage?s Quatre po?mes hindous replaced Schoenberg?s Pierrot lunaire, originally programmed for the performance. Ibid., note 33, 25. 396 because he wished to obtain ?more exposed sounds and brighter musical light.? In this song cycle, Delage?s talent as colorist becomes evident. Delage found that the implementation of a small orchestra allowed individual colors to stand out more vividly. By separating the original piano accompaniment into many instrumental parts, he was able to create a harmonic palette of diverse and eclectic sounds, with each instrumental sonority closely resembling the Eastern instrument it was to represent. Composer Charles Koechlin, in speaking of the third song from the cycle, stated: ??La naissance de Bouddha??forms a whole that is so homogeneous, so precise with local color, that the art of the composer is truly made one with the country that de describes.? 851 As noted in the previous chapter, the work was premiered by Rose F?art, soprano, at the Soci?t? musicale ind?pendente performance on January 14, 1914 and was immediately successful with the public. 852 As a result of this successful premiere, Delage received a publishing contract with Durand, and they published both the Trois m?lodies and the Quatre po?mes hindous in 1914. 853 While the flute has a prominent role in the ensemble, it is not a solo instrument. There are several passages that are written in a complex rhythmic style, sounding as if improvised by the performer. Delage also used harmonic tones for the flute in every movement. The piece ends with the flute on a high D played with harmonic fingerings and tapering to silence. In Quatre po?mes hindous, Delage also introduced in the cello part scordatura 854 Gordon, ?Maurice Delage: A Stylistic Analysis of Selected Vocal Works,? 17-18. 855 Thomas, ?Three Representative Works of Maurice Delage,? 22-25. 856 A six-year gap appears between these two works when Delage composed nothing at all. According to Madeline Milhaud, Delage became paralyzed and could not compose. During this low period in his life he turned to Darius Milhaud for assistance and advice. Gordon, ?Maurice Delage: A Stylistic Analysis of Selected Vocal Works,? 31. 397 tuning, certain kinds of ornaments, and glissandi that produce microtonal shadings. In this way, he attempted to match the sonority of the basse indoue (Hindu bass) in the second song, ?Lahore,? of the cycle. 854 Delage also pioneered open and closed mouth singing techniques, influenced by the vocal techniques of Coimbatore Thayi. 855 His Sept ha?-ka? (1923) for soprano, flute, and chamber ensemble are brief sound images of Japanese texts and show his more adventurous writing, as well as a predilection for chromatic juxtapositions. This work was inspired by his trip to Japan, and the song cycle is based on Japanese poems from the seventeenth century. In addition to the Quatre po?mes hindous and the Sept ha?-ka?, Delage also transcribed his song L?aleuette (1925) for flute, soprano, and piano. The work was published by Durand in 1925. In the meantime, he also wrote a work for flute, soprano, and piano entitled Hommage ? Albert Roussel (1929) in response to an invitation by the journal La Revue Musicale?s hommage to the composer. 856 This work contains a flowing vocal line with frequent leaps interspersed in the stepwise melody. The flute line is often an extension of the voice and contains ornamentation of the vocal part along with echo effects. In his 857 Delage had a great deal of difficulty in obtaining Kipling?s permission to use the Jungle Book material. As early as 1913, he tried to visit Kipling in London to obtain his approval, however, Kipling refused to see him. It took over two decades for Delage would return to this idea with success. Thomas, ?Three Representative Works of Maurice Delage,? 23-24. 858 The work calls for ?staccatos at the back of the throat? and a quasi-parlando with approximate pitches notated as in Schoenberg?s Sprechstimme. 398 Trois chants de la jungle (1935), based on The Jungle Book by Rudyard Kipling, 857 Delage experimented with rhythmic singing without fixed pitches and speech-like parlando with notated pitches, a writing style that shows an Indian influence. The composer has actually given instructions for coloring the articulation, especially in movement three, where the melody is based on Tamil chant. According to the composer, the song is much like Indian raga where the melody is improvised and shaped by rhythmic effects. The sonorities evoke the exotic, and he used ostinato-like melodic phrases to evoke Indian rhythmic modes. The rhythm is, indeed, complex with meter changes and syncopation. 858 In 1948, Delage composed Deux fables de Jean de la Fontaine, again for voice, flute and chamber ensemble. A lengthy introduction by the ensemble sets the mood for each song, with the text again set in spoken rhythm. There are many changes in meter and rhythm to accommodate the meter of the text. Delage's vocal works are truly inspired pieces of music; they are equal in conception, construction, and creativity to similar works by more well-known composers such as Debussy, Ravel, and Roussel. Yet, Delage has not become widely known in the history of French music. Apparently, World War II caused a rife between Delage and his artist friends. He 859 According to Thomas, Dr. Jann Pasler has put forth this explanation of Delage?s obscurity based on Delage?s correspondence and interviews with Georges Auric between 1976 and 1978. In addition, Gordon states that Manuel Rosenthal also asserted that Delage had ?become fascinated by the German ideology of order.? Gordon also interviewed musicologist Jean Gallois, who supported this view, but asserted that Delage never collaborated with the Nazis, claiming that Delage remained na?ve about the German occupation, never knowing the full extent of the horrors the Germans were inflicting. Gordon, ?Maurice Delage: A Stylistic Analysis of Selected Vocal Works,? 11-15 and Thomas, ?Three Representative Works of Maurice Delage,? 31. 399 sympathized with the German cause and spoke openly of his support of the Occupation. 859 During the war, he lived in the South of France, and none of his former friends visited him. Although he was made a Chevalier dans les arts et lettres in 1958 and received performances of his vocal works by Bathori, D?somi?re, and Rosenthal, and performances of his orchestral works by Koussevitzky, his reputation never recovered. Even now, only the Po?mes hindous and Sept ha?-ka? continue to be played and recorded regularly. JACQUES IBERT (1890-1962) Jacques Ibert was introduced to the music of Chopin, Bach, and Mozart by his mother, a pianist, who had studied with Conservatoire professors Marmontel and Le Couppey. Ibert began studying the piano and the violin in earnest at age four. Although he began his career accompanying singers and writing program notes, he soon entered the Conservatoire, where he studied harmony with Emile Pessard and counterpoint with Andr? G?dalge. It was, however, in a private orchestration class with G?dalge that Ibert met Honegger and Milhaud, with whom he would forge close friendships. The outbreak of World War I saw Ibert enlisting in the army, first as a nurse, and then as a naval officer stationed at Dunkirk. Later, he won the Prix de Rome on his first 860 Catalogue de l?oeuvre de Jacques Ibert, edited by Alesandrea Laederich, 37-38. 861 Ibid. 400 attempt in 1919. This, combined with his military service, conspired to keep him away from Paris and, as a result, he was never identified with Les six and did not become associated with that group. World War II was an especially difficult period for Ibert when, in 1940, the Vichy government banned his music, and he was forced to take refuge in Antibes in southern France. He ended the war in Switzerland but continued to compose. He returned to France in 1943 and then was recalled to Paris by General de Gaulle in 1944. By 1955, he was appointed administrator of R?union des th??tres lyriques nationaux, putting him in charge of both the Op?ra and the Op?ra-Comique and, later that year, he was elected to the Acad?mie des beaux-arts. Ibert was acquainted with the leading flutists of the day and collaborated with them on pieces that are among the modern masterworks for the instrument. Ibert's Jeux (1923), for flute and piano, is dedicated to Louis Fleury and was premiered by him at the Salle ?rard on December 17, 1923. 860 The work was later recorded by flutists Michel Debost, Fernand Marceau, Jean-Pierre Rampal, and Ren? Le Roy among others. 861 Marcel Moyse was instrumental in the writing of Ibert's Concerto (1932) for flute and orchestra, which is dedicated to Moyse and was premiered by him at the Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire on February 25, 1934, under the direction of Philippe Gaubert. This work has also been recorded by many flutists, including Moyse, Michel Debost, James Galway, Peter Lukas Graf, Alain Marion, and Jean-Pierre Rampal, as was Pi?ce 862 McCutchan claims that the Pi?ce for flute was written in one hour at a performance in Prague for Marcel Moyse: ?At a post-concert reception hosted by the French embassy, the ambassador?s wife asked Moyse if he would ?play something? for the guests. Sensing the flutist?s discomfort, Ibert announced he would compose something new for the occasion and set to work at the parlor table. In less than one hour, Moyse premiered Ibert?s Pi?ce pour fl?te seule.? McCutchan, Marcel Moyse: Voice of the Flute, 147. 863 Ibid., Discography. 864 Catalogue de l?oeuvre de Jacques Ibert, edited by Alesandrea Laederich, 54-55. 401 (1936) for flute solo. 862 Moyse also arranged six of Ibert's Histoires (1933) for flute and piano, and then he premiered and recorded these short pieces. 863 Ibert was drawn to m?lodie early in his career, and he composed his most well-known pieces for soprano and flute within a period of just five years: Deux st?les orient?es (1925); Chanson du rein (1930); and Aria (1930). The Deux st?les orient?es pour voix et fl?te (1925) takes its text from the poem by Victor Segalen, one that was set by many of his musical colleagues, including Koechlin. Though written for soprano, the work was premiered by Pierre Bernac?a singer known for his long musical relationship with Poulenc?and flutist Ren? Le Roy, at the salon of Madame Ren? Dubost on January 24, 1926. 864 The piece is modern in conception, utilizing techniques that were considered new in 1925, such as flutter tongue. It is also technically challenging for the flute, with quick tempos requiring facile tonguing, chromatic runs of asymmetrical groupings, and free use of dissonances. Ibert takes the harmonic model of Roussel's Deux po?mes de Ronsard, and he goes even further, introducing elements of atonality into the work. The Chanson du rien (1930) for voice and wind quintet uses a text by Maurice Constantin-Weyer and has a duration of approximately ninety seconds. 865 The New Grove Dictionary of Music, 2 nd edition, vol. 12, 527. 866 Ibid. 402 ALEXIS ROLAND-MANUEL (1891-1966) Alexis Roland-Manuel was a pupil of Roussel at the Schola Cantorum and later, on the advice of Satie, he studied with Ravel, to whom he would become devoted follower. Besides his work as a composer, Roland-Manuel was an active writer, producing several biographies of French composers, such as Arthur Honegger, Maurice Ravel, and Erik Satie. 865 As a composer, Roland-Manuel was firmly established in the tradition of the eighteenth-century artist whose function was to be impersonal and specialized, with an essentially French style: fastidious, restrained, refined, and sensible. He avoided direct displays of emotion in his work. He wrote about his compositional process: We make music with material which is neutral and moldable. The individual is of no interest and art can certainly be something other than a medium of self-expression. Vanity is the death of an artist. 866 The two movements of Deux ?legies (1928) for soprano and flute, are Charmant rossignol and Chanson. It is based on the poetry of Francois Maynard and Jean Pellerin and somewhat resembles Roussel's Deux po?mes de Ronsard (1925), although without the harmonic experimentation or the extended cadenzas for the flute. It contains bird references with figures in the flute part that are meant to approximate birdcalls, including sixteenth-note runs and trills. The work is conceived in terms of French chromatic harmony typical of the era in which it was written. The two movements are disparate in style, suggesting that they may have been composed at some significant length of time 867 Latham, Georges Migot, 6-7. 868 Migot engaged in a serious study of painting and was more successful as a painter than as a composer in the early years of his career. Exhibitions of his work were held at the Georges Petit Gallery in 1917 and at the Marcel Bernheim Gallery in 1919, and he continued to show in subsequent years. Latham , Georges Migot, 10-11. 403 from each other. The vocal part predictably is characterized by leaps and chromaticism. The second movement is a dance form that uses folk song as its inspiration. GEORGES MIGOT 1891-1976) Georges Migot was born in Paris and devoted himself to music after completing his primary school studies at the Lyc?e Charlemagne. He studied harmony and counterpoint before entering the Conservatoire in January, 1913, where he was admitted to the composition class of Charles-Marie Widor. He also studied music history with Maurice Emmanuel, orchestration with Vincent d'Indy and Alexandre Guilmant, and organ with Eug?ne Gigout. 867 Migot served in World War I and was seriously injured in 1914. After a long convalescence, he resumed his studies. His work attracted the attention of Nadia Boulanger, and he soon began developing a friendship with Henri Expert. Migot was not only active as a composer, but as a painter 868 and a writer; in 1920 he published his Essais pour une esth?tique g?n?rale, a work in which he compared the Egyptian, Gallic, Roman, and Gothic art of initiation to the Hellenic art of the fifth century. Migot also wrote poetry; virtually all of his vocal works are written to his own words. In his musical compositions, he endeavored to recapture the spirit of early French polyphony, thus 869 Ibid. 870 Ibid., 11-13. 871 One of the most fascinating aspects of Messiaen?s musical vocabulary is the phonetic emulation of bird song in several of his works; in order to attain ornithological fidelity, he made a detailed study notating the rhythms and pitches of singing birds in many regions of several countries. 872 Latham , Georges Migot, 14-15. 404 emphasizing the continuity of national art in history. 869 For Migot, Debussy abolished classicism in both spirit and method. It represented an entirely new aesthetic which, in his own work, found early expression in the Sept petites images du Japon (1917) for voice and piano. 870 He also wrote Deux st?les (1925) for voice, harp, celesta, double bass, gamelan tam-tam, and cymbals; and he wrote a chamber opera, Le rossignol en amour. Migot was fascinated by the unpredictability of birdsong. This may have come from Emmanuel, who was also intrigued by birdsong and transmitted this interest to his students Migot and Messiaen. 871 Migot wrote Six petite preludes (1927) for flute and violin, which evoke the calls of several native French birds, such as the calandres, spipolettes, farlouses, rousselines, alouettes, and cochevis, all birds common to the countryside around Paris. 872 In 1930, he wrote a treatise on the musical language of Rameau, Jean-Philippe Rameau et le genie de la musique fran?ais. As the years passed, his musical language became simpler with a strong lyrical element. The events of World War II in France ended Migot's compositional efforts for several years. In 1939, however, he began work on his compositional masterpiece, La Passion (1939-1946), reflecting his sense of spiritual growth. La Passion would be at the center of his creative life, setting a pattern for his future works, many of which also have 873 Latham, Georges Migot, 14-19. 405 religious themes. This new orientation led him toward an increased personal isolation. In 1949, however, he became the curator of the instrumental museum at the Conservatoire, which freed him from financial worries and allowed him to compose without restrictive concerns. In his early career, Migot pursued an analysis of spirit, architecture, and the colors of images. Not surprisingly, his work written before 1927 is characterized by the extreme mobility of his musical thought, the motion of lines and rhythms, his choice of colors, and a refined, intensely poetic expression. Some of the works of this period include Quatuor (1924) for flute, violin, clarinet, and harp, Le premier livre de divertissements fran?ais (1925) for flute, harp, and clarinet, and Trois pastorales (1922-1923) for flute, oboe, and clarinet. In addition to his Reposoir grave, noble et pur? (de Saint-Cyr, 1932) for voice, flute, and harp, he wrote a tremendous amount of chamber music which included many parts for the flute. His chamber works written with a flute part include: Six petites pr?ludes for two flutes (1927); Concerto for flute, cello, and harp (1929); Le livre des danceries for flute, violin, and piano (1929); Suite de trois pi?ces for flute solo (1931); Sonata for flute and piano (1945); Suite no. 2 "Eve et le serpent" for flute solo (1945); Wind Quintet (1954); Quartet for flute, violin, cello, and piano (1960); Sonata for flute and guitar (1968); Le mariage des oiseaux for flute solo (1970); Communions pur une liturgie for flute and organ (1972); and Dialogue initial for flute and harp (1974). 873 The compositional style of Reposoir grave, noble et pur? is indicative of all his 874 Migot was profoundly interested in the preservation and classification of early musical instruments; he served as curator of the Instrumental Museum of the Paris Conservatoire from 1949-1960. Latham, Georges Migot, 10-11. 875 This mode of writing recalls Emmanuel and Debussy. Both rejected the major/minor paradigm as the sole basic of constructing music. Emmanuel turned to folksong and irregular phrase structures, while Debussy turned to chords moving in parallel motion without ?resolution.? Migot turned to horizontal polyphony and melodic parallelism. Latham, Georges Migot, 20-24. 406 works after 1927. They are no longer based on classical forms, but on the eurhythmic relations that may exist between different ideas. Because these are not required to follow a thematic idea, they can express themselves within the spacious lines of fluctuating harmonies and unstressed rhythms. These particular qualities bring to mind the free preludes of the French lutenists of the seventeenth century. Migot was indebted to those musicians for his unusually ornate style. 874 His writing in Reposoir tends towards a horizontal polyphony, where each instrument or vocal line has a melody that stands on its own. The melodic path is unpredictable because it is outside the notion of chord; thus he contrived his own polyphonic vocabulary. In his use of freely constructed melodic modes, his language remains dependant on diatonicism with frequent pentatonic incursions, as an inevitable consequence of his rejection of chromaticism as a primary structural element. 875 The resulting sonority in Reposoir is thick and cacophonous. The flute, voice, and piano all have their own melodic identity, but the three voices do not seem to be related to one another. While there are places of harmonic rest, the majority of the piece lacks harmonic and formal structure. Instead of harmonic progression, constant crescendos and decrescendos are used to drive the music forward. The flute and voice are in written in the highest and lowest extremes of their respective ranges, which sometimes impart a 876 Dewey, ?The Performer?s Guide to the Songs of Arthur Honegger,? 3. 877 Honegger, I am a Composer, 19. 407 note of strain to the work. The timbre throughout is dark and intense, reflecting Migot's emotional personality. ARTHUR HONEGGER (1892-1955) Arthur Honegger's love of vocal music can be traced back to his father, who was an opera lover and took Honegger to see Meyerbeer's Les Huguenots, Massenet's Manon, H?rodiade, and Werther; Bizet's Carmen, D?libes' Lakm?; and Rossini's Guillaume Tell. 876 Steeped in the French operatic tradition, Honegger wrote his first opera at age nine, although it was written entirely in the treble clef (the only clef he knew at the time). He studied at the Conservatoire under Andr? G?dalge, Vincent d'Indy, and Charles-Marie Widor and was soon introduced to the French idiom: I arrived in Paris at the age of nineteen, nourished on the classics and romantics, enamored of Richard Strauss and Max Reger, the latter completely unknown in Paris. In contrast I found, not that school, but the debussyites in full bloom; I was introduced to d'Indy and to Faur?. I gave much time to fathoming the character of Faur?, whom I took for a long time to be a musician of the salons. Once past this period, I surrendered with delight to his example. Debussy and Faur? made a very useful counterbalance, in my aesthetics and my feeling, to the classics and Wagner. 877 Honegger's classmates included several musicians who would become important collaborators later in his life: Jacques Ibert, with whom he would collaborate on two operettas; Jane Bathori, who became both interpreter and supporter of his works; and 878 Honegger also met the brilliant young pianist Andr?e Vaurabourg, whom he married in 1926. Halbreich, Arthur Honegger, translated by Roger Nichols, 25-52. 408 Darius Milhaud, who became a lifelong friend. 878 Milhaud began to introduce him into the avant-garde circles of Paris and to the works of Paul Claudel, Francis Jammes, and Paul Val?ry. At the caf? Flore, he encountered Jean Cocteau, Lucien Daudet, Guy Fauconnet, Jean Giraudoux, Pablo Picasso, Erik Satie, and other contemporary artists. Honegger was intimately acquainted with many writers and musicians of his day. In his memoirs, he described some of his collaborations: Through the intervention of a mutual friend, Henriette Charasson, I made the acquaintance of Apollinaire, for whom I had already set six poems to music, excerpts from his Alcools. Apollinaire had returned from the front and had undergone head surgery as a consequence of a serious wound. Max Jacob said: "He knows nothing of music, he likes no one but Schubert." In this same caf? flore, which had become an existentialist hangout, I was introduced to Cocteau, who played an important role in the post-war musical world. We had some wonderfully fine evenings with him as the animator. They brought together painters?Fauconnet, Picasso, Dufy?men of letter?Giraudoux, Morand, Radiguet, Lucien Daudet?and musicians of the group known as Les six, including Satie. When Cocteau's adaptation of Antigone was performed at the at?lier, I wrote a little score for the stage for oboe and harp. Later, this rapid and violent text incited me to compose my musical tragedy. Without being genuinely a musician, Cocteau served as a guide to many young folk. He stood for the general sense of a reaction against the pre-war aesthetic. Each one of us translated that in a different manner. I was also allied with Max Jacob; he gave me the libretto of sainte Alm?enne, which got buried in my papers. During the same period, I had a chance to become acquainted with Blaise Cendrars, whose extraordinary personality expressed itself in all spheres, and who authorized me to set to music some fragments of his beautiful poem, Easter in New York. I also met Paul Fort, who has entrusted so many poems to musicians, and the Belgian poet Paul M?ral with whom I collaborated for the music of Dit des jeux du monde. Produced in December 1918 at the Vieux-Colombier under the direction of Jane Bathori, this work managed to arouse some excitement, but the very original costumes by 879 Honegger, I Am a Composer, 104-105. 880 Halbreich, Arthur Honegger, translated by Roger Nichols, 393-499. 409 Fauconnet unquestionably marked a date in the history of the theater. 879 Honegger also collaborated with Ren? Morax on the score for King David; with Andr? Gide on the production of Saul; with Saint-Georges de Bouh?lier on the opera, L'Imp?ratrice au rocher; on music for Gabriele d'Annunzio's Phaedra; with Romain Rolland for Liluli; with Jean Giraudoux on Sodom and Gomorrah; with Ren? Bizet on Cris du monde; with Paul Val?ry on Amphion and S?miramis; with William Aguet on Christopher Columbus; and with Paul Claudel in Joan of Arc at the Stake and Dance of the Dead. 880 Honegger's particular gifts seem to have predisposed him to song writing. He had a natural feeling for the voice, for the curve of a vocal line, and for transforming literary material into musical effect, matching the form of a poem with an appropriate, generally elegant musical structure. In addition, Honegger's choice of poets reveals a remarkable literary taste, beginning with settings of poems by Jules Laforgue and Francis Jammes, and moving on to the works of Guillaume Apollinaire, Blaise Cendrars, Jean Cocteau, Paul Claudel, Paul Fort, and Jean Giraudoux. Cocteau and Claudel eventually become close friends of Honegger's. Equally important, however, were Honegger's interpreters, and he often wrote with a particular voice in mind. Jane Bathori was one of his first important collaborators; later collaborators included the singers Rose Armandie, Rose 881 Claire Croiza (1882-1946) collaborated with Honegger on the recordings of his Apollinaire songs, ?Le petite chapelle,? and Trois chansons de la petite sir?ne, and the composer dedicated his opera Judith to her. As noted above, their relationship went beyond professional and resulted in the birth of a son, Jean-Claude Honegger. Ibid., 100-103. 882 Other composers who contributed to this edition were Dukas, Roussel, Louis Aubert, Caplet, Roland- Manuel, Maurice Delage, and Ravel. Halbreich, Arthur Honegger, translated by Roger Nichols, 290. 883 While the catalog of Honegger?s works lists the vocalist at the premiere at R?gine de Lormoy, Dewey, in her dissertation, notes the soloist as Claire Croiza, although the venue and date remain the same. Dewey, ?A Performer?s Guide to The Songs of Arthur Honegger,? 16. 410 F?art, Gabrielle Gills, Claire Croiza, 881 and R?gine de Lormoy. Honegger's two contributions to chamber music for voice with flute were written for soprano, flute, and string quartet. The first, Chanson de Ronsard, was written for the supplement to the May, 1924, issue of La Revue Musical, an hommage on the occasion of the anniversary of the birth of Pierre de Ronsard. 882 That piece was premiered at the Th??tre du Vieux-Colombier by R?gine de Lormoy on May 15, with flautist Armand Blanquart and the Poulet Quartet, conducted by Arthur Hoer?e. 883 While an extremely short piece, less than two minutes in fact, it employs a sustained, floating flute solo that introduces the voice. On August 27, 1926, Honegger met with Ren? Morax at Morges and promised to write music for Morax's new marionette story, based on Hans Christian Andersen's The Little Mermaid. The result was the Trois chansons de la petite sir?ne, his second work involving voice with flute. It was dedicated to R?gine de Lormoy, who performed the voice part at the premiere, along with the flautist R?on, and the Roth Quartet on March 26, 1927. The concert was conducted by the composer and performed at the Salle Pleyel 884 Halbreich, Arthur Honegger, translated by Roger Nichols, 299. 885 Collaer, Darius Milhaud, 1-20. 886 Harding, The Ox on the Roof, 44-47. 411 in Paris. 884 These three delicate pieces show the influence of their time, with their use of bitonality, complex multiple rhythms, and free recitative in the voice; and, like Ravel, Honegger experimented with harmonics in the string parts to evoke a quality of mystery. DARIUS MILHAUD (1892-1974) Darius Milhaud's musical talents were clear at an early age; from age three he played piano duets with his father, and at the age of seven took up the violin, playing second violin in the quartet of his violin teacher, L?o Bruguier. By 1905, Milhaud had studied the string quartet of Debussy, which brought such a revelation to the young musician that he bought the score of Pell?as et M?lisande. Soon, he was studying harmony with a local teacher from the treatises of Reber and Dubois, and he was determined to become a composer. 885 In 1909 he went to Paris to study at the Conservatoire, taking lessons in counterpoint, composition, and orchestration from Andr? G?dalge, fugue from Charles- Marie Widor, harmony from Leroux, and orchestral technique from Paul Dukas. From G?dalge he gained a mastery of counterpoint, which would remain an important part of his compositional style. While in Paris, he heard for the first time the music of Bloch, Faur?, Koechlin, Magnard, Ravel, Roussel, Satie, and Wagner, as well as Stravinsky's Petrouchka and The Rite of Spring, and Schoenberg's Piano Pieces, op. 11. 886 887 Collaer, Darius Milhaud, 25. 888 Ibid. 412 Of great significance to Darius Milhaud were his friendships with writers and artists, in particular Francis Jammes (1843-1916), Paul Claudel (1868-1955), Andr? Gide (1869-1951), L?o Latil (1890-1915), and as well as Blaise Cendrars (1887-1961). In Etudes, Milhaud described how he became attracted to the writings of Jammes, and later to Claudel: When I first started to compose, I sensed immediately the dangers inherent in following the path of musical impressionism. Too many perfumed breezes, bursts of fireworks, glittering baubles, mists, and languor marked the end of an era, the affectations of which revolted me. In 1908, (I was sixteen) the verses of Francis Jammes emerged from the haze of symbolist poetry and revealed to me a whole new world, far easier to grasp, for one had only to open one's eyes. Finally, it seemed, poetry had turned back toward everyday life, to the beauty of the countryside, and the charm of simple people and familiar objects. What a splash of fresh water on my face! I found myself on the threshold of a vital, healthy kind of artistic expression, ready to submit to the influence of a force that could shake the human spirit, twist it, lift it up, sooth it, and transport it like an elemental impulse, alternately violent, harsh, gentle, and poetic: the art of Paul Claudel. I heard of Claudel for the first time from Francis Jammes, whom I visited at Orthez. He described him as a combination of saint and monster, a person who hated the smell of vanilla, dressed in a Chinese robe, and wore the hat of a consul general. On the day of my departure, Jammes took me to the station and put into my hands a copy of La connaissance de l'est, which I was to read on the train. It was this that triggered my collaboration with Claudel. I was immediately tempted to set to music several of his poems, each of which is a concentrated little drama, powerful and lofty in concept, sustained by a rhythmic prosody that holds the reader in a viselike grip. 887 In addition to writers, Milhaud was a good friend with the cubist painter Fernand L?ger (1881-1955). His favorite painter was Picasso, and he admired the works of C?zanne. In his theatrical work, he often collaborated with artists such as L?ger, Derain, Braque, Dufy, and Pruna. 888 889 Milhaud suffered from debilitating rheumatoid arthritis and, after 1948, was confined to a wheel chair for the later part of his life. 890 Milhaud, Notes Without Music, translated by Donald Evans, 61-86. 891 Ibid., 94-104. 413 In 1912, Milhaud met the poet, playwright, and diplomat Paul Claudel, who was twenty-four years his senior. At the outbreak of World War I Milhaud was unable to join the armed forces due to medical reasons 889 and found work helping Belgian refugees. In 1915, his friend L?o Latil was killed at the front, and the loss of such a close friend, along with the turmoil of the war, prompted Milhaud to accept an offer from Claudel to accompany him to Brazil as his secretary. 890 Claudel remained there for two years as the attach? in charge of propaganda and, during this time, Milhaud encountered Brazilian popular music, whose rhythms would become a part of his work. After traveling to the United States, including an extended stay in New York City, Milhaud returned to Paris in 1919, where his flat became a haven for poets, artists, and musicians to meet and share their latest work. 891 He renewed his friendships with Honegger, Koechlin, and Poulenc and during the 1920s made journeys to London, where he heard jazz, and to Vienna, where he met Schoenberg, Berg, and Webern. As noted above, Milhaud subsequently conducted the French premiere of Pierrot lunaire on December 15, 1921. Later, during World War II, Milhaud sought refuge from the Nazis in the United States, taking a teaching post at Mills College in Oakland, California and a position at the Aspen Music Festival in Colorado. In 1947 he returned to Paris and became professor of composition at the Paris Conservatoire. Until 892 Nichol, Conversations with Madeleine Milhaud 60-64. 893 Ibid., 18-19. 414 1971, he divided his time between the two countries, teaching at both institutions until his health deteriorated to the point where travel was impossible. 892 Like so many other Parisian composers of this period, Milhaud worked closely with the singer Jane Bathori as he developed and premiered new works for voice. Madeline Milhaud remembered how Bathori drew her husband into Parisian musical life after World War I: Jane Bathori had the roles of Elektra and the reciter. She was generous enough to find and rehearse the singers without payment. She was an astonishing woman. Though a singer of Debussy and Ravel, she was always keen on promoting new works. Her association with the Vieux-Colombier Theater came about because Jacques Copeau, the owner, was sent on a mission to New York during WWI and asked her to run his theater in his absence. She organized concerts, put on stage works, and was surrounded by young composers, especially Honegger, Auric, Poulenc, Roland- Manuel, and Ibert, under the benevolent eye of Satie. Perhaps this was the real origin of Les six! Darius already knew these composers, so when he returned from Brazil he easily renewed contact with them. They would see each other often at this time and would go to concerts together. There were a lot of concerts then as so many musicians and conductors were interested in the new developments, and there was this series of chamber music concerts in a painter's studio in Montmartre. 893 In the same year that Poulenc composed Le bestaire, Milhaud wrote Machines agricoles, (1919) for voice and flute (piccolo), with clarinet, bassoon, violin, viola, cello, and bass. It is one of Milhaud's most unusual works, inspired by a visit to an exhibition of agricultural machinery: I had been so impressed by the beauty of these great-multicolored metal insects, magnificent modern brothers to the plough and scythe that I thought of 894 Milhaud, Ma vie heureuse, 103. 895 A movement called futurism was founded by the Italian painter Filippo Tommaso Marinetti (1876-1944), whose aim was to create the aesthetic machinery as the master of speed, synthesis, order, and the art of living. The cult of the machine led to the glorification of railway-stations, factories, steel-foundries, and all the noise, turmoil, and excitement of urban living. On February 20, 1909, Marinetti published in the Paris newspaper Le Figaro, a number of statements defining the movement of futurism: ?A racing moto-car?a roaring motor-car which seems to be running on shrapnel;? ?Museums are cemeteries? public dormitories;? and ?We shall sing of?the nocturnal vibration of arsenals and workshops beneath their electric moons; of factories suspended from the clouds by strings of smoke; of broad-chested locomotives galloping on rails?of airplanes with propellers whose sound is like the flapping of flags and the cheers of a roaring crowd.? Myers, Modern French Music, 14. 896 Mawer, Darius Milhaud, 86-87. 415 celebrating them in music. 894 Milhaud's sense of fantasy, coupled with quirky inventiveness, led him to be stimulated by almost anything unusual. It amused him to set a catalog of agricultural machinery to music with total artistic seriousness. Yet, Milhaud himself complained that none of the critics writing at the time of the premiere understood the source of the work. Machine agricoles existed as a kind of parallel to Honegger's desire to glorify the locomotive in Pacific 2.3.1. and Fernand L?ger's exaltation of modern machinery in culture painting. 895 The humor and irony in the work bore traces of dada, a striking, idiosyncratic movement in art, but Milhaud denied the charge of dadaist "leg-pulling" and eccentricity: That any artist would spend his time working, with all the agonizing passion that goes into the process of creation, with the sole purpose of making fools of a few of them, is absurd. 896 The six songs are dedicated to the other members of Les six and Jean Cocteau. The work was premiered at the Concerts section d'or, on November 3, 1920, with 897 Catalogue des oeuvres de Darius Milhaud, edited by Madeleine Milhaud, 474-475. 898 Ibid. 416 Delgrange conducting, and the vocal solo sung by Mme. Vi?. 897 In the scoring, Milhaud makes use of devices such as harmonics in the strings and the flute alternating on piccolo, as had his predecessors. An admirer of Johann Sebastian Bach, many of his procedures are fugal. The juxtaposition of a text concerning agricultural machines and music written in a serious, baroque manner supplies the farcicality of the work. A year later, Milhaud set the poetry of Lucien Daudet to the same instrumentation in Catalogue de fleurs (1920). In this work, Milhaud seems to have imagined a person sitting by a fireplace, listening to the spring rainfall outside while he leafs through a seed catalogue. Each entry then gives rise to a vision of the flowers that will soon be planted in the garden and of the warm summer days ahead, and the imaginary person recalls the special joy of those who live in contact with the earth. The work is dedicated to Lucien Daudet and was premiered in Paris in 1932, with Ren? D?somi?re conducting and M. Martine performing the vocal solo. 898 Catalogue de fleurs is characterized by its vocal lyricism and what Milhaud described as polymodality in the accompanying instruments, where he avoids the relationships that characterize tonality. His texture in the movements is light, and he uses rhythm as a means of articulating form. The flute, clarinet, and bassoon are featured in the writing and each movement is extremely short. The bass adds a depth to the tonal texture that would be impossible with only the traditional string quartet instrumentation. Milhaud was acquainted with Louis Fleury and wrote several other chamber 899 Catalogue des oeuvres de Darius Milhaud, edited by Madeleine Milhaud, 392, 406, 410, 412, 452. 900 Rivier?s health was damaged by mustard gas while serving in the military during World War I. It was several years before he was sufficiently recovered to attend the Conservatoire. Stone, ?The Life and Published Flute Compositions of Jean Rivier,? 9-12. 417 pieces for flute with him in mind, including Sonata, op. 47 (1918) for flute, oboe, clarinet, and piano; Sonatina, op. 76 (1922) for flute and piano; and La chemin?e du roi Ren?, op. 205 (1939) for woodwind quintet. The Sonatina for flute and piano shows the influence of jazz on his compositional style and is dedicated to Louis Fleury (flute) and Jean Wi?ner (piano). They premiered the work at the Concerts Wi?ner in Paris, January, 1923. The Sonata was premiered at the Exposition Wiesbasden on December 2, 1921 with the composer conducting members of the Soci?t? instruments ? vent, the group founded by Louis Fleury. La chemin?e du roi Ren? was not premiered until May 3, 1941 at Mills College and was performed by the school woodwind quintet. Milhaud was also acquainted with flutist Marcel Moyse. The Concerto, op. 197 (1938) for flute, violin and orchestra, was dedicated to him and his daughter-in-law Blanche Honegger Moyse (violin) and was premiered by them with the Radio Orchestra of the Suisse Romande, in May, 1940. 899 JEAN RIVIER (1896-1987) Jean Rivier was a gifted cellist and composer who entered the Conservatoire in 1922, following World War I, 900 studying counterpoint with Georges Caussade, music history with Maurice Emmanuel, and harmony with Jean Gallon. His classmates included the precocious Olivier Messiaen and Daniel Lesur. His first works were performed at the 901 Stone, ?The Life and Published Flute Compositions of Jean Rivier,? 25-35. 902 Ibid., 36. 418 Pasdeloup and Lamoureux concerts, and he became a prominent inter-war composer, taking a leading role in the Groupe du Triton, particularly between 1936 and1940 while it was still regarded as the most prestigious of the inter-war musical groups. 901 The Committee of Honor of the Groupe de Triton included musicians such as Bala Bart?k, Alfredo Casella, Georges Enescu, Manuel de Falla, Maurice Ravel, Albert Roussel, Florent Schmitt, Arnold Schoenberg, Richard Strauss, and Igor Stravinsky, among others; and the Active Committee included Henry Barraud, Marcel Delannoy, Pierre-Octave Ferroud, Jean Fran?aix, Arthur Honegger, Jacques Ibert, Bouslav Martinu, Darius Milhaud, Francis Poulenc, Serge Prokofiev, Jean Rivier, Henri Tomasi, and others. During World War II, Rivier took refuge in Toulouse and there, met regularly with Barraud at a medieval castle in Luberon, a meeting they came to call Journ?es de Lourmarin. Apparently, every writer, painter, musician, and poet who could come from Vichy France would gather at these meetings to discuss events of the day and the arts. 902 From 1948 to 1966 he was professor of composition at the Conservatoire, a position he shared with Milhaud, who divided his time between the Conservatoire and Mills College in Oakland, California. In 1962, Rivier became the sole professor in this position and held it until retirement in 1966. Rivier also taught at the Atelier de composition, the composition studio of the Schola Cantorum, at the request of his friend, Daniel Lesur, the director at the time. Rivier's students included William Bolcom, Jean Bonfils, Michel Decoust, Pierre-Max Dubois, Pierre Duclos, Edith Lejet, Pierre-Yves 903 Stone, ?The Life and Published Flute Compositions of Jean Rivier,? 42-70. 904 Ibid., 90. 905 Ibid. 419 Lovel, and Alain Moene. 903 Rivier was interested in all the arts, including music, art, dance, poetry, theater, and architecture. He cultivated close relationships with many composers and artists, such as Georges Braque, Diaghilev, Maeght, Picasso, Prokofiev, and Stravinsky. Rivier composed several pieces dedicated to artists and explored the idea of works that he hoped would fuse a variety of art forms, in what he described as a "total show." 904 Needless to say, Rivier was attracted to a number contemporary writers, Apollinaire, Chalupt, Fouchet, Klingsor, Mahaut, Rimbaud, and Val?ry, among them. He set many songs to their lyrics and was also drawn to the early French poets including du Bellay and Pierre de Ronsard. While Rivier expressed a deep pleasure in composing for instruments such as the cello, flute, saxophone, and piano, the human voice remained his favorite medium. 905 Most of Rivier's vocal compositions were premiered by the Soci?t? musicale ind?pendente or at the Th??tre du Vieux-Colombier, with Jane Bathori as the featured soloist. Rivier, like so many other French composers, established a relationship with the singer who championed a number of his works, including the Huit po?mes d'Apollinaire (1925). While Rivier lived in Paris during the height of the avant-garde movement, he was much less involved with the experimentations of Satie and Les six than with the 906 Flutist Maxence Larrieu recalled: ?You know the father of Jean Rivier was a flutist, and we have so many pieces from Rivier because of this. He explained to me that his father would play for him all of the time, and then for him it was easier to write for the flute because he could test the pieces out with his father, who could explain if it was possible or not.? Stone, ?The Life and Published Flute Compositions of Jean Rivier,? 104. 420 neo-classical composers such as Honegger, Prokofiev, and Stravinsky. This influenced his work, which makes free use of dissonance, such at superimposed intervals of the 2nd, 7th, and tritones, as well as rhythmic permutations, drive, and intensity. In pieces like Le voyage d'Urien (after Gide, 1931), he was drawn to exoticism. Rivier wrote many pieces for the flute that drew on his childhood memories of his father's musical life as a flutist, and, as a result, the son showed a particular interest in the instrument. Rivier's father was an accomplished flutist who had studied at the Conservatoire with Adolphe Hennebains, professor of flute from 1909 to 1914. 906 Rivier eventually became a prolific composer of music for flute and wrote some twentieth-century French masterpieces for the instrument, including Oiseaux tendres for solo flute (1935), Sonatine for flute and piano (1940), Concerto for flute and strings (1956), Ballade for flute and piano (1966), Three Silhouettes for flute and piano (1972), Affetuoso e jocando for flute quartet (1981), and Comme une tendre berceuse for flute and piano (1984). His Ballade (1965) for flute and piano was used in the concours of the Conservatoire in 1965. Many of his flute works were dedicated to prominent flutists, who also performed their premieres, including Ren? Le Roy for Oiseaux tendres, the senior Rivier for Sonatine pour fl?te et piano, Jean-Pierre Rampal for Concerto pour fl?te et orchestre ? cordes, Gaston Crunelle for Ballade pour fl?te et piano, and Maxence 907 See Stone, ?The Life and Published Flute Compositions of Jean Rivier,? Part II--Published Flute Compositions, 103. 908 Myers, Modern French Music, 120-121. 421 Larrieu for Voltage. 907 Little is known of his Vocalise for flute and voice. In her dissertation, Stone lists the work as a short piece, four minutes in duration, existing only in manuscript, with no dedication and an unknown premiere. It remains for this piece to be unearthed and performed anew. FRANCIS POULENC (1899-1963) Three poets are closely associated with Francis Poulenc: Guillaume Apollinaire, Paul Eluard, and Max Jacob. The majority of Poulenc's m?lodies are set to poems by these three men, though a full list of those who inspired Poulenc's work with song would include an unusually wide group of poets active during the first half of the twentieth century: Louis Aragon, Maurice Car?me, Jean Cocteau, Colette, Robert Desnos, Maurice Fombeure, Henry Malherbe, Jean Mor?as, Raymond Radiquet, and Louise de Vilmorin. 908 Poulenc also set the poetry of the sixteenth-century poets Charles d'Orl?ans and Pierre de Ronsard. Of his strong attraction to the works of Apollinaire, Poulenc wrote: I find myself able to compose music only to poetry with which I feel total contact, a contact transcending mere admiration.? I have never claimed to achieve this musical resolution of poetic problems by means of intelligence. The voices of the heart and instinct are far more reliable. This quality I felt for the first time when I encountered the poems of Guillaume Apollinaire. That was in 1912, when I was 909 Wood, Poulenc?s Songs, 24. 910 Poulenc, Music, Art, and Literature, 146. 911 Ibid. 912 Eluard and Poulenc were very different men. They emerged from different backgrounds and moved in different social circles. Their politics, their loves, and their lives were very different. Poulenc came from a well-to-do family and grew up in the heart of Paris; his family was devout Catholics, and his mother's family included many artisans. Eluard, by contrast, came from a family of itinerant farm laborers, a family that saw themselves as socially marginalized. His father had been among the proletariat of Normandy and was an outspoken atheist. Both Poulenc and Eluard had pessimistic, anxious personalities, and, in both instances, their families doted on them. Both loved painting, both were deeply drawn to the contrasts between the city and the country, and each lived in both. The titles of Eluard's poems show the abiding importance of the visual in his work: Paroles peintes (Painted words); A l'int?rieur de la vue (Inside sight); Voir (seeing); Les yeux fertiles (Fertile eyes); Vue donne vie (Sight gives life). Ibid., 146. 422 13. Instantly, I fell in love with Apollinaire's poetry. 909 Poulenc was also drawn to the poetry of Paul Eluard and the composer and poet became close friends. Poulenc wrote: "Paul Eluard was truly my spiritual brother, through him I learnt how to express the most secret part of myself and especially my vocal lyricism." 910 In Journal de mes melodies, he went further still: "If on my tomb could be inscribed: 'Here lies Francis Poulenc, the musician of Apollinaire and Eluard,' I would consider this to be my greatest claim to fame." 911 To St?phane Audel he confided: "It was Eluard who showed me how to express love in musical terms." 912 As a poet intimately involved in the artistic activity of his time, a notable number of Eluard?s works were created in collaboration with artists. Those who illustrated Eluard's poetry, or provided him with imagery that prompted poems, were the surrealists Max Ernst, Valentine Hugo, and Pablo Piccaso, and Man Ray. Eluard and Picasso were close friends and collaborated on sixteen works. One particularly significant achievement of Eluard's involvement with the visual arts was his 1948 volume Voir. This was a 913 Poulenc and Eluard first met in 1919. They spent time together on hedonistic holidays in the company of Ernst and Leonora Carrington, Ren? Char, Picasso and Dora Maar, Lee Miller, Roland Penrose, and Man Ray. In 1936, as a result of his deepening friendship with Piccaso, Eluard produced sixteen volumes of poetry illustrated with drawings or engravings by the artist. Indeed, Eluard produced more than thirty poems with Piccaso in mind. Poulenc shared this deep love of the visual arts: "Since my earliest childhood, I have been passionately fond of painting." It comes as no surprise, then, that Poulenc would have been drawn to Voir when he chose poems for the song cycle he called Le travail du peintre. Voir is comprised of more than forty poems on painters, with reproductions of works by the artists to whom the individual poems are addressed. Poulenc set seven of them to music, the poems about Georges Braque, Marc Chagall, Juan Gris, Paul Klee, Joan Mir?, Pablo Picasso, and Jacques Villon. Poulenc, Music, Art, and Literature, 200. 914 Poulenc said: ?Painting is, with music, the art form that moves me the most. Renoir and Debussy, jointly, brightened many a day when I returned from school morose and anxious about myself.? Asked to name six twentieth-century artists he would take with him to a deserted island, Poulenc responded: ?Matisse, Picasso, Braque, Bonnard, Dugy and Paul Klee.? Poulenc, Music, Art, and Literature, 200. 915 Poulenc wrote another farcical work during this period for voice and instruments, not including the flute, entitled Cocardes (1919) after Cocteau, for voice, violin, cornet, trombone, bass drum, and triangle. Schmidt, Entrancing Muse, 78-83. 423 collection of poems dedicated to painters, matched with images by thirty-two artists. From among these poems, Poulenc chose to set seven in what would be his last song cycle on lyrics by Eluard. 913 Poulenc often drew analogies between musicians and painters and he acknowledged these artists or styles that influenced his compositions. He specifically referred, for example, to a technique used by Matisse that he had emulated: I cannot tell you how much his [Matisse's] sketches for Mallarm?'s poems affected me.? You could see in them the same subject, in particular a swan, in three or four stages, which always went from the more complex and thick (drawn in charcoal or thick pencil) to the most ideally simple and pure pen strokes. I often tried, particularly in the accompaniments of my melodies, to follow this lesson. 914 When Poulenc began composing in his late teens, he quickly mastered the miniature and the farce, which is clearly evident in songs for soprano, flute, and chamber ensemble: Rapsodie n?gre (1917) and Le bestiaire (1918-1919). 915 Le bestiaire is 916 Harding, The Ox on the Roof, 54. 917 Reflecting on the creation of Le bestiaire, Poulenc wrote: My first songs were composed in 1918, at Pont-sur-Seine. I had recently met Apollinaire at Valentine Hugo?s. The cycle originally consisted of twelve songs. On the advice of Auric I kept only six. At Pont-sur-Seine I was in the army. Arriving in Paris on leave I learned to my amazement that Louis Durey had the same idea as I had and had set all Le bestiaire. At once I dedicated mine to him.?They are so often heard with piano that the original has been forgotten. That?s a pity. To sing Le bestiaire with irony and above all knowingly is a complete misconception, showing no understanding whatsoever of Apollinaire?s poetry or my music. I treasure a letter from Marie Laurencin saying that my songs had the ?sound of Guillaume?s voice?? there could be no finer compliment. It needed Marya Freund to sing Le bestiaire as gravely as a song by Schubert to prove that it is something better than a piece of nonsense.?Ever since Le bestiaire I have felt a definite and mysterious affinity with the poetry of Apollinaire. Poulenc, Diary of My Songs, 21. 424 Poulenc's first song cycle, written at Pont-sur-Seine, where he was stationed during World War I. It consists of settings of six poems taken from Apollinaire's first volume, Le bestiaire, ou cort?ge d'Orph?e, a series of quatrains portraying a procession of animals behind Orpheus, who is playing his lyre. 916 Each poem illustrated with a woodcut by Raoul Dufy. First published in 1911, the book was reprinted in 1918. Adrienne Monnier sent a copy to Poulenc and he set twelve of the thirty poems, but, on the advice of Georges Auric, he later discarded all but six. The work is scored for voice and flute, clarinet, bassoon, and string quartet. Although Poulenc was completely unaware of it, Louis Durey had already set the complete Bestiaire, and when Poulenc discovered this, he dedicated his own work to Durey. 917 After World War I, the American Negro became a kind of cult figure in Paris; musically, evidence of this appears in the ragtime sections of Erik Satie's Parade (1917). In that same year, at the suggestion of Ricardo Vi?es, Poulenc produced his Rapsodie 918 Schmidt, Entrancing Muse, 42-46. 919 Ibid. 920 According to Schmidt, the musical biography Ornella Volta, well-known for her work on Satie and his times, has suggested that Makoko Kangourou is a pseudonym for the Parisian poet Marcel Ormoy, who was part of Roland-Manuel?s entourage. Schmidt, Entrancing Muse, 43. 425 n?gre. 918 By the early 1920s, American jazz bands, composed of largely black musicians, had taken Paris by storm and some important jazz instrumentalists, including soprano saxophonist Sidney Bechet, as well as gifted entertainers such as Josephine Baker, had taken up residence in the city. Poulenc's first Rapsodie was not, strictly speaking, jazz, though it was the result of the young man's discovery in a secondhand bookshop of a slim volume of poems that purported itself to be by a black Liberian writing in French. 919 Poulenc assumed the identify of the poet, Nakoko Kangourou, and in one movement he uses a text whose words are not French, but an invented language derived from the euphonious word "Honolulu." The whimsicality of the text, which becomes farce, suggests a work that was both comic and pathetic. 920 During the early 1920s, Poulenc experienced a compositional crisis, brought on perhaps by visits to Vienna, where he heard music by Schoenberg, Berg, and Webern, compounded by his own struggle to acquire some formal musical training. Works like the recently recovered Quatre po?mes de Max Jacob, composed between August and September, 1921, amply illustrate the struggle Poulenc had with an increasingly dissonant harmonic language, one featuring dense accompaniments of considerable technical difficulty. By the 1930s, when Matisse was illustrating Mallarm?'s poetry, Poulenc had abandoned the dissonant language of the early 1920s, as well as the 921 Adrienne Monnier (1892-1955) was a French writer who owned and operated the Paris bookshop, La maison des amis des livres, at 7 rue de l?Od?on from 1919 to 1951. She was a close friend of the American Sylvia Beach (1887-1962), owner of the English language bookshop Shakespeare and Company, located on the opposite side of the street. Both these bookshops were celebrated meeting places for avant-garde writers and are vividly recalled in Monnier?s rue de l?Od?on. 426 technically difficult piano accompaniment found in Chansons gaillardes, written during 1925 and 1926. Through a childhood friend, Raymonde Linossier, Poulenc was introduced to the poet L?on-Paul Fargue, as well as to other literary figures in Paris, such as James Joyce, Andr? Gide, and Adrienne Monnier. 921 It was Linossier who took Poulenc to Monnier's bookshop La maison des amis des livres in late 1919 after his return from military service, and there he met Apollinaire, Claudel, Fargue, Gide, and Val?ry, among other members of the surrealist circle. Poulenc was soon frequenting the most renowned salons of the Parisian upper class, those of Madame de Saint-Marceaux, the Beaumonts, the Moailles, and the Polignacs. He was also a frequent visitor to the less celebrated salons of Madame Dubost, Juliette Mante-Rostand, the Latarjets in Lyons, and Madame Rolland de R?neville in Tours. It was probably in 1919 that Poulenc met Misia Edwards (1872-1950). Born Marie Sophie Olga Zena?de Godebska, she was married first to Thad?e Natanson, one of the founders of La Revue Blanche, then to Alfred Edwards, a prominent figure in artistic and social circles in Paris, and finally to the Catalan painter Jos?-Maria Sert. Bonnard, Toulouse-Latrec, Renoir, and Vuillard all painted portraits of her. A gifted pianist, she had played for Liszt and taken lessons with Faur?. But she was also highly influential in 922 Gold and Fizdale, Misia, 227-228. 923 Ricardo Vi?es (1870-1943), a Catalan pianist, was also the first interpreter of many works by Debussy, Falla, Ravel, and Poulenc. He was the dedicatee of Debussy?s Poissons d?or, Falla?s Nights in the Gardens of Spain, Ravel?s Oiseaux tristes, and Poulenc?s Suite in C and Trois pieces. Poulenc, Selected Correspondence, 315. 924 Schmidt, Entrancing Muse, 41-74. 925 Schmidt, Entrancing Muse, 234-235. 427 avant-garde circles; in 1908, for example, she became a patron of Diaghilev and eventually one of his closest friends. 922 Poulenc was introduced to Ricardo Vi?es 923 by a family friend at one of the Sunday musical gatherings organized by the singer Jane Bathori in her home, and he went on to study piano with Vi?es from 1914-1917. The pianist and composer became Poulenc's mentor and through Vi?es, Poulenc met Auric, Cocteau, Falla, Landowska Meyer, and Satie, among others. Bathori gave the first performance of many songs by Poulenc, including his "Vocalise" in 1927 and Airs chant?s in 1928. In addition, Poulenc dedicated to her "A son page," from Po?mes de Ronsard; "Air vif," from Airs chant?s; and "Une chanson de porcelaine," written for her 80th birthday. 924 Their relationship would be long and fruitful. As director of the Th??tre du Vieux-Colombier, she organized the first performance of Poulenc's Rapsodie n?gre on December 11, 1917, and she would continue to champion his works throughout her life. Poulenc collaborated with several other singers over the course of his career. He met the French baritone Pierre Bernac (1899-1979) in 1926 and formed a duo with him in 1935 that would last more than twenty-four years. 925 It was an exceedingly productive 926 Poulenc, Selected Correspondence, 300. 927 Schmidt, Entrancing Muse, 245-263. 928 Francis Poulenc: Selected Correspondence, 83-84, 109-110. 428 collaboration; over ninety of Poulenc's 145 songs were written with Bernac in mind. To St?phane Audel, Poulenc said that the three most important encounters of his career? those that most profoundly influence his art?were with Wanda Landowska, Paul Eluard, and Pierre Bernac. To Simone Girade, he wrote: There is something so healthy about Bernac's voice, he is so vocally sound that I can make him do anything I want. I need his voice and I do not need the voice of anyone else. 926 Poulenc dedicated "R?deuse au front de verre" from Cinq po?mes de Paul Eluard to the singer, as well as "Figure de force br?lante et farouche" from Tel jour telle nuit, and "Tu vois le feu du soir" from Miroirs br?lants. 927 The French soprano Suzanne Peignot was another lifelong friend. Poulenc described her as "the matchless interpreter of all my early m?lodies for female voice." 928 Accompanied by the composer, she gave the first performances of Le bestiaire in 1919, Po?mes de Ronsard in 1925, Trois po?mes de Louise Lalanne in 1931, Quatre po?mes de Guillaume Apollinaire in 1931, and Cinq po?mes de Max Jacob in 1932. She is the dedicatee of "Air champ?tres" from Airs chant?s, "Attributs" from Po?mes de Ronsard, "La petite servante" from Cinq po?mes de Max Jacob, and "Il vole" from Fian?ailles pour rire. In 1930, she recorded Airs chant?s with Poulenc at the piano. In an article written for the journal Adam in February, 1964, Suzanne Peignot observed: For me, Francis was even more than a brother; he was an incomparable friend and 929 Poulenc, Selected Correspondence, 310. 930 Schmidt, Entrancing Muse, 325. 931 Ibid., 325-327. 932 Poulenc, Selected Correspondence, 303. 429 the guiding light throughout my career.? His judgments about music were always illuminating and right. Working with him was a thrilling and richly instructive experience. 929 Poulenc also worked closely with French soprano Denise Duval who, after studying dramatic art and opera at the Bordeaux Conservatoire, began her career in Paris at the Folies-Berg?res. Later, while preparing for her d?but at the Op?ra-Comique in Madama Butterfly, she was brought to Poulenc's attention by the producer, Max de Rieux. 930 Poulenc was then looking for a singer for the title role in Les mamelles de Tir?sias. Duval later recalled that when Poulenc heard her sing, he began shouting and gesticulating: "Oh! She is exactly the woman I need!" 931 She became Poulenc's favorite leading lady, and he wrote the leading parts for her in Dialogues des Carm?lites, La voix humaine, and La dame de Monte-Carlo. In addition, she is the dedicatee of the song cycle La courte paille and the Concerto for Piano. Poulenc described her voice in this way: When I met Denise Duval, I was immediately struck by her luminous voice, her beauty, her elegance, and especially by that ringing laugh of hers which is so marvelous in Les mamelles. 932 Poulenc also worked closely with mezzo-soprano Claire Croiza (1882-1946). As noted above, she sang on the operatic stage and in recital and was closely associated with several French composers, including Br?ville, Duparc, Debussy, Faur?, Roussel, 933 Schmidt, Entrancing Muse, 161-163. 934 Poulenc, My Friends and Myself, 80. 935 Schmidt, Sommaire to Quatre po?mes de Max Jacob, 6-7. 430 Saint-Sa?ns, and especially Honegger. Poulenc was exceedingly impressed by Croiza's interpretation of Le bestiaire and accompanied her in a recording of this work in 1928. "Je n'ai plus que les os" from Po?mes de Ronsard (1925) was dedicated to her. 933 Clearly, Poulenc's outpouring of vocal music was due to his collaborations and friendships with singers. Quatre po?mes de Max Jacob represents an important link between Cocardes (1919) and Po?mes de Ronsard (1924-1925). Little attention has been paid to them, however, because Poulenc declared that the manuscript had been destroyed. 934 Fortunately, an autograph manuscript did survive. Poulenc dedicated the 1921 Jacob songs to his friend Darius Milhaud, who gave their first performance in Paris on January 7, 1922 at the Salle des Agriculteurs with Jobin as vocalist and the members of the Soci?t? moderne des instruments ? vent. 935 The autograph manuscript, from which Milhaud, conducted remained in the composer's archives where Madeline Milhaud noticed it, and she made a copy of the manuscript available for publication. By January, 1922 when Milhaud conducted the premiere of these songs, Poulenc was widely associated with the Parisian avant-garde. It is not surprising then, that the performance attracted the notice of critics. Composer Alexis Roland-Manuel, writing in the February, 1922 edition of La Revue Musicale stated that: These poems represent Poulenc at his best and mark clear progress in the style of the young composer, whose gifts do not need to be vaunted here. What gives these burlesques the prize is that they are written with precise care and with a 936 Ces po?mes sont du meilleur Poulenc et marquent un evident progress dans la mani?re d?un jeune compositeur don?t on n?a plus ? vanter ici les dons savoureux. Ce qui donne du prix ? ces burlesques, c?est qu?elles sont ?crites avec un soin pr?cis et une ing?niosit?qui ne cesse point de se montrer charmante. Schmidt, Sommaire to Quatre po?mes de Max Jacob, 6-7. 937 Cette oeuvre doit appartenir, du moins lato sensu, ? cette province mal configur?e encore qu?on appelle dada?sme. M. Milhaud, qui a une assez puissante t?te de farceur, dirigeait confraternellement l?ex?cution. J?interpr?te ces petits ouvrages comme de l?humour, comme une esp?ce de derision ou de parodie froidement mystificatrice de toutes les formes connues du path?tique musical. Schmidt, Sommaire to Quatre po?mes de Max Jacob, 6-7. 431 never-ending charming cleverness. 936 An anonymous reviewer writing in the January, 1922 edition of L'Action Fran?aise was not so complementary: This work must belong, at least in the broad sense, to this misconfigured province that one still calls dadaisme. M. Milhaud, who is very much a joker, conducted in a very fraternal fashion. I interpret these brief works as humorous, as a form of derision or of a parody representing a cruel hoax of all forms known to musical pathos 937 . Indeed, the work is unusual to the point of parody. Scored for voice and woodwind quintet, Poulenc does not use the normal instrumentation in the quintet, substituting the trumpet for the french horn in the ensemble. This creates a raucous sonority, with timbres that do not truly blend. As well, Poulenc makes free use of dissonance and polytonality, with little effort at harmonic progression or formal development. The vocal part is extremely difficult to sing, with many intervals of the second against instruments in the ensemble. As well, the metronome markings are extremely fast and almost unplayable in the two fast movements. The addition of nonsense syllables in some of the poetry adds to the irreverence. HENRI TOMASI (1901-1971) 938 The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2 nd edition, vol 14., 561. 432 Henri Tomasi was a pupil of Philippe Gaubert at the Conservatoire, winning the Prix de Rome in 1927. During the 1930s, he was among the founders of the Groupe de Triton, along with Prokofiev, Poulenc, Milhaud, and Honegger. Tomasi divided his career between composing and conducting and was at home in opera houses all over the world. In the end, opera became his primary interest, and his own two operas, L'Atlantide (1951) and Miguel Ma?ara (1941-1944), established his reputation as an operatic composer. 938 Perhaps as a result of his association with Gaubert, Tomasi was extremely prolific as a composer of instrumental music, especially music for the flute. Among his many works, particularly notable compositions for the instrument include: Jeux de Geishas, suite japonaise for wind quintet and percussion (1936); Concerto in F for flute and orchestra (1944); Pastorale Inca for flute and two violins (1950); Wind Quintet (1952); Complainte et danse de Mogli for flute solo (1953); and Concerto de printemps for flute and string orchestra (1965). Jean-Pierre Rampal premiered many of Tomasi's works, especially those composed after World War II. Le chevrier and La fl?te, both written in 1943 for soprano, flute, viola, and harp (1943), were settings of poetry by Jos?-Maria de Heredia. Each contains long cadenzas for the flute, and Tomasi was undoubtedly influenced by the virtuosic capabilities of the modern flutist. JEAN YVES DANIEL-LESUR (1908-2002) Jean Yves Daniel-Lesur was born in Paris in 1908. His mother, a student of 939 Simeone, ?Daniel-Lesur 1908-2002,? 1-3. 940 Rostand, French Music Today, translated by Henry Marx, 33-37. 433 Charles Tournemire and a composer in her own right, gave her son his first lessons in organ and composition before he entered the Conservatoire at the age of twelve. He studied in Jean Gallon's harmony class and in Caussade's counterpoint class. His classmates at school included Maurice Durufl?, Olivier Messiaen, and Jean Rivier, and he developed friendships with fellow composers Georges Migot and Andr? Jolivet. In addition, he studied organ and composition with Charles Tournemire and was influenced considerably by Tournemire's mystic tendencies. He also studied piano with Georges Falkenberg. 939 In 1927, Daniel-Lesur succeeded his teacher Charles Tournemire as the organist of saint Clothilde, where he remained for ten years before becoming the organist to the Benedictine Abby of Paris (1937-1944). In 1935, he began teaching counterpoint at the Schola Cantorum, and twenty-two years later he became the school's director. In 1936, Lesur founded the group La jeune france with Baudrier, Jolivet, and Messiaen. As noted previously, the group was dedicated to a "return to the human" and opposed the neo-classical tradition that prevailed in Paris at that time, influenced by composers such as Stravinsky and Hindemith. 940 In addition, he was one of the composers to found a progressive concert society called La spirale, which was centered around the Schola Cantorum and included composers such as Olivier Messiaen and Andr? Jolivet. The group flourished during the years of the Popular Front in France, up to the outbreak of World War II. Daniel-Lesur occupied many administrative posts 941 Simeone, ?Daniel-Lesur 1908-2002,? 1-3. 434 throughout his career. In 1969 he was appointed Principal Inspector for Music and by 1973 had become Inspector General for Music at the Ministry of Cultural Affairs, a post which had previously been held by musicians such as Gabriel Faur? and Paul Dukas. In 1964, Daniel-Lesur was awarded the Grand prix of the General Council of the Seine Department, and, in 1969, he received the Grand Prix of the City of Paris for his opera Andrea del Sarto. He was nominated a member of the Board of Directors of l'Office de radiodiffusion t?l?vision fran?ais (ORTF) in 1972. Daniel-Lesur's music stands apart from that of his colleagues in La jeune france. He was more directly diatonic than Jolivet and more rhythmically regular than Messiaen; his modal shadings are probably the result of the influence of Tournemire, as well as his interest in folk music. Daniel-Lesur used folk tunes extensively, in a way that suggests the influence of d'Indy. 941 He wrote many m?lodies and works for organ, as well as his chamber works for flute, which include Suite m?di?vale (1946) for flute, harp, and string trio; Novelette (1977) for flute and piano; and Les deux bergers, (1985) for two flutes. Quatre lieder, for soprano, flute, violin, viola, cello, and harp (1947), contains four movements: La lettre, La chevauch?e, Les mains jointes, and S?r?nade. Based on poetry by C?cile Sauvage and Henri Heine, the piece is quite complex, with considerable variation in rhythm, texture, and text painting. The use of harmonics in the harp and string parts adds a shimmering, impressionistic atmosphere to the work, as do the numerous accidentals and chromatic harmonies. The tonal language recalls the vocal chamber music of Debussy, Delage, and Ravel. 435 OTHER COMPOSERS Among the composers listed in the annotated bibliography, some have fallen into such obscurity that little or no information regarding their biographies or their creative activities is readily available. Indeed, many are not listed in either The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians or Baker's Biographical Dictionary. The music itself, however, does provide some clues about the possible influences which brought about their creation. Adolphe Adam, for instance, wrote two pieces of theme and variations that employ virtuosic techniques for the vocalist and the flutist: Variations on Ah! Vous dirais, and Bravura-Variations on a Theme attributed to N. Dez?de. Similarly, Joseph-Henri Alt?s wrote several theme and variation pieces and a virtuoso showpiece, Le rossignol et la tourterelle, clearly in the style of the bird pieces of the day by composers such as Auguste Panseron, Victor Mass?, or Jean-Louis Tulou. All of these works from the early 1850s are intended for the entertainments of the salon. But later composers also wrote pieces on bird themes. Some of the more significant include Louis Beydts' Chanson pour les oiseaux (1948), L. Connix's Dis-moi petit oiseau (n.d.), L?o D?libes' Le rossignol (1882), Charles Gounod's O l?g?re hirondell?, and L?o Sachs' Les nymphes. Several composers wrote pieces on religious or pastorale themes, such as Bizet's Agnus dei (n.d.), B?sser's, Notre p?re qui ?tes aux Cieux (n.d.) and Le Seigneur vient dans le chemin (1937), Jules Massenet's ?l?gie: O doux printemps d'aurefois (1881), ?douard Millault's Ave Maria (n.d.), and Henri Tomasi's La fl?te (1943). 436 French poets also inspired many composers during this period. Marcel Delannoy set the poetry of Jean Mor?as in Trois histories (1926) and the poetry of Andr? Germain in Deux po?mes (1927). ?douard Lalo used the poetry of Albert Delpit in Chant de Breton (1884), and Raoul Laparra turned to the poetry by Charles Baudelaire in Bien loin d'ici (1926). Exotic influences found their way into a number of works, including Louis de Cr?vecoeur's Ha?-ka? d'occident (1926), E. Fromaigeat's Petits po?mes d'extr?me-orient (1932), Jacques Pillois' Chanson de Yamina (1922), and Georges Poniridy's Deux po?mes dans le style populaire grec (1925). CONCLUSION In the end, it was the force of two world wars that effectively destroyed the creative life of Paris and brought a close to the unusually high level of artistic output that had continued for well over a century. Arthur Honegger expressed the pessimism of his generation: I believe it was L?on Daudet who first mentioned the "stupid nineteenth century." Is it responsible for the dizzy avalanche of the twentieth toward the abyss? Possibly. Nevertheless, it was that century which gave to France, to cite no other country, its very greatest musicians: Berlioz, Debussy, Faur?, and twenty more; poets like Victor Hugo, Verlaine, Baudelaire, Mallarm? and others; writers in abundance; and finally, a school of painting and sculpture without equal. Further, civilized countries then knew a peacefulness that has since been banished. A man was permitted to have a few francs in his pocket without the State's intervention to take them from him; or better still, making him pay in advance what he might hope to earn. He could carry them from one country to another without accumulating authorizations, permissions, fingerprints, passports of all kinds, and more; all of which we hold to be proofs of the crudest barbarity. Since then, wars have succeeded wars, always in the name of "Justice and Liberty," but in actuality resulting in the banishment of this liberty almost entirely from the face of the globe. All these exertions converge toward a single goal: a definitive war, which 942 Honegger, I Am a Composer, 15-16. 437 will liquidate everything. The most obscure minister of finance in free democracies wields today a heavier tyranny than that of the Roman Caesars. The Treasury is a despotic master before whom all must bow. "Social Progress" regiments each one of us into the life of a concentration camp, making it all but impossible to survive as an independent being. The scholar and scientist are enrolled under directive powers. The "benefactor of humanity" is outmoded by events, and no longer accepts responsibility for the destructive machine, which they have set in motion, and from which they have leaped in haste, confident of their own impunity. A country must furnish billions to stretch an iron wire to block the path of this instrument of extermination launched at top speed against another. All are laboring for the annihilation of a civilization, to be touched off by a destructive machine. What will remain for art and music? When our two mechanisms have pulverized each other, when all sorts of bombs have turned the world into a heap of rubbish, a few survivors will no doubt be found amid the ruins of prostrate cities and scarred fields, seeking some subsistence. Then the ghost of a civilization will be slowly reborn, though we shall most likely not see it prosper. 942 As a result of Nazi persecution, many musicians fled to the United States during the late 1930s and early 1940s, including Bart?k, Milhaud, Schoenberg, and Stravinsky. After the German Occupation, Paris was no longer an artistic center, but a destroyed city, a city in need of rebuilding. Many of the orchestras, concert organizations, soci?t?s, salons, caf?-concerts, and opera houses had disbanded or suspended performances. The artistic life in Paris was disrupted in such a way that the city has never again been the glittering capital of creativity and innovation, while the United States, and New York in particular, replaced it as an international center of the arts, at least for a time. After World War II, nationalistic tendencies in France increased, with the result that foreign composers and artists worked in their native capitals rather than flocking to France. The conditions that had brought about the tremendous outpouring of repertoire for flute and voice in France were now over. No city in the modern era has ever been so definitely a 438 capital of the arts as Paris was between 1850 and 1950, not even postwar New York. Such a unique and remarkable status was bound to end eventually. 439 APPENDIX I ANNOTATED MUSICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY Selected works for flute and soprano; flute, soprano and piano; and flute, soprano and chamber ensemble written by French composers between 1850-1950. ADAM, Adolphe-Charles (1803-1856). Variations on Ah! vous dirais. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Berlin: Robert Lienau, n.d. Composition date: Unknown Text: French Flute range: D1 - G-sharp 3 Soprano range: D1 - C3 Key: G major Tempo markings: Allegro moderato Time signature: 4/4 Dedication: none Timing: 4 minutes Location: In print Bravura variations on the "Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star" theme by Mozart. The movements go back and forth between featuring the voice and then the flute, employing many arpeggiated figures and ornaments. Written for a high coloratura soprano, topping out at F3. A good encore piece. ADAM, Adolphe-Charles (1803-1856). Bravura-Variations on a Theme Attributed to N. Dez?de. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Edited by Estelle Liebling. New York: G. Schirmer, 1941. Composition date: Unknown Text: Italian Flute range: D1 - G3 Soprano range: B1 - C3 Key: F major Tempo markings: Allegro moderato Time signature: 4/4 Dedication: none Timing: 5 minutes, 10 seconds Location: In the private collection of Dr. William Montgomery, College Park, MD 440 This notation is a reference from Great Arias for Soprano, written and edited by Estelle Liebling. The work contains lengthy and numerous variations. Great endurance and range demands on the voice. Out of print. ALTES, Joseph-Henri (1826-1895). Le rossignol et la tourterelle, op. 26. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Chaimbaud et Cie, n.d. Composition date: Unknown Text: French Flute range: F1 - F3 Soprano range: E1 - F2 Key: D major Tempo markings: Andantino Time signature: 3/4 Dedication: none Timing: 4 minutes Location: Library of Congress A typical bird piece, showy in the romantic style. Lots of figures for the flute to portray bird song. Written for a high soprano with trills, turns, and other ornaments. An elaborate cadenza for the soprano and flute contains echo figures and runs in 3rds. Out of print. AUBERT, Louis-Fran?ois-Marie (1877-1968). L'heure captive. (For flute, [or violin] soprano, and piano.) Paris: Durand et Cie, 1928. Composition date: 1928 Text: Poetry by Ren? Dommange Flute range: C1 - B-flat 3 Soprano range: C-sharp 1 - E-flat 2 Key: F major Tempo markings: Lent et tr?s expressif Time signature: 4/4 Dedication: none Timing: 2 minutes Location: Middlebury College Music Library A slow, expressive piece, romantic in conception. The flute has long, lyrical lines that flow through the registers. The voice part has a low tessitura, with a chant-like quality to the writing. The piece makes use of chromaticism in the flute and piano parts. Out of print. AUBERT, Louis-Francois-Marie (1877-1968). Po?mes d'afez. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Durand et Cie, n.d. 441 A reference in both Koechlin and Waln. Unable to examine. B?ESAU, J (n.d.). Deux m?lodies. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Mutuelle, n.d. 1. La fl?te am?re de l'automne 2. Chanson triste Composition date: Unknown Text: Poetry by A. Ferdinand H?rold Flute range: D1 - F-sharp 3 Soprano range: F-sharp 1 - G2 Key: D major Tempo markings: Grave et tr?s li? - movement 1 Calme - movement 2 Time signature: 4/4 - movement 1 4/4 - movement 2 Dedication: Jules Massenet Timing: 3 minutes, 10 seconds Location: Library of Congress A rather difficult, impressionistic work. The piano and flute parts are particularly challenging. Vocal phrases are long and lyrical with many accidentals. Out of print. BERNHEIM, Marcel (n.d.). Clair de lune. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: S?nart, 1921. Composition date: Unknown Text: Poetry by Franz Toussaint Flute range: E1 - G3 Soprano range: D1 - G2 Key: G major Tempo markings: Lento Time signature: 3/4 Dedication: None Timing: 3 minutes, 5 seconds Location: Library of Congress The third in a collection of five poems entitled Jardin des caresses. The vocal tessitura is low, and the voice part has few skips. Frequent changes of meter. A pleasing, impressionistic work. Out of print. BEYDTS, Louis (1895-1953). Chansons pour les oiseaux. (For flute, soprano and small chamber orchestra.) Paris: Durand et Cie, 1950. 442 1. La colombe poignard?e 2. Le petit pigeon bleu 3. L'oiseau bleu 4. Le petit serin en cage Composition date: 1948 Text: Poetry by Paul Fort Flute range: E1 - G-flat 3 Soprano range: F1 - C3 Key: G-flat major - movement 1 E major - movement 2 G-flat major - movement 3 F major - movement 4 Tempo markings: Largamente expressif - movement 1 Avec grace et l?g?ret? - movement 2 Comme en r?ve - movement 3 Strictement en mesure jusqu'a la fin - movement 4 Time signature: 4/4 - movement 1 9/8 - movement 2 6/8 - movement 3 2/4 - movement 4 Dedication: None Timing: 8 minutes Location: State University of Iowa Libraries A collection of four songs for voice and small chamber group. I only saw the piano score, which states that the parts are ?en location.? These songs are in an impressionistic style, with complicated key signatures, many accidentals, many changes in tempo, varying textures, and an overall high tessitura for the soprano. Out of print. BEYDTS, Louis (1895-1953). La fl?te verte. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Pierre Schneider, 1927. Composition date: Unknown Text: Poetry by Louis Codet Flute range: D1 - D3 Soprano range: E1 - F2 Key: G major Tempo markings: Lento Time signature: 3/4 Dedication: None Timing: 1 minutes, 45 seconds Location: Library of Congress 443 A placid, impressionistic work. Rather simple vocal line with some complex rhythms. Out of print. BEYDTS, Louis (1895-1953). Trois m?lodies. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Durand et Cie, 1947. 1. Crepuscule 2. Le present 3. En Arles Composition date: 1947 Text: Poetry by Paul Jean Toulet Flute range: D1 - G3 Soprano range: E-sharp 1 - F-sharp 2 Key: B major - movement 3 Tempo markings: Allegretto - movement 3 Time signature: 2/4 - movement 3 Dedication: None Timing: 1 minutes, 10 seconds Location: Library of Congress The last movement is for flute, soprano, and piano; the other two are for voice and piano only. A lyrical, expressive work, but not technically demanding. Out of print. BIZET, Georges (1838-1875). Agnus dei. (For flute, soprano, and piano or organ.) New York: Classical Vocal Reprints, n.d. Composition date: Unknown Text: Latin Flute range: D1 - G3 Soprano range: C-sharp 1 - G2 Key: D major Tempo markings: Maestoso Time signature: 4/4 Dedication: None Timing: 2 minutes Location: In print A religious solo with flute obligato. Most of the writing is in parallel thirds. Its long, slow, sustained melody is famous. A transcription. BONHOMME, M. T (n.d.). Ballade anci?nne, op. 98. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: M.T. Bonhomme, 1923. 444 Composition date: Unknown Text: Poetry by Georges Finaud Flute range: E-flat 1 - E-flat 3 Soprano range: E-flat 1 - A-flat 2 Key: A-flat major Tempo markings: Andantino Time signature: 3/4 Dedication: None Timing: 2 minutes Location: Library of Congress Poetry by Georges Finaud. A short salon piece of dubious musical value. Out of print. BONIS, M?lanie H?l?ne (1858-1937). M?lisande. (For flute and soprano.) Paris: Demets, n.d. References in Vester, La Revue Musicale, and Waln. Unable to examine. This piece is listed in the Catalog of Works of Bonis by Christine G?liot, as a work for piano, published by Henry Lemoine. No further information is given. BONIS, M?lanie H?l?ne (1858-1937). Le chat sur le toit, op. 93. (For soprano, 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons, 2 horns, harp, string quartet, bass, and cymbals.) Paris: Editions Senart, n.d. Composition date: Unknown Text: Du Costal Flute range: Unknown Soprano range: Unknown Key: Unknown Tempo signature: Unknown Time signature: Unknown Dedication: Unknown Timing: 3 minutes Location: Unpublished This work is listed in a biography of Bonis that is written by her granddaughter, Christine G?liot. Unable to examine. BONIS, M?lanie H?l?ne (1858-1937). Le ruisseau, op. 21 no. 2. (For soprano, flute, oboe, clarinet, cornet, harp, string quartet, and bass.) Paris: Editions Armiane, n.d. Composition date: Unknown Text: Hettich Flute range: Unknown 445 Soprano range: Unknown Key: Unknown Tempo signature: Unknown Time signature: Unknown Dedication: Unknown Timing: 3 minutes Location: Unpublished This work is listed in a biography of Bonis that is written by her granddaughter, Christine G?liot. Unable to examine. BONIS, M?lanie H?l?ne (1858-1937). No?l de la vierge Marie, op. 54 no. 2. (For soprano, flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, string quartet, and bass.) Paris: Editions Armiane, n.d. Composition date: Unknown Text: Poetry by Pape Carpantier Flute range: Unknown Soprano range: Unknown Key: Unknown Tempo signature: Unknown Time signature: Unknown Dedication: Unknown Timing: 5 minutes Location: Unpublished This work is listed in a biography of Bonis that is written by her granddaughter, Christine G?liot. Unable to examine. B?SSER, Paul-Henri (1872-1973). Le seigneur vient dans le chemin. (For soprano, flute, cello, and harp) Paris: Durand et Cie, 1937. Composition date: 1937 Text: Poetry by Marie Maindron Flute range: D1 - E3 Soprano range: F-sharp 1 - F-sharp 2 Key: E major Tempo markings: Moderato Time signature: 4/4 Dedication: Claude B?sser Timing: 2 minutes Location: Library of Congress A short, lyrical piece composed for the first communion of B?sser's son, Claude, to 446 whom the piece is dedicated. The parts are simple and charming. Out of print. B?SSER, Paul-Henri (1872-1973). Notre p?re qui ?tes aux cieux (The Lord's Prayer). (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Lemoine, n.d. References in both Vester and Waln. Unable to examine. CAPLET, Andr? (1878-1925). Viens! Une fl?te invisible soupire. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Durand et Cie, 1924. Composition date: 1900 Text: Poetry by Victor Hugo Flute range: D1 - A3 Soprano range: D1 - D2 Key: F major Tempo markings: Moderato Time signature: 4/4 Dedication: none Timing: 2 minutes, 5 seconds Location: In print The piece?s diminished chords and pentatonic figures give it an oriental mood. The flute has thirty-second note runs. The vocal part is flowing but has a low tessitura. First performed in Paris, January 4, 1919, at the Soci?t? nationale de musique. CAPLET, Andr? (1878-1925). Corbeille de fruits: doncques la douleur et l'aise de l'amour. (For flute and soprano.) Paris: Durand, 1924. Referenced in Vester. Out of print. It is in the Library of Congress catalog, however, the manuscript could not be found on the shelf. Unable to examine. This appears to be movement three of Corbeille de fruits, movement two being for voice and piano only. CAPLET, Andr? (1878-1925). Corbeille de fruits: ?coute, mon coeur. (For flute and soprano.) Paris: Durand et Cie, 1925. Composition date: September 19, 1924 Text: Poetry by Rabindranath Tagore Trans. to French by H?l?ne du Pasquier Flute range: E1 - B-flat 2 Soprano range: E1 - E2 Key: G major Tempo markings: Andante Time signature: 3/8 Dedication: none 447 Timing: 3 minutes, 10 seconds Location: In print This piece looks similar in its musical writing to that of Roussel, containing characteristic contemporary French flute writing such as arpeggios, pentatonic harmony, trills, and flutter tongue effects. The vocal line is sustained, lyrical, and stepwise as the flute bounces around in the upper register. This appears to be movement one of a three-movement work, with movement three listed above, and movement two for voice and piano only. CAPLET, Andr? (1878-1925). Deux m?lodies. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Durand et Cie, n.d. A reference in Vester. Unable to examine. CARTAN, Jean (1906-1932). Po?mes de Tristan Klingsor. (For soprano, flute, harp, and string quartet.) Paris: Alphonse Leduc, 1927. Composition date: 1927 Text: Poetry by Tristan Klingsor A reference in Waln. Unable to examine. CHAMINADE, C?cile Louis St?phanie (1857-1944). Portrait (Valse chant?e). (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Enoch, n.d. Composition date: 1904 Text: Poetry by Pierre Reyniel Flute range: E1 - A3 Soprano range: E1 - G2 Key: A major Tempo markings: Allegro Time signature: 3/4 Dedication: Madame Albani Timing: 3 minutes, 47 seconds Location: In print A short work in the French romantic style. The flute part is written in a lyrical manner with arpeggiated figures and several key changes. The vocal part has a fairly low tessitura, with sustained, lyrical writing. It is a light, salon piece that would be characterized as musical ?fluff.? The first performance was given in April 1904 at the Salle Aeolian in Paris, with Jeanne Leclerc, vocalist; Puyans, flute; and Chaminade, piano. Reprinted by Classical Vocal Reprints. 448 CHAUSSON, Ernst (1855-1899). H?b?. (For soprano, 2 flutes, alto flute, harp, and string quartet.) Composition date: 1887 Text: Unknown Flute range: Unknown Soprano range: Unknown Key: Unknown Tempo markings: Unknown Time signature: Unknown Dedication: Unknown Timing: Unknown Location: Unknown A reference to this work is in Edward Blakeman?s Taffanel: Genius of the Flute. Blakeman indicates that Taffanel performed this work at the Soci?t? nationale de musique performance on March 5, 1887, with performers Storm, Lef?bvre, Lafleurance, Laudou, and the R?my quartet. CONINX, L (n.d.). L'enfant et la fauvette. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Lemoine, n.d. References appear in Prill, Pazdirek, and Waln. Unable to examine. CONINX, L. (n.d.). Dis-moi petit oiseau. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Lemoine, n.d. References appear in Prill, Pazdirek, and Waln. Unable to examine. CRAS, Jean ?mile Paul (1879-1932). La fl?te de Pan. (For pan flute [or piccolo], soprano, 2 violins, viola, and cello.) Paris: S?nart, 1930. 1. Invention de la fl?te 2. Don de la fl?te 3. Le signal de la fl?te 4. Le retour de la fl?te Composition date: 1928 Text: Poetry by Lucien Jacques Flute range: C1 - C4 Soprano range: E-flat 1 - A2 Key: E-flat major - movement 1 E-flat major - movement 2 F minor - movement 3 449 F minor - movement 4 Tempo markings: Lent - movement 1 Mod?r? - movement 2 Tr?s lent - movement 3 Tr?s lent - movement 4 Time signature: 12/8 - movement 1 4/4 - movement 2 6/4 - movement 3 3/4 - movement 4 Dedication: none Timing: 12 minutes Location: Sibley Music Library, Eastman School of Music Originally composed for soprano, flute (pan flute or piccolo), and string trio. Four impressionistic songs. Difficult rhythms for the ensemble with many tempo and key signature changes. A medium voice part with the piccolo as the most prominent of the four instruments. Many accidentals in the voice part, and sudden changes in tempo for all. Out of print. CRAS, Jean ?mile Paul. (1879-1932). Fontaines. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: S?nart, 1923. 1. Hommage a la fontaine 2. De bon matin 3. Offrande 4. Reste 5. L'antique fontaine Composition date: 1923 Text: Poetry by Lucien Jacques Flute range: C-sharp 1 - A3 Soprano range: C-sharp 1 - E2 Key: C-sharp major - movement 1 E-flat major - movement 2 E major - movement 3 A minor - movement 4 E major - movement 5 Tempo markings: Lent - movement 1 Lent - movement 2 Tr?s lent - movement 3 Assez lent - movement 4 Lent - movement 5 Time signature: 6/4 - movement 1 450 5/8 - movement 2 2/2 - movement 3 4/4 - movement 4 12/8 - movement 5 Dedication: Mr. Vanni-Marcous Timing: 10 minutes, 5 seconds Location: Sibley Music Library, Eastman School of Music A colorful but difficult work. For medium voice in very difficult keys, including seven sharps! Most movements are slow and sustained (Lent). Impressionistic harmonies. The Library of Congress had a score that is a piano reduction and a full score, however, the full score could not be located on the shelf. Out of print. CR?VECOEUR, Louis Deff?s Joseph (1819-?). Ha?-ka? d'occident. (For flute and soprano.) Paris: S?nart, 1926. 1. Souvenirs, souvenirs 2. Le galop d'un cheval 3. Veux-tu me r?jouer, ma amie 4. O la tristesse des airs gais 5. ?coutez la chanson Composition Date: Unknown Text: Poetry by Maurice Heim Soprano range: D1 - G2 Flute range: C1 - E3 Key: A major - movement 1 F-sharp minor - movement 2 E major - movement 3 A major - movement 4 A major - movement 5 Tempo markings: Lent - movement 1 Allegro - movement 2 Andante - movement 3 Mod?r? - movement 4 Anim? - movement 5 Time signature: 6/4 - movement 1 4/4 - movement 2 4/4 - movement 3 3/4 - movement 4 2/4 - movement 5 Dedication: None Timing: 4 minutes 451 Location: Library of Congress A series of short, contrasting French songs. Flute tessitura is low, the voice phrases idiomatic. Out of print. DANIEL-LESUR, Jean Yves (1908-2002). Quatre lieder. (For soprano, flute, violin, viola, cello, piano, and harp) Paris: Durand et Cie, 1947. 1. La lettre 2. La chevauch?e 3. Les mains jointes 4. S?r?nade Composition date: July, 1947 Text: Poetry by C?cile Sauvage and Henri Heine Flute range: C1 - B-flat 3 Soprano range: F1 - G2 Key: C major - movement 1 C major - movement 2 C major - movement 3 C major - movement 4 Tempo markings: Lento - movement 1 Appassionato ma non troppo vivo - Movement 2 Lento molto - movement 3 Allegretto - movement 4 Time signature: 3/4 - movement 1 2/4 - movement 2 4/4 - movement 3 5/4 - movement 4 Dedication: none Timing: 8 minutes Location: Library of Congress A complex, difficult piece with considerable variation in rhythm, texture, and text painting. The use of harmonics in the harp and string parts adds to the atmosphere of the piece. Numerous accidentals and chromatic harmonies. The voice part is stepwise and lyrical, with accidentals and syncopations. Out of print. This composer is listed in The New Grove as Jean Yves Daniel-Lesur, however, he is also listed in other dictionaries as Daniel Lesur. DAVID, F?licien-C?sar (1810-1876). Charmant oiseau. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) New York: Oliver Ditson, 1888. 452 Composition date: 1851 Text: French text J. Gabriel, Sylvian St. Etienne Translation to English by Barnett Flute range: F-sharp 1 - G3 Soprano range: D1 - C3 Key: G major Tempo markings: Andante Time signature: 6/8 Dedication: none Timing: 6 minutes Location: In print From the comic opera La perle du Br?sil. This was a favorite program piece of Emma Nevada. The Ditson edition includes her cadenza, as well as the original. The piece is characterized by lyrical vocal writing. The flute part has two florid interludes and a cadenza. Schott has a better edition, which contains dynamics, articulations, and phrasing. Carl Fischer and Presser also publish other good editions. DEBUSSY, Achille-Claude (1862-1918). Bilitis. Arranged by Donald Peck. (For flute, piano, and narrator.) New York: Bourne Co., 1979. Composition date: 1901 Text: Poetry by Pierre Lou?s Flute range: F-sharp 1 - G3 Soprano range: D1 - C3 Key: G major Tempo markings: Andante Time signature: 6/8 Dedication: none Timing: 20 minutes Location: In the private collection of Dr. William Montgomery, College Park, MD This piece is different than Les chanson de Bilitis, also written in 1901. This work contains beautiful, lush writing by Debussy, this work is probably better in the original, more substantive version. It contains runs, arpeggios, piano harmonics, and difficult keys. The piano assumes most of the responsibilities of the harp parts from the original version. This edition contains performance notes. Out of print. DEBUSSY, Achille-Claude (1862-1918). Les chansons de Bilitis. (For 2 flutes, 2 harps, celesta, and narrator.) Paris: Jobert, 1971. 1. Chant pastoral 2. Les comparaisons 453 3. Les contes 4. Chanson 5. La partie d'osselets 6. Bilitis 7. Le tombeau sans nom 8. Les courtisanes ?gyptiennes 9. L'eau pure du basin 10. La danseuse aux crotales 11. Le souvenir de Mansidica 12. La pluie au matin Composition date: 1901 Text: Poetry by Pierre Lou?s Flute range: c - E3 Soprano range: Recitation with no pitch designation Key: D minor - movement 1 D minor - movement 2 G minor - movement 3 G minor - movement 4 D minor - movement 5 B major - movement 6 A minor - movement 7 D minor - movement 8 C major - movement 9 G minor - movement 10 E-flat major - movement 11 G major - movement 12 Tempo markings: Un peu plus lent - movement 1 Assez anim? - movement 2 Assez vif et tr?s rythm? - movement 3 Lent et expressif - movement 4 Vif - movement 5 Tr?s mod?r? et tempo rubato - movement 6 Triste et lent - movement 7 Assez anim? - movement 8 Mod?r? - movement 9 Mod?r? (tempo rubato) - movement 10 Tr?s mod?r? - movement 11 Mod?r? - movement 12 Time signature: 4/4 - movement 1 2/4 - movement 2 4/4 - movement 3 12/8 - movement 4 4/4 - movement 5 454 4/4 - movement 6 5/4 - movement 7 4/4 - movement 8 6/4 - movement 9 3/4 - movement 10 3/4 - movement 11 4/4 - movement 12 Dedication: none Timing: 22 minutes Location: Michelle Smith Performing Arts Library University of Maryland, College Park The music was written in 1901, but not published until 1971. This is the original version of the work above using different poems by the same poet. The music was written at the request of Pierre Lou?s for a reading of his poetry. The vocal part is one of recitation. The performance was a tableau, a performance style that was in vogue at the time. In this format, a poem was recited with the accompaniment of music and dancing (or movement), presenting frozen scenes, or tableau, which were intended to heighten appreciation of the poetry. While Lou?s initially presented the poems as translations of works by a Grecian poetess, Bilitis, that story was later revealed to be a hoax. Lou?s himself wrote the poems and invented the Bilitis character. Debussy also wrote solo songs from these poems entitled Chansons de Bilitis (La fl?te de Pan, Le ch?velure, Le tombeau des Na?ades). Out of print. DELAGE, Maurice (1879-1961). Deux fables de Jean de La Fontaine. (For soprano, flute, oboe, 2 clarinets, bassoon, horn, trumpet, piano, string quartet.) Paris: J. Jobert, 1931. 1. Le corbeau et le renard 2. Le cigale et la fourmi Composition date: 1931 Text: Poetry by Jean de la Fontaine Flute range: Unable to examine Soprano range: Unable to examine Key: Unable to examine Tempo markings: Unable to examine Time signature: Unable to examine Dedication: Marcelle Liebenguth - movement 1 The composer's wife - movement 2 Timing: 21 minutes Location: Library of Congress According to Grove, this work was written in 1931, followed by a reduction for voice and 455 piano by the composer in 1948. Thomas, in her 1995 dissertation, argues that the composition date for both is 1949. Gordon affirms the 1931 date in her dissertation of 1991. Premiered at Radio-Gen?ve in 1948. Out of print. Located in the catalog of the Library of Congress; however, it could not be located on the shelf. Unable to examine. DELAGE, Maurice (1879-1961). Hommage ? A. Roussel. (For soprano, flute, and piano, a reduction by the composer from soprano and orchestra.) Paris: J. Jobert, 1929. Composition date: 1925 Text: Poetry by Ren? Chalupt Flute range: C1 - F3 Soprano range: D1 - E3 Key: D major Tempo markings: Larghetto Time signature: 3/4 Dedication: Albert Roussel Timing: 3 minutes, 44 seconds Location: Library of Congress Originally a piece for soprano and small orchestra written in 1925. The reduction was completed on March 14, 1929 and published in La Revue Musicale, April 1929, as a supplement including hommages by a number of other composers (Beck, Honegger, Hoer?e, Ibert, Milhaud, Poulenc, and Tansman). Out of print. DELAGE, Maurice (1879-1961). Quatre po?mes hindous. (For soprano, 2 violins, viola, cello, 2 flutes, oboe, 2 clarinets, and harp.) Paris: Durand et Cie, 1914. 1. Une belle (Madras) 2. Un sapin isole? (Lahore) 3. Naissance de Bouddha (B?nar?s) 4. Si vous pensez a elle (Jeypur) Composition date: 1914 Text: Poetry by Bhartrihari, Henri Heine, Maurice Delage Flute range: C1 - F3 Soprano range: E1 - G-sharp 2 Key: B major - movement 1 D major - movement 2 F major - movement 3 E major - movement 4 Tempo markings: Larghetto - movement 1 Larghetto - movement 2 Allegretto - movement 3 456 Andantino - movement 4 Time signature: 3/4 - movement 1 3/4 - movement 2 5/4 - movement 3 4/4 - movement 4 Dedication: Maurice Ravel - Une belle No dedicatee - Un sapin isol?e Florent Schmitt - de Bouddha Igor Stravinsky - Si vous pensez a elle Timing: 9 minutes Location: Library of Congress This piece was inspired by a trip to India. It reflects the composer's impressions of four cities. The harmony is reminiscent of Ravel: exotic, oriental, utilizing pentatonic scales, with harmonics and other contemporary techniques for all parts. A long viola solo in movement two. Premiered at Soci?t? musicale ind?pendente on January 14, 1914. Out of print. DELAGE, Maurice (1879-1961). Sept ha?-ka?s. (For soprano, flute, oboe, clarinet, piano, and string quartet.) Paris: Jobert, 1924. 1. Pr?face du Kokinshiou ? 2. Les herbes de l'oubli ? 3. Le coq ? 4. La petite tortue ? 5. La june d'automne ? 6. Alors ? 7. L'?t? ? Composition date: 1920 - 1925 Text: Anonymous Flute range: Unable to examine Soprano range: F-sharp 1 - G2 Key: F minor - movement 1 B major - movement 2 E major - movement 3 A major - movement 4 D major - movement 5 D-flat major - movement 6 E-flat major - movement 7 Tempo markings: Vif - movement 1 Larghetto - movement 2 Mod?r? - movement 3 Lent - movement 4 457 Agit? - movement 5 Larghetto - movement 6 Calme - movement 7 Time signature: 4/4 - movement 1 2/4 - movement 2 2/4 - movement 3 2/4 - movement 4 3/8 - movement 5 2/4 - movement 6 2/4 - movement 7 Dedication: Madame Louis Laloy - Pr?face du Kokinshiou Andr? Vaurabourg - Les herbes de l'oubli Jane Bathori - Le coq Madame Fernand Dreyfus - Le petite tortue Suzanne Roland-Manuel - La june d'automne Denise Jobert - Alors Georgette Garban - L'?t? Timing: 8 minutes Location: Library of Congress The work was premiered at the Soci?t? musical ind?pendente in April 1925. Out of print. Only the piano score is located at the Library of Congress. DELAGE, Maurice (1879-1961). Trois po?mes: L'aleuette. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Durand et Cie, 1925. Composition date: 1923 Text: Poetry by Guillaume de Salluste du Bartas Flute range: E-flat 1 - B-flat 3 Soprano range: A-flat 1 - B-flat 2 Key: B-flat minor Tempo markings: Allegro Time signature: 4/8 Dedication: Madame Romanitza Timing: 2 minutes Location: Library of Congress First written in 1923 for voice, flute, and chamber orchestra. The composer made a transcription for voice, flute, and piano in 1925 for Madame Romanitza, to whom it is also dedicated. The piece has many thirty-second note gestures in both the flute and voice parts, with lots of rubato, meter changes, and diminished chords, as well as a quick 458 tempo, runs, trills, and grace notes. Premiered at the Op?ra in 1922. Out of print. DELANNOY, Marcel Fran?ois Georges (1898-1962). Trois histoires. (For soprano, flute, bassoon, and piano.) Paris: Heugel, n.d. 1. La rencontre 2. Le galant jardinier 3. La nonnain gaillarde Composition date: 1926 Text: Poetry by Jean Mor?as Flute range: Unable to examine Soprano range: b - E2 Key: E major - movement 1 C major - movement 2 G-flat major - movement 3 Tempo markings: Avec Franchise - movement 1 Mod?r? - movement 2 Mouvement de marche - movement 3 Time signature: 4/4 - movement 1 4/4 - movement 2 6/8 - movement 3 Dedication: Alexis Roland-Manuel - La rencontre Maurice Jaubert - Le gallant jardinier Jacques Brillouin - La nonnain gaillarde Timing: 5 minutes Location: Library of Congress The harmonies are characteristic of French chromatic writing of this period. The voice part is lyrical, with a low tessitura, difficult keys, and many accidentals. While the cover of the work mentions a flute part, in fact it did not appear in the score or parts. Out of print. DELANNOY, Marcel Fran?ois Georges (1898-1962). Deux po?mes. (For soprano, flute, piano, 2 violins, viola, and cello.) Paris: Heugel, n.d. Composition date: 1927 Text: Poetry by Andr? Germain Flute range: Unable to examine Soprano range: E1 - G2 Key: C major - movement 1 C major - movement 2 Tempo markings: Mod?r? - movement 1 Tr?s mod?r? - movement 2 459 Time signature: 4/4 - movement 1 4/4 - movement 2 Dedication: none Timing: 3 minutes Location: Library of Congress Light, simple melodies characterize these pieces, and so they are suggestive of short salon works. Although a flute part is mentioned on the cover of the work, it was missing from the score and parts. Out of print. D?LIBES, Cl?ment-Philibert-L?o (1836-1891). Le rossignol. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Frankfurt: Zimmerman, n.d. Composition date: 1882 Text: French text Flute range: D1 - B3 Soprano range: D1 - C3 Key: C major Tempo markings: Moderato Time signature: 4/4 Dedication: Lily Pons Timing: 3 minutes Location: In print Music written in 1882 for Lily Pons as a showpiece for flute and voice. Based on poetry about the nightingale, it makes use of the flute to portray the bird, to which the soprano listens and then imitates the bird?s song. For the flute, there are many runs, trills, grace notes, and a cadenza. The soprano sings a lyrical melody, in imitation of flute trills, and a cadenza. The poetic theme is the return of love, but its treatment is fairly trite in this instance. Romantic in harmonic conception, the C major key leads to predictable secondary dominants. DEMARQUEZ, Suzanne (1899-1965). Quatre contrerimes. (For flute, soprano, and harp.) A Reference in Vester. Unable to examine. DI?MER, Louis (1843-1919). S?r?nade (L'Amour qui passe). (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Heugel, 1884. Composition date: 1878 Text: Poetry by Gabriel Marc Flute range: D1 - G-sharp 3 Soprano range: D1 - G2 460 Key: C major Tempo markings: Moderato Time signature: 6/8 Dedication: Paul Taffanel and L?once Valdec Timing: 2 minutes Location: Library of Congress A short, romantic work of moderate difficulty. Though not long, the vocal phrases are quite lyric. Premiered by Paul Taffanel, flute, Valdec, voice, and Di?mer, piano at a Soci?t? nationale de musique performance on March 16, 1878. Edward Blakeman, in his Taffanel: Genius of the Flute lists the date of composition of this work as 1887. However, if the first performance took place on 1878, I must conclude that the previous date was a misprint. At the first performance, the work was described as ?a delightful and ingenious piece which gave great pleasure.? Out of print. DORET, Gustave (1866-1943). Mirage. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) New York: Classical Vocal Reprints, n.d. Composition date: Unknown Text: Poetry by Charles Vellay Flute range: D1 - E3 Soprano range: E1 - A2 Key: E minor Tempo markings: Andante Time signature: 4/4 Dedication: Madame Charles Dettelbach Timing: 2 minutes Location: Library of Congress A lyrical piece with scale-like patterns. The particular quality of interaction between the parts, especially the flute, suggests that the work was conceived for this combination. Out of print. DROUET, Louis (1792-1873). O dolce concerto (Air de Mozart avec variations). (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Costallat, n.d. Composition date: Unknown Text: Italian text Flute range: E1 - B-flat 3 Soprano range: D1 - C3 Key: F major Tempo markings: Andante Time signature: 4/4 Dedication: None 461 Timing: 4 minutes Location: Library of Congress The flute states the theme and is then joined by the voice in numerous florid variations and a final long cadenza. The voice part is demanding and requires a good coloratura soprano. A typical mid-nineteenth-century show piece. Out of print. DUKAS, Paul (1865-1935). Songs. (For soprano, flute, horn, and piano.) A reference in Vester. It is in the catalog at the Library of Congress, however it could not be located on the shelf. Unable to examine. DUREY, Louis (1888-1979). Images ? Cruso?, op.11. (For soprano, flute, clarinet, celesta [or harp], and string quartet.) London: Chester, 1922. 1. No title 2. Vendredi 3. Association 4. L?Arc 5. Visitation 6. Le Perroquet 7. Attente Composition date: 1918 Text: Poetry by Saint L?ger Flute range: Unknown Soprano range: D1 - D-sharp 2 Key: No key throughout Tempo markings: Lent - movement 1 Mod?r? - movement 2 Un peu lent - movement 3 Mod?r? - movement 4 Tr?s calme - movement 5 Anim? - movement 6 Lent - movement 7 Time signature: 3/4 - movement 1 2/8 - movement 2 3/4 - movement 3 3/4 - movement 4 9/8 - movement 5 2/4 - movement 6 6/8 - movement 7 Dedication: Pierre Bertin, Germain Meyer, Marcelle Meyer Timing: 9 minutes 462 Location: University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign A substantial work that is written for a medium soprano with a low tessitura. The work is varied in style, with a great deal of chromaticism, many changes in tempo, time signatures, and dynamics. The accompaniment creates a harmonic background for the voice. I was only able to see a piano vocal score of the music. Many of the devices in the piano would be very effective on the harp. EMMANUEL, Maurice (1862-1938). Trois odelettes anacr?ontiques, op. 13. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Durand et Cie, 1914. 1. Au printemps 2. ? la cigale 3. ? la rose Composition date: 1911 Text: Poetry by R?mi Belleau and Pierre de Ronsard Flute range: C1 - G3 Soprano range: D1 - G2 Key: C-sharp minor - movement 1 B-flat major - movement 2 B major - movement 3 Tempo markings: Tranquillo - movement 1 Giocoso ma moderato - movement 2 Tempo di Walzer - movement 3 Time signature: 3/4 - movement 1 3/4 - movement 2 6/8 - movement 3 Dedication: Madame Povla Frisch Timing: 7 minutes, 30 seconds Location: In print The piece contains three movements with thematic titles. Each of these impressionistic French songs is composed in its own style, its mood determined by the text. The voice line has a great deal of independence, with difficult skips and rhythms. A technically demanding flute part. FAUR?, Gabriel-Urbain (1845-1924). Nocturne, op. 43, no. 2. (For flute, soprano, and piano) Paris: Salabert, n.d. References in both Vester and Waln. Poetry by Villiers de l'Isle Adam. Music written in 1886. Unable to examine. 463 FROMAIGEAT, Ernst (1888-?). Petits po?mes d'extr?me-orient. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Pierre Schneider, n.d. 1. Le tapis du r?ve 2. La d?laiss?e 3. Deux saisons 4. La fl?te lontaine Composition date: 1932 Text: Poetry by L. Arnould-Gr?milly Flute range: D1 - A3 Soprano range: D1 - A2 Key: F major - movement 1 B-flat major - movement 2 G-flat major - movement 3 F-sharp major - movement 4 Tempo markings: Vivace - movement 1 Tr?s mod?r? - movement 2 Vif et gai - movement 3 Lentement et langoureux - movement 4 Time signature: 4/4 - movement 1 3/4 - movement 2 2/2 - movement 3 3/4 - movement 4 Dedication: None Timing: 4 minutes, 30 seconds Location: Library of Congress The piece is made up of four difficult movements. The texture varies with each movement, and the composer attempts to imitate an oriental harmony. Rhythmically complex, these pieces are short but effective. Out of print. GAUBERT, Philippe (1879-1941). Soir pa?en. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Enoch et Cie, 1937. Composition date: 1912 Text: Poetry by Albert Samian Flute range: C1 - E3 Soprano range: D1 - F2 Key: E major Tempo markings: Lento Time signature: 3/8 Dedication: None Timing: 4 minutes 464 Location: In print A pleasing pastoral work that is slow in pace. The flute part has duple and triple groupings, with lovely seventh and ninth chords in unusual progressions. The vocal part is on the staff, with skips and sixteenth notes. The piece is fairly short but quite beautiful. Reprinted by Vocal Reprints. GODARD, Benjamin (1849-1895). Lullaby. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) New York: Classical Vocal Reprints, n.d. Composition date: 1891 Text: Song setting by G. Sandre Flute range: E1 - G2 Soprano range: A1 - A2 Key: C major Tempo markings: Andantino Time signature: 3/4 Dedication: None Timing: 2 minutes Location: Library of Congress From the opera Jocelyn. The obligato was added to the song setting by G. Sandre. This is an aria from one of Godard's more famous operas. The flute and voice parts imitate each at the third. Not an original composition for flute and soprano. Out of print. GODARD, Benjamin (1849-1895). Viens!, op. 11. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Durand et Cie, 1890. Composition date: Unknown Text: Poetry by Victor Hugo Flute range: C1 - A2 Soprano range: F1 - G2 Key: F major Tempo markings: Andantino Time signature: 6/8 Dedication: None Timing: 2 minutes Location: Library of Congress This song is characterized by its simplicity. The melody recalls folk songs while the flute obligato is comprised primarily of whole notes. Out of print. GOUNOD, Charles-Fran?ois (1818-1893). S?r?nade (Quand tu chantes). (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Mainz: Schott, 1866. 465 Composition date: 1866 Text: Poetry by Victor Hugo Flute range: G1 - G3 Soprano range: B-flat 1 - G2 Key: E-flat major Tempo markings: Moderato Time signature: 6/8 Dedication: None Timing: 3 minutes Location: Library of Congress A lovely work in the French impressionist style. The flute part is simple and flowing, the vocal part lyrical and sustained. Out of print. GOUNOD, Charles-Fran?ois. (1818-1893). Barcarolle: o? voulez-vous aller? (For flute, soprano, and piano.) New York: Classical Vocal Reprints, n.d. Composition date: Unknown Text: French text, Trans. to English by Mrs. John P. Morgan Flute range: D1 - G3 Soprano range: D1 - A2 Key: G major Tempo markings: Movimento di barcarola Time signature: 6/8 Dedication: None Timing: 2 minutes Location: In print A lyrical barcarolle with flute obligato. It could well be a song from one of Gounod's operas, with the obligato part added later. A rather simple piece, with an easy flute part. Reprinted by Classical Vocal Reprints. GOUNOD, Charles-Fran?ois (1818-1893). O l?g?re hirondell? [Little Swallow]. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Lemoine, 1887. Composition date: Unknown Text: None Flute range: C1 - F3 Soprano range: G1 - D3 Key: G major Tempo markings: Allegretto, movimento di valse Time signature: 3/4 Dedication: None 466 Timing: 3 minutes Location: Library of Congress Three textual sections followed by florid passages on "ah" and a final cadenza for voice and flute. Frequent doubling at the third. A high range for the voice with ornate passages for flute. There is a Carl Fischer edition edited by Frank La Forge. Out of print. GOUNOD, Charles-Fran?ois (1818-1893). Pri?re du soir. (For flute, soprano, and piano [or organ]). New York: Classical Vocal Reprints, n.d. Composition date: Unknown Text: Poetry by Eug?ne Manuel Flute range: C1 - F3 Soprano range: D1 - F2 Key: E-flat major Tempo markings: Adagio Time signature: 4/4 Dedication: None Timing: 2 minutes Location: In print A slow, melancholy piece that has an organ accompaniment as well as piano. The flute part is slow, sustained, and rather easy, but the emotional effect is rather more significant than the musical effect. Reprinted by Classical Vocal Reprints. HONEGGER, Arthur (1892-1955). Chanson de Ronsard. (For soprano, flute, and string quartet.) Paris: Editions Salabert, 1924. Composition date: 1924 Text: Poetry by Pierre de Ronsard Flute range: E1 - C2 Soprano range: a - E2 Key: C major Tempo markings: Doucement Time signature: 4/2 Dedication: None Timing: 2 minutes Location: Michelle Smith Performing Arts Library University of Maryland This piece shows the influence of Satie, with a long, placid melody that is simple and unadorned. The piece is short, but because the strings maintain so many held chords, the flute and voice parts are fairly ornate in comparison. Out of print. 467 HONEGGER, Arthur (1892-1955). Trois chansons de la petite sir?ne. (For soprano, flute, and string quartet.) Paris: Editions Salabert, 1926. 1. Chanson de sir?nes 2. Berceuse de la sir?ne 3. Chanson de la poire Composition date: 1926 Text: Poetry by Ren? Morax Flute range: E1 - E3 Soprano range: C1 - F2 Key: C major - movement 1 C major - movement 2 C major - movement 3 Tempo markings: Lent - movement 1 Tranquille - movement 2 Vif - movement 3 Time signature: 2/4 - movement 1 9/8 - movement 2 2/4 - movement 3 Dedication: R?gine de Lormoy Timing: 2 minutes Location: Michelle Smith Performing Arts Library University of Maryland This work uses the same instrumentation as the preceding piece. There are many colorful effects through the use of dissonance, broken chords, glissando, pizzicato, trills, and muted strings. The flute moves independently of the other parts. Out of print. HOSSEIN, Aminoullah Andr? (1907-1983). Chant de chamelier. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Enoch, 1957. Composition date: 1947 Text: None Flute range: F2 - G3 Soprano range: F1 - C2 Key: F minor Tempo markings: Quasi lento Time signature: 2/4 Dedication: None Timing: 2 minutes Location: Library of Congress A short, simplistic piece in which the vocal part is sung on "Ah" (although this is not 468 indicated). The flute part has some virtuosic gestures, with trills and runs. Some imitation between the voice and the flute. Out of print. H?E, Georges-Adolphe (1858-1948). Soir pa?n. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Baudoux, 1898. Composition date: Unknown Text: Poetry by Andr? Lebey Flute range: C1 - D-flat 3 Soprano range: C1 - E2 Key: F major Tempo markings: Assez lent et tr?s calm Time signature: 3/4 Dedication: ?mile Engel Timing: 2 minutes, 35 seconds Location: In print This is the fourth in the Chansons lointaines by H?e, the first three of which are for voice and piano. A beautiful, lyric work, though none of the parts are very demanding. Reprinted by Classical Vocal Reprints. IBERT, Jacques (1890-1962). Aria. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Alphonse Leduc, 1934. Composition date: 1930 Text: None Flute range: C1 - D3 Soprano range: C1 - A-flat 2 Key: F major Tempo markings: Larghetto Time signature: 4/4 Dedication: None Timing: 4 minutes Location: In print A vocalise for voice and flute, with melodic interest given to the voice and harmonic interest to the flute. The vocal part is taken from the Aria by Ibert for solo instrument and piano. Flowing eighth notes in the piano and flute parts recall Satie. The harmony is tonal, mainly in F major with some forays into G minor and has some ?Bachian? touches. IBERT, Jacques (1890-1962). Deux st?les orient?es. (For soprano and flute.) Paris: Heugel, 1926. 1. Mon amante a les vertus de l'eau ? 469 2. On me dit ? Composition date: 1925 Text: Poetry by Victor Segalen Flute range: C1 - B-flat 3 Soprano range: D1 - F-sharp 2 Key: A minor - movement 1 A minor - movement 2 Tempo markings: Doux - movement 1 Mod?r? - movement 2 Time signature: 3/4 - movement 1 2/4 - movement 2 Dedication: None Timing: 4 minutes, 13 seconds Location: In print This work is an abstract, difficult piece. The flute is used pictorially, containing many different kinds of runs and flourishes that characterize Ibert's Concerto and Pi?ce. Accidentals are used to show chromaticism and harmonic changes. The vocal line is fluid and legato with repeated notes. Premiered on January 26, 1926 by Pierre Bernac (voice) and Ren? Le Roy (flute), at the home of Ren? Dubost. IBERT, Jacques (1890-1962). Chanson du rien. (For soprano, flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, and horn) Paris: Alphonse Leduc, 1930. Composition date: 1930 Text: Poetry by Maurice Constantin-Weyer Flute range: C1 - D3 Soprano range: D1 - E-flat 2 Key: C major Tempo markings: Vite Time signature: 2/4 Dedication: None Timing: 3 minutes Location: Library of Congress The second part of a two-part piece for voice and woodwind quintet entitled Le strateg?me des rou?s: musique de sc?ne. A light, fast melody is evocative of folk song, in which the music reflects the whimsical text. A short piece with undemanding woodwind parts. The piece was premiered on March 21, 1930, at the Th??tre de l'Atelier. Out of print. KOECHLIN, Charles Louis Eug?ne (1867-1950). L'Album de Lilian, op. 139, no. 6, Skating-Smiling. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Max Eschig, 1985. 470 Composition date: Unknown Text: None Flute range: C1 - C3 Soprano range: b-flat - B-flat 1 Key: E-flat major Tempo markings: Movement de valse lent Time signature: 12/8 Dedication: Lilian Harvey Timing: 3 minutes Location: Illinois State University Music Library Published posthumously. A light salon work characterized by flowing eighth- and sixteenth-note figures. The piece contains many accidentals in both parts with much rubato. The flute answers the voice, which is sung on "ah." Out of print. KOECHLIN, Charles Louis Eug?ne (1867-1950). L'Album de Lilian, op.139, no. 7, En route vers le bonheur. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Max Eschig, 1985. Composition date: Unknown Text: None Flute range: D1 - C4 Soprano range: b - A2 Key: C major Tempo markings: Allegro, con moto Time signature: None (although the measures are sometimes divided into 12/8 and the figures are written in a triple meter) Dedication: Lilian Harvey Timing: 3 minutes Location: University of Georgia Libraries Published posthumously. A light salon work marked by flowing eighth- and sixteenth-note figures. The piece contains many accidentals in both parts with much rubato. The flute has the most prominent part. There are, however, two cadenza sections featuring call and response figures between the flute and the voice. The voice part is sung on "ah." Out of print. KOECHLIN, Charles Louis Eug?ne (1867-1950). Le nenuphar, op. 13, no. 3. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Philippo, 1989. Composition date: 1897 Text: Poetry by Edmond Harcourt Flute range: C-sharp 1 - F-sharp 3 Soprano range: C-sharp 1 - G-sharp 2 471 Key: F-sharp major Tempo markings: Andante Time signature: 3/2 Dedication: None Timing: 5 minutes, 30 seconds Location: Library of Congress A hauntingly beautiful impressionist song, published in a collection of Koechlin's songs entitled M?lodies. Harcourt's text is also expressive. Not a very technically difficult work, the flute part is mainly whole notes. Out of print. LACOMBE, Louis-Trouillon (1818-1884). Le ruisseau et la jeune fille. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Costallat, 1892. Composition date: Unknown Text: French text Flute range: C1 - G3 Soprano range: D1 - B-flat 2 Key: G major Tempo markings: Andante Time signature: 9/8 Dedication: None Timing: 6 minutes, 28 seconds Location: Library of Congress An expressive song typical of the romantic style that was popular at the turn of the century. The piece contains a German translation by Hugo Riemann of a French text. Out of print. LALO, ?douard Victoire-Antoine (1823-1892). Chant de Breton, op. 31. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) New York: McGinnis & Marx, n.d. Composition date: 1884 Text: Albert Delpit Flute range: C1 - C3 Soprano range: D1 - C2 Key: C major Tempo markings: Andante Time signature: 4/4 Dedication: None Timing: 2 minutes Location: Library of Congress A short song with improvisational flute part, which is not substantial and intended only 472 as an enhancement of the vocal part. The setting has an oriental flair, with grace notes, raised sevenths and lyrical melodic material for vocal and piano parts. The vocal part has a low tessitura, and the melody is stepwise with many repeated notes. Out of print. LAPARRA, Raoul (1876-1943). Bien loin d'ici. (For flute, soprano, and piano [or harp]). Paris: Choudens, 1926. Composition date: 1926 Text: Poetry by Charles Baudelaire Flute range: C-sharp 1 - E3 (according to Waln) Soprano range: C1 - F2 Key: C major Tempo markings: Andantino Time signature: 4/4 Dedication: Jean-Jacques Rousseau Timing: 1 minutes, 20 seconds Location: Library of Congress From a collection of songs entitled: Dix m?lodies sur des po?sies de Charles Baudelaire et Jean de la Fontaine. This particular piece is a rather simple impressionistic composition. Although Vester and Waln cite this as a work with flute, the published song collection itself shows no evidence of a flute part. Out of print. LE FLEM, Paul (1881-1984). Cinq chants de cr?isade. (For soprano, flute, piano and harp) Paris: Durand et Cie, 1925. Composition date: 1925 Text: Lyrics by Medieval poets Conon de B?thume, Le Chatelain de Couci, Thibaut de Champagne, and Chardon de Reims Flute range: C-1 - E3 (according to Waln) Soprano range: C1 - F2 Key: C major Tempo markings: Sans lenteur - movement 1 Mod?r? - movement 2 Sans lenteur - movement 3 Assez Vif - movement 4 Sans lenteur - movement 5 Time signature: 3/4 - movement 1 6/4 - movement 2 6/4 - movement 3 6/4 - movement 4 6/4 - movement 5 473 Dedication: Raymond Charpentier and Charles Hubbard Timing: 6 minutes Location: Library of Congress Although Vester and Waln describe this piece as having a flute accompaniment, it does not appear in the score and parts. The writing itself evokes the chant and plainsong of an earlier epoch. Out of print. MASS?, Fl?ix-Marie Victor (1822-1884). Au bord du chemin, air du rossignol. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Berlin: Lienau, n.d. Composition date: 1853 Text: French text Flute range: A-flat 1 - A-flat 3 Soprano range: D1 - C3 Key: A-flat major Tempo markings: Allegro moderato Time signature: 4/4 Dedication: None Timing: 7 minutes, 20 seconds Location: In print An aria from Mass?'s opera Les noces de Jeannette. A bird piece in the romantic vein, with bird-like figures in the flute part, a call and response between the flute and voice, a cadenza, and a lyrical vocal melody. MASSENET, Jules-?mile-Frederic (1842-1912). ?l?gie: o doux printemps d'autrefois. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) New York: G. Schirmer, 1883. Composition date: 1881 Text: Poetry by Louis Gallet, trans. to English by Charlotte H. Coursen Flute range: E-flat 1 - A-flat 3 Soprano range: D1 - G-flat 2 Key: E-flat major Tempo markings: Andante Time signature: 4/4 Dedication: Mme. Marie Brousse Timing: 2 minutes Location: Library of Congress The flute obligato was written by Jurgenson. The setting is a song from a collection of m?lodie written by the composer entitled Volume I: 20 M?lodies, originally published by 474 Hartmann about 1875. It is written for voice with an obligato for either flute or another melody instrument such as violin. A slow, lyrical piece with long lines and descending chromatic figures. The obligato instrumentation appears to have been added in later to supplement the piano and voice parts. Out of print. MIGOT, Georges (1891-1976). Deux st?les. (For soprano, flute, harp, celeste, double bass, and percussion.) Paris: Alphonse Leduc, n.d. Composition date: 1934 Text: Victor S?galen The same text set by Jacques Ibert. A reference in Waln. Unable to examine. MIGOT, Georges (1891-1976). Reposoir grave, noble et pur ? (For flute, soprano, and piano [or harp].) Paris: Alphonse Leduc, 1933. Composition date: 1933 Text: Poetry by Charles de Saint-Cyr Flute range: D-flat 1 - A-flat 3 Soprano range: b-flat 1 - F2 Key: D-flat major Tempo markings: Mod?r? allant Time signature: 3/4 Dedication: Magdeleine Gresl? Timing: 3 minutes Location: Library of Congress Poetry by Charles de Saint-Cyr from a work entitled L'autre livre d'Iseult. A difficult work that demands much rubato, individual rhythmic stability, and exact coordination of parts. Vocal tessitura is low. Phrases are long for both singer and flutist. The harpist reported that the accompaniment was unplayable on harp and was better suited to the piano. The pianist felt the accompaniment was not appropriate to the piano and would be more effective played on the harp! When I performed the piece, I chose the piano, which added a dense, almost Wagnerian sound to the work. Out of print. MIGOT, Georges (1891-1976). Six t?traphonies. (For soprano, flute, violin, and cello.) Paris: Leduc, 1946. A reference in both Vester and Waln. Unable to examine. MILHAUD, Darius (1892-1974). Machines agricoles, op. 56. (For soprano, flute, clarinet, bassoon, violin, viola, cello, and bass.) Vienna: Universal Editions, 1926. 475 1. La moissonneuse espigadora 2. La faucheuse 3. La lieuse 4. La dechaumeuse-semeuse-endouisseuse 5. Le fouilleuse-draineuse 6. La faneuse Composition date: 1919 Text: Anonymous Flute range: D-sharp 1 - A3 Soprano range: C1 - F2 Key: C major - movements 1 - 6 Tempo markings: Doucement - movement 1 Vif - movement 2 Rythmique - movement 3 Lent - movement 4 Vivement - movement 5 Mod?r? - movement 6 Time signature: 6/8 - movement 1 2/4 - movement 2 4/4 - movement 3 3/4 - movement 4 4/4 - movement 5 6/8 - movement 6 Dedication: Jean Cocteau - La moissonneuse Espigadora Louis Durey - La faucheuse Francis Poulenc - La lieuse Arthur Honegger - La dechaumeuse- Semeuse-endouisseuse Georges Auric - La fouilleuse-draineuse Germaine Tailleferre - La faneuse Timing: 12 minutes Location: Michelle Smith Performing Arts Library University of Maryland The piece is in a neoclassical style that is reminiscent of Hindemith, with no key signatures and accidentals marked in all the parts. The piece contains some polytonality. The instrumental ensemble parts are equal in importance with the voice as soloist. The voice part is for medium soprano. Out of print. The score only is located at The Michelle Smith Performing Arts Library, University of Maryland. MILHAUD, Darius (1892-1974). Catalogue de fleurs. (For soprano, flute, clarinet, bassoon, violin, viola, cello, and bass.) Paris: Durand et Cie, 1924. 476 1. La violette 2. Le b?gonia 3. Les fritillaires 4. Les jacinthes 5. Les crocus 6. Le brachycome 7. L'eremurus Composition date: 1920 Text: Poetry by Lucien Daudet Flute range: C1 - F3 Soprano range: C1 - E2 Key: C major - movement 1 - 7 Tempo markings: None (tempos are designated by metronome marks) Time signature: 2/2 - movement 1 3/4 - movement 2 4/4 - movement 3 2/2 - movement 4 6/8 - movement 5 6/8 - movement 6 6/8 - movement 7 Dedication: de Fauconnet Timing: 5 minutes, 20 seconds Location: Library of Congress Fauconnet, to whom the piece is dedicated, was a famous costume and set designer associated with the avant-garde theater of this period. A lovely melody in the pastoral mode, with each movement celebrating a different flower. The voice part is lyrical, with accidentals, and the tessitura is low. The movements are short and charming. Out of print. MILLAULT, ?douard (1808-1887). Ave Maria. (For soprano, flute, violin, cello, and organ.) Paris: Froment, n.d. A reference in Vester. Unable to examine. MOUTOZ, Albert (n.d.). Stances ? une Marguerite, op. 3. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Durand et Cie, 1900. Composition date: 1900 Text: French text by the composer Flute range: G1 - G3 Soprano range: D1 - B-flat 2 477 Key: G major Tempo markings: Andantino Time signature: 6/8 Dedication: None Timing: 3 minutes, 30 seconds Location: Library of Congress A short song with three verses. The piece is typical of French salon works from the turn of the century and of little challenge to the performer. Out of print. PANSERON, Auguste Mathieu (1795-1859). Le cor. (For flute [or violin, or horn], soprano, and piano.) Kirckheim: Hans Pizka Edition, 1981. Composition date: Unknown Text: French text Flute range: A1 - F-sharp 3 Soprano range: E1 - G 2 Key: E major Tempo markings: Andante Time signature: 6/8 Dedication: None Timing: 3 minutes Location: Library of Congress A piece originally written for soprano and horn, but transcribed by Panseron for violin or flute. This interchangeability of instruments was fairly typical of this period (1850s), however, the accompaniment is more suited for the horn, with triplet ?call? figures that are characteristic of french horn music. The voice part is a lilting da capo aria, and the piano accompaniment is a repetitious, arpeggiated outline of the primary chords. Out of print. PANSERON, Auguste (1795-1859). On entend le berger. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Richault (now Costallat et Cie), n.d. A reference in both Vester and Waln. Unable to examine. PANSERON, Auguste Mathieu (1795-1859). Philomel. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Richault (now Costallat et Cie), n.d. Composition date: Unknown Text: French text Flute range: A1 - F-sharp 3 Soprano range: E1 - F-sharp 2 Key: A major 478 Tempo markings: Andante Time signature: 4/4 Dedication: None Timing: 3 minutes Location: Library of Congress This is a typical bird song piece, a fluffy salon work that sets four verses to the same melody. The voice part is reminiscent of Lo! Here the Gentle Lark by Sir Henry Rowley Bishop, and features vocal skips, dotted rhythms, grace notes, and call and response figures. The flute part is showy, with thirty-second note chromatic runs, trills, turns, skips of a third, scale runs, and arpeggios. Out of print. PANSERON, Auguste Mathieu (1795-1859). Doux rossignol. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Lemoine, n.d. A reference in both Vester and Waln. Unable to examine. PETIT, Raymond (b. 1893). Hymne. (For soprano and flute.) Paris: Heugel, 1928. Composition date: Unknown Text: French text from the Upanishads Flute range: C1 - A-flat 3 Soprano range: C1 - G2 Key: F minor Tempo markings: Mod?r?ment lent Time signature: 4/4 Dedication: Joy MacArden Timing: 4 minutes Location: Library of Congress A French impressionistic composition with much rubato. The piece contains some rhythmically complex passages. Similar to the Ibert and the Roussel pieces for flute and soprano. Out of print. PILLOIS, Jacques (1877-1935). Chanson de Yamina. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Mathot, 1922. Composition date: 1922 Text: Poetry by R. H. de Vandelbourg Flute range: D2 - G-flat 3 Soprano range: F1 - A-flat 2 Key: F minor Tempo markings: Largo Time signature: 3/4 479 Dedication: Mademoiselle Simone Elie de Beaumont Timing: 2 minutes, 10 seconds Location: Library of Congress A song from Le croissant de pourpre. Pillois adds a subtitle to the setting, Un acte en vers. A rhapsody for voice. The piece contains some complex passages but few of great difficulty. The flute answers the voice and they rarely play together. Three verses to the music. Out of print. PILLOIS, Jacques (1877-1935). Trois po?mes de Albert Samain. (For soprano, flute, and string quartet.) Paris: Salabert, 1932. 1. Les vierges au cr?puscule 2. Myrtil et pal?mone 3. La Tourterelle d'amymone Composition date: 1932 Text: Poetry by Albert Samain Flute range: F1 - F-sharp 2 Soprano range: C1 - D-sharp 2 Key: F major Tempo markings Mod?r? - movement 1 Presque vif enjou? - movement 2 Assez lent, tr?s souple - movement 3 Time signature: 3/4 - movement 1 9/8 - movement 2 3/4 - movement 3 Dedication: Madame Ga?tane Vicq Challet Timing: 8 minutes Location: Library of Congress A lyrical, impressionist piece. The voice part has a low tessitura, with most notes on the staff. Some chromaticism with expressive skips. The flute part is mainly soloistic, with thirty-second-note gestures and melody. Difficult keys and time signatures, with some dance rhythms (6/8, 9/8, 12/8). It was premiered at the Salle de la Soci?t? des concerts du Conservatoire on February 14, 1920, by Jane Bathori, voice, Louis Fleury, flute, and Quartet Pascal string quartet. Out of print. PONIRIDY, Georges (1892-1982). Deux po?mes dans le style populaire grec. (For soprano, flute, clarinet, string quartet, and piano.) Paris: S?nart, 1928. 1. Le chant de l'exil? 2. Le chant du m?tier 480 Composition date: 1925 Text: Poetry by C. Crystallis - translated to French by Michel Calvocoressi Flute range: G1 - G-flat 2 Soprano range: a - G2 Key: C major - movement 1 C major - movement 2 Tempo markings: None (metronome mark of quarter note = 60) - movement 1 & 2 Time signature: 4/4 - movement 1 & 2 Dedication: Madame la Marquise Giustiniani - Le chant de l'exil? Mademoiselle Katy Andr?ad?s - Le chant du M?tier Timing: 10 minutes Location: Library of Congress The poems for this work were taken from the book entitled Po?mes agrotiques. A complex piece with difficult rhythmic gestures in the clarinet and flute parts. The voice part is low, occasionally dropping below middle C, and it can be rhythmically challenging at times. The text is declamatory in some parts rather than sung. The piece contains recitative as well. The first movement contains no flute, only clarinet. The second movement begins and ends with call and response figures between the voice and flute. The string parts are mainly supportive. Numerous mordents in the dance-like melody. Out of print. POULENC, Francis (1899-1963). Rhapsodie n?gre (1917 version). (For baritone or soprano, flute, clarinet, string quartet, and piano.) London: Chester, 1935. 1. Prelude 2. Ronde 3. Honouloulou 4. Pastorale 5. Final Composition date: 1917, revised 1933 Text: Poetry by Makoko Kangourou Flute range: A1 - D-sharp 2 Soprano range: C1 - B2 Key: B-flat major - movement 1 C-flat major - movement 2 C major - movement 3 C major - movement 4 C major - movement 5 481 Tempo markings: Mod?r? - movement 1 Tr?s vite - movement 2 Lent et monotone - movement 3 Mod?r? - movement 4 Presto et pas plus - movement 5 Time signature: 4/4 - movement 1 8/8 - movement 2 1/2 - movement 3 3/4 - movement 4 2/4 - movement 5 Dedication: Erik Satie Timing: 7 minutes Location: In print Poulenc made his public debut in Paris in 1917 with the first version of this work, which was premiered at the Th??tre du Vieux-Colombier. The voice appears only in movement three and then briefly at the end of movement five. The lyrics are not in French, but seem to be in an African or tribal language. The name of the poet is a pseudonym, probably a nonsense name, and the source of the text is not further identified. The writing in the other movements is bright, with parallel writing for all voices in some cases. The music is repetitive and simplistic, reflecting the style of Poulenc's early work. The work was premiered on December 11, 1917, at the Th??tre du Vieux-Colombier with Francis Poulenc singing the vocal part. POULENC, Francis (1899-1963). Le bestiaire. (For soprano, flute, clarinet, bassoon, and string quartet.) London: Chester, n.d. 1. Le dromadaire 2. Le ch?vre du Thibet 3. La sauterelle 4. Le dauphin 5. L'?crevisse 6. La carpe Composition date: 1919 Text: Poetry by Guillaume Apollinaire Flute range: G1 - E3 Soprano range: C-flat 1 - E2 Key: No key signature throughout Tempo markings: Tr?s rythm?, pesant - movement 1 Tr?s mod?r? - movement 2 Lent - movement 3 Anim? - movement 4 Assez vif - movement 5 482 Tr?s lent - movement 6 Time signature: 2/4 - movement 1 4/4 - movement 2 4/4 - movement 3 4/4 - movement 4 4/4 - movement 5 4/4 - movement 6 Dedication: Louis Durey Timing: 8 minutes Location: Library of Congress Music written between 1918 and 1919. Out of print. It is located in the catalog of the Library of Congress, however, it could not be found on the shelf. I was able to obtain another copy from Dickinson College Library to look at the full score of the piece. The movements are short vignettes which demonstrate Poulenc?s penchant for musical satire. The movements alternate between fast, articulated movements and slow, chant-like movements. The first performance was given in 1919 in Paris, at the home of Mme. Vignon with Suzanne Peignot, soprano and Francis Poulenc, piano. The first performance with soprano and chamber ensemble was given on March 11, 1920, at the Gal?rie de la Bo?tie. Out of print, however, a reprint has been available from Masters Music Publications, Inc. POULENC, Francis (1899-1963). Quatre po?mes de Max Jacob, op. 22. (For soprano, flute, oboe, bassoon, trumpet, and clarinet.) Paris: Salabert, 1993. 1. Est-il un coin plus solitaire 2. C'est pour aller au bal 3. Po?te et t?nor 4. Dans le buisson de mimosa Composition date: 1921 Text: Poetry by Max Jacob Flute range: C1 - A-flat 3 Soprano range: E1 - G2 Key: C major - movements 1 - 4 Tempo markings: Lent - movement 1 Gai et vif - movement 2 Lent - movement 3 Vite - movement 4 Time signature: 4/8 - movement 1 4/4 - movement 2 3/4 - movement 3 4/8 - movement 4 Dedication: Darius Milhaud 483 Timing: 9 minutes Location: In print Despite the dry, staccato writing, with its numerous shifts in meter and accidentals, all the wind parts share equal prominence. The strikingly angular voice part is similarly characterized by accidentals and changes in meter. The piece is in dada style, with polytonality, dissonance, and cacophony. Premiered in Paris at the Salle des Agriculteurs on January 7, 1922, by Darius Milhaud and members of the Soci?t? moderne d'instruments ? vent. Poulenc suppressed its publication, and for many years the work remained out of print. However, the work resided in the library of Darius Milhaud and was later made available for publication after Poulenc?s death by Madeline Milhaud. RAVEL, Maurice (1875-1937). "Air de la princesse" from L'Enfant et les sortli?ges. (For soprano and flute.) Paris: Durand, n.d. Composition date: 1920 and 1925 Text: Poetry by Colette Flute range: Unable to examine Soprano range: Unable to examine Key: Unable to examine Tempo markings: Unable to examine Time signature: Unable to examine Dedication: Unable to examine Timing: 2 minutes Location: Unknown Originally composed for soprano and orchestra, this piece was later arranged for voice and flute. Premiered in Monte Carlo on March 21, 1925. Referenced in both Waln and Koechlin. Unable to examine. RAVEL, Maurice (1875-1937). "La fl?te enchant?e" from Sh?h?rzade. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Durand et Cie, 1919. Composition date: 1903 Text: Poetry by Tristan Klingsor Flute range: C1 - G-sharp 3 Soprano range: E1 - F-sharp 2 Key: F-sharp minor Tempo markings: Tr?s lent Time signature: 4/4 Dedication: None Timing: 2 minutes, 54 seconds Location: In print 484 A short, florid piece for voice and flute, while the piano part uses tremolo figures to imitate strings. The flute part contains many runs, with the juxtaposition of asymmetrical rhythms, such as sixteenth-note groupings of three, five, and seven notes. The voice range is low D-sharp to F-sharp on the staff and is characterized by repetitive, dreamlike figures. A beautiful sound scape in the accompaniment, which uses ninth chords and diminished seventh chords to create harmonic effects. RAVEL, Maurice (1875-1937). Chansons mad?casses. (For voice, flute cello, and piano.) Paris: Durand et Cie, 1926. 1. Nahandove 2. Aoua 3. Il est doux ? Composition date: 1925-1926 Text: Poetry by Evariste Parny Flute range: C1 - F-sharp 3 Soprano range: C1 - A-flat 2 Key: C major - then moving through many keys - movements 1 - 3 Tempo markings: Andante quasi allegretto - movement 1 Andante - movement 2 Lento - movement 3 Time signature: 6/8 - movement 1 3/4 - movement 2 4/5 - movement 3 Dedication: Elizabeth Sprague Coolidge Timing: 13 minutes, 53 seconds Location: In print For some time, Parny claimed that these were folk songs that he had collected himself and translated. He later admitted otherwise. The East African island of Madagascar is the subject of the poetry, and so the music evokes an extraordinary range of feeling with an exotic sound scape. The piece has virtuosic effects and lengthy solos for each instrument. The flute part contains extended portions, which are played on the piccolo in movements one and three. The harmonies contain seventh and ninth chords, as well as difficult keys such as F-sharp major and bi-tonality. The piece was premiered at the Salle ?rard on June 13, 1926, with performers Jane Bathori, voice; Alfredo Casella, piano; Baudouin, flute; and Kindler, cello. RAVEL, Maurice (1875-1937). Trois po?mes de St?phane Mallarm?. (For soprano, 2 flutes [piccolo] 2 clarinets [bass clarinet], string quartet, and piano.) Paris: Durand et Cie, 1914. 485 1. Soupir 2. Placet futile 3. Surgi de la croupe et du bond Composition date: 1913 Text: Poetry by St?phane Mallarm? Flute range: C1 - G-sharp 3 Soprano range: b-flat - G2 Key: G major - movement 1 F major - movement 2 C major - movement 3 Tempo markings: Lent - movement 1 Tr?s mod?r? - movement 2 Lent - movement 3 Lento - movement 3 Time signature: 4/4 - movement 1 12/8 - movement 2 9/8 - movement 3 Dedication: Igor Stravinsky - Soupir Florent Schmitt - Placet Futile Erik Satie - Surgi de la croupe et du bond Timing: 9 minutes Location: In print The lush string writing recalls Daphnes et Chlo?. Ravel also uses some contemporary techniques such as harmonics and sixty-fourth-note runs to obtain unique sound effects. The flute lines are long and lyrical, sustained over the thirty-second notes of the strings and piano. The voice part is also lyrical, with accidentals and expressive skips. The piece was premiered at the Soci?t? musicale ind?pendente on January 14, 1914, with performers Jane Bathori, voice; and a chamber ensemble directed by D?sir?-Emile Inghelbrecht. RIVIER, Jean (1896-1987). Vocalise. (For soprano and flute.) A reference in Vester. Unable to examine. ROLAND-MANUEL, Alexis (1891-1962). Deux ?legies. (For soprano and flute.) Paris: Heugel, 1928. 1. Charmant rossignol 2. Chanson Composition date: 1928 486 Text: Poetry by Francois Maynard and Jean Pellerin Flute range: C-sharp 1 - B-flat 3 Soprano range: E1 - G2 Key: D minor - movement 1 A major - movement 2 Tempo markings: Adagio - movement 1 Non troppo allegro - movement 2 Time signature: 4/4 - movements 1 & 2 Dedication: Madame Julia Nessy - movement 1 Jane Laval - movement 2 Timing: 2 minutes Location: Library of Congress The piece somewhat resembles the Roussel Deux po?mes de Ronsard. It contains bird references with bird figures in the flute part such as sixteenth-note runs and trills. The work is conceived with French chromatic harmony fairly typical of this era. The two movements are disparate and may have been composed separately. The vocal part is characterized by leaps and chromaticism. An engaging piece. Out of print. ROLAND-MANUEL, Alexis (1891-1962). Sonnet. (For soprano, flute, and string quartet.) A reference in Vester. Unable to examine. ROESGEN-CHAMPION, Marguerite (1894-1976). Les chrysanth?mes d?or. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: S?nart, 1941. Poetry by Jose Bruyr. According to Waln, this piece is a short, French impressionistic work. He goes on to state that none of the parts are very demanding, and that there is much flexibility in tempo. A reference in both Vester and Waln. Unable to examine. ROESGEN-CHAMPION, Marguerite (1894-1976). Pannyre aux talons d'or. (For soprano, flute, and piano [or harp].) Paris: S?nart, 1926. Poetry by Albert Samain. A reference in both Vester and Waln. Unable to examine. ROPICQUET, A. (n.d.). La valse et le rendez-vous. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Lemoine, n.d. A reference in both Vester and Waln. Unable to examine. ROUSSEL, Albert-Charles (1869-1937). Deux po?mes de Ronsard, op. 26, no. 1 and no. 2. (For soprano and flute.) Paris: Durand et Cie, n.d. 487 1. Rossignol, mon mignon ? 2. Ciel, aer, et vens ? Composition date: 1924 Text: Poetry by Pierre de Ronsard Flute range: C1 - G3 Soprano range: E1 - G2 Key: C major - movement 1 G major - movement 2 Tempo markings: Lent - movement 1 Tr?s mod?r? - movement 2 Time signature: 4/4 - movement 1 6/8 - movement 2 Dedication: Nino Vallin - Rossignol, mon mignon Claire Croiza - Ciel, aer, et vens Timing: 7 minutes, 28 seconds Location: In print Both the dedicatees were prominent sopranos of the day and premiered many of the works listed in this bibliography. The piece is written for flute and voice only. Both movements are free in tempo, conception, and harmony, though marked by dissonance and chromaticism. The first poem references the nightingale. The soprano, following a lyrical melody, sings about the woods, while the flute engages in birdcalls and flourishes. The second movement is more flowing, expressing the textural evocation of sky, air, and wind. SACHS, L?o (1856-1930). Les nymphes (?cho d'H?llande), op. 188. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: A.Z. Mathot, 1909. Composition date: 1909 Text: Poetry by Pierre Reyniel Flute range: C1 - G3 Soprano range: E1 - G2 Key: C major Tempo markings: Lent Time signature: 4/4 Dedication: None Timing: 3 minutes, 10 seconds Location: Library of Congress The voice part features expressive, lyric writing with many rests and prepared entrances. The flute part is idiomatic, with a transparent texture and much rubato. Out of print. 488 SAINT-SA?NS, Charles-Camille (1835-1921). Une fl?te invisible. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Durand et Cie, 1921. Composition date: 1887 Text: Poetry by Victor Hugo Flute range: F1 - F3 Soprano range: F1 - G2 Key: F major Tempo markings: Andante espressivo Time signature: 3/4 Dedication: None Timing: 3 minutes, 35 seconds Location: In print The flute part is small and rather simple as the title suggests, a complement to the singer. The vocal line is fluid and varied. The piano maintains a lilting, arpeggiated figure throughout. Harmonically, this is not a very challenging piece, written in F major with little chromaticism. There is, however, an oriental quality to the sonorities. SAINT-SA?NS, Charles-Camille (1835-1921.) Le bonheur et chose l?g?re. (For flute, soprano, and piano.) Paris: Choudens Fils, 1940s. Composition date: Unknown Text: Poetry by Jules Barbier and Michel Carr? Flute range: D1 - D3 Soprano range: D1 - B2 Key: G major Tempo markings: Allegretto Time signature: 2/2 Dedication: None Timing: 3 minutes Location: In print The piece begins with an extended solo for flute, and then the voice enters in canon. The flute part develops into variations as the stanzas progress. The piano does not enter until page three of the work and adds chordal support to the duet above. The overall quality of the work is lyrical, with long, sustained melodic lines. Reprinted by Classical Vocal Reprints. SAUGUET, HENRI (1901-1989). Madrigal. (For soprano, flute, harp, violin, [or viola] and cello.) Unpublished. Composition date: 1942 489 Text: Poetry by Jean Aubry Flute range: Unknown Soprano range: Unknown Tempo Markings: Unknown Time Signature: Unknown Dedication: Unknown Timing: Unknown Location: Unknown This work is referenced in the Bio-Bibliography of Henri Sauguet by David L. Austin. Unable to examine. SAUGUET, HENRI (1901-1989). Beaut?, retirez-vous. (For soprano, flute, harp, viola, and cello.) Unpublished. Composition date: 1943 Text: Poetry by Georges Couturier Flute range: Unknown Soprano range: Unknown Tempo Markings: Unknown Time Signature: Unknown Dedication: Unknown Timing: Unknown Location: Unknown This work is referenced in the Bio-Bibliography of Henri Sauguet by David L. Austin. Unable to examine. According to Austin, this work is an extract from the incidental music for L?Honorable Mr. Pepys. SAUGUET, HENRI (1901-1989). La voyante. (For soprano, flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, trumpet, percussion, violin, viola, cello, and bass.) Paris: L?oiseau-Lyre, 1939. 1. Cartomancie 2. Astrologie 3. Pr?sages tir?s des ?toiles 4. Pour le temps ? venir 5. Chiromancie Composition date: 1932 Text: Poetry by Henri Sauguet after Nostradamos Flute range: Unknown Soprano range: Unknown Tempo Markings: Unknown 490 Time Signature: Unknown Dedication: Vicomte and Vicomtesse Noailles Timing: Unknown Location: Unknown This works is referenced in the Bio-Bibliography of Henri Sauguet by David L. Austin. Unable to examine. According to Austin, the work was premiered in 1932 at the Th??tre Municipal de Hy?res, with soprano Madeleine Vhita, ensemble conducted by Roger D?sormi?re, sets by Christian B?rard, costumes by Nora Auric, and directed by Christian B?rard. SAUVREZIS, Alice (1866-1946). La chanson des soirs. (For soprano, flute, clarinet, bassoon, horn, trumpet, 2 violins, viola, cello, bass, and harp.) Paris: S?nart, 1922. 1. Soirs agrestes a. ?glogue b. Recueillement c. Hermoine et les bergers d. Appel exotique e. Quand la b?che chante 2. Soirs somptueux a. F?te sur l'eau b. La princess des lotus c. Au soleil couchant d. Danses aux ?toiles 3. Soirs lugubres a. Foyer vide - Obscurit? b. Angoisse - Le vent c. Il g?le 4. Dernier soir a. S?r?nit? Composition date: 1922 Text: Poetry by Albert Samain and Andr? P?zard Flute range: C1 - A3 Soprano range: recitation without pitch designations Key: Various Tempo markings: Numerous Time signature: Numerous Dedication: None Timing: 40 minutes total: Soirs agrestes - 15 minutes Soirs somptueux - 11 minutes 491 Soirs lungubres - 9 minutes Dermier soir - 5 minutes Location: Library of Congress A long work with many movements in each section. Some of the movements have no voice part, using the music to establish a particular atmosphere. When a vocal part occurs, it is spoken, not sung, as if to be recited "above" the music. In these instances, the composer provides only some indication of the placement of the words over the music. In other movements, the composer requests a voice type other than soprano. Instrumentation also changes from movement to movement. The piece makes use of impressionistic harmonies, with ninth chords, diminished chords, and parallel intervals of fourths and fifths. Additionally, Sauvrezis appears to draw upon works by other composers, for example, the scene music in Poulenc's Rhapsodie n?gre and the form of recitation employed by Debussy in Les chansons de Bilitis. Out of print. SCHMITT, Florent (1870-1958). Kerob-shal, op. 67. (For soprano, flute and orchestra.) Paris: Durand et Cie, 1925. 1. Octroi 2. Star 3. Vendredi XIII Composition date: 1919-1924 Text: Poetry by Ren? Kerdyk - movement 1 Poetry by Georges Jean-Aubry - movement 2 Poetry by Ren? Chalupt - movement 3 Flute range: Unknown Soprano range: C1 - G2 Key: C-flat major - movement 1 No key - movements 2 & 3 Tempo markings: Calme - movement 1 Vif et l?ger - movement 2 Mod?r? mais sans lenteur - movement 3 Time signature: 3/4 - movement 1 5+3/8 - movement 2 3/4 - movement 3 Dedication: Charles Hubbard - movement 1 Madame Magdeleine Gresl? - movement 2 Madame Claire Croiza - movement 3 Timing: 7 minutes Location: University of Minnesota A complex, chromatic piece with difficult rhythms for voice and accompaniment. Very 492 intricate rhythmic changes in meter (1 and 1/2 over 4, for example) and notation, and liberal use of grace notes. The voice part has many skips and is awkward to sing. Premiered at the Concerts Pasdeloup on January 17, 1931 by Elsa Ruhlmann, soprano. Out of Print. SCHMITT, Florent (1870-1958). Quatre monocantes, op. 115. (For soprano, flute, violin, viola, cello, and harp.) Paris: Durand et Cie, 1950. 1. Prise aux r?seaux d?or 2. La petite princesse 3. Antennes 4. Le Cerisier Composition date: 1949 Text: Poetry by Hernando de Bengoechea - movement 1 Poetry by L?on-Paul Fargue - movement 2 Poetry by Mireille Vincendon - movement 3 Poetry by Maurice Car?me - movement 4 Flute range: Unknown Soprano range: Unknown Key: Unknown Tempo markings: Unknown Time signature: Unknown Dedication: Unknown Timing: 15 minutes Location: Unknown This piece is listed in the Catalog of Schmitt?s works by Hucher, who lists the premiere at the Soci?t? nationale de musique on February 24, 1950 performed by the Quintette Laskin-Beronita. Unable to examine. Out of Print. TANSMAN, Alexandre (1897-1986). Huit m?lodies japonaises. (For soprano and ensemble?). Composition date: 1922 Text: Unknown Premiered by Marya Freund on February 2, 1922 at the Th??tre du Vieux-Colombier under the direction of Andr? Caplet. Later, in 1972, Tansman also wrote St?les: In memoriam Igor Stravinsky for voice and instruments, perhaps in homage to Stravinsky?s chamber work for voice entitled Three Japanese Lyrics. TOMASI, Henri (1901-1971). Le chevrier. (For soprano, flute, viola, and harp.) Paris: 493 Lemoine et Cie, 1943. Composition date: 1943 Text: Poetry by Jos?-Maria de Heredia Flute range: C1 - A-flat 3 Soprano range: C-sharp 1 - F2 Key: C minor Tempo markings: Andantino Time signature: 4/4 Dedication: Mademoiselle Etiette Scheuneberg Timing: 2 minutes Location: Library of Congress The Library of Congress has a piano score with the flute part interpolated into the piano score. The vocal part has a multitude of accidentals, skips, and register changes. The flute part is virtuosic, with a long, showy cadenza at the end of the piece. Out of print. TOMASI, Henri (1901-1971). La fl?te. (For soprano, flute, viola, and harp.) Paris: Lemoine et Cie, 1943. Composition date: 1943 Text: Poetry by Jos?-Maria de Heredia Flute range: C1 - G3 Soprano range: C-sharp 1 - E-flat 2 Key: C major Tempo markings: Andantino Time signature: 9/8 Dedication: Madame Marguerite Pifteau-Thann Timing: 2 minutes Location: Library of Congress The Library of Congress has a piano score with the flute part interpolated into the piano score. The vocal part is lyrical, with a low tessitura. There are some accidentals and the melody relies on triplet figures to give it a lilt. The flute part is virtuosic, with a long, showy cadenza in the middle of the piece. Out of print. TULOU, Jean-Louis (1786-1865). Chanson. (For soprano, flute, and piano.) Paris: Lemoine, n.d. A reference in Vester. Unable to examine. 494 495 APPENDIX II RECITAL PROGRAMS 496 497 498 499 500 501 502 503 APPENDIX III SONG TRANSLATIONS PROGRAM NO. 1 Reposoir grave, noble et pur Poetry by Charles de Saint-Cyr Music by Georges Migot Reposoir grave, noble et pur De tant d'amour et de tendresse, Rayon de soleil dans l'azur lumineux Comme une caresse Force merveilleuse d'aimer Et puis d'aimer le sacrifice Que l'on a voulu s'imposer pour plus haut que de la justice, Douceur qui sait en son secret Toujours pareille, ?tre nouvelle Et ne s'ayant pas pour objet ?tre Pourtant si pleine d'elle. Rythme suave sur un ton qui purifie, Et plus, la flamme de cet incomparable don d'un coeur si haut ?me, ch?re ?me. Solemn Resting Place Solemn resting place, noble and pure, Of so much love and tenderness, Ray of sun in the bright blue sky Like a caress, A marvelous force to love And, since then, to love the sacrifice Which one wanted to self-impose for purposes higher than justice, Sweetness, which knows in secret, Always the same, how to be always fresh And, not having for its objective To be so full of itself. Sweet rhythm on a pitch that purifies, And what is more, the flame of this incomparable Gift of a great heart ? soul, dear soul. Translated by Robert Perkins 504 Trois odelettes anacr?ontiques Poetry by R?mi Belleau and Pierre de Ronsard Music by Maurice Emmanuel Au printemps Voyez comme ? l'entr?e Du printemps gracieux La brigade sacr?e Des Gr?ces et des Dieux, Le giron et le sein Porte, de roses plein! Voyez comme les ondes De l'escumeuse mer Et les rides profondes Commencent ? calmer, Et cent sortes d'oiseaux Se jouent dans les eaux! Voyez comme la grue Est desja de retour, Et le soleil sans nue Nous allume le jour, Et chasse l'ombre espais Du trait de ses beauxrais! Voyez, en apparance, Nos journaliers labeurs Comme la terre avance Et enfante les fleurs. Voyez arbres fruitiers Poindre, et les oliviers! Voyez comme on couronne La vineuse liqueur, Quand l'attente fleuronne Du grain, en sa verdeur, Sous les ombres issans Des rameaux verdissans! Three Little Anacreontic Odes In springtime See the entrance Of gracious spring, The sacred brigade of Graces and Gods, 505 In its fold and bosom, it carries some roses in bloom! See the waves And the sea foam. The deep wrinkles begin to calm, And one hundred types of birds Play with one another in the waters! See how the crane Has already returned, And the sun without a cloud Lights the day for us, And chases away the thick shadow With its beautiful rays! See, in appearance, Our daily tasks Are like the earth that turns And gives birth to flowers. See the budding fruit trees Sprout forth, and the olive trees! See how one prizes The full-bodied liquor, As we wait for the blooming of The grain, in its greenness Beneath the cool shade Of growing branches. A la cigale Ha! Que nous t'estimons heureuse, Gentille cigale amoureuse! Car aussitost que tu as beu, Dessus les arbrisseaux, un peu de la ros?e, Aussi contente Qu'est une princesse puissante, Tu fais, de ta doucette vois, Tressaillir les monts et les bois. Tout ce qu'apporte la compagne, Tout ce qu'apporte la montagne Est ton propre: Au laboureur Tu plais sur tout, Car son labeur N'offenses, Ni portes dommage N'alluy, 506 Ny ? son labourage. Tout homme estime ta bont?, Douce proph?te de l'?t?. La Muse t'aime et t'aime aussi Apollon, Qui t'a fait ainsi Doucement chanter. La vieillesse Comme nous jamais ne te blesse. To the grasshopper Ah! How lucky we think you are, Nice grasshopper in love! As soon as you have drunk A little dew upon the shrubs, As happy as a ruling princess, With your mild voice, you cause The hills and the woods to tremble. All that the countryside brings, All the mountain brings, all is your property: To the farm laborer you especially bring pleasure, Because you do not interfere with his plowing, Nor do you harm him or his tilling. Every man values your kindness, Sweet prophet of summer. The Muse loves you as does Apollo Who makes you sing so sweetly. Old age never wounds you as it does us. A la rose La Rose et l'honneur d'un pourpris, La Rose est des fleurs la plus belle, Et dessus toutes a le pris: C'est pour cela que je t'appelle La violette de Cypris. La Rose est le bouquet d'amour, La rose est l'honneur des Charites, La Rose blanchit tout au tour, Au matin, De perles petites, Qu'elle emprunte du point du jour. 507 La Rose est le parfum des dieux, La Rose est l'honneur des pucelles, Qui leur sein beaucoup aiment mieux Enrichir de roses nouvelles Que d'un or tant soit pr?cieux. Est-il rien sans elle de beau? La Rose embellit toutes choses; V?nus de roses a la peau, Et l'Aurore ? les doigts de roses, Et le front le Soleil nouveau. To The Rose The rose is proud of its royal color, The rose is the most beautiful flower, And above all takes the prize: It is for this reason that I named it Violet of Cyprus. The rose is the bouquet of love, The rose marks the occasion of charities, The rose pales everything around it, In the morning, some small dewdrops Borrowed from the dawn. The rose is the perfume of the gods, The rose is the honor of maidens, Who much love to enhance their breasts With new fresh roses, More than with much precious gold. Is there nothing that is so beautiful without it? The rose embellishes everything; Venus has the skin of roses, And Dawn has the roses fingers, And its brow shows the new Sun. Translated by Robert Perkins "La fl?te enchant?e" from Sh?h?rzade Poetry by Tristan Klingsor Music by Maurice Ravel 508 L'ombre est douce et mon ma?tre dort Coiff? d'un bonnet conique de soie, Et son long nez jaune en sa barbe blanche. Mais moi, je suis ?veill?e encor Et j'?coute au dehors Une chanson de fl?te o? s'?panche Tour ? tour la tristesse ou la joie. Un air tour ? tour langoureux ou frivole Que mon amoureux ch?ri joue. Et quand je m'approche de la crois?e Il me semble que chaque note s'envole De la fl?te vers ma joue, Comme un myst?rieux baiser. The Enchanted Flute The shadows are soft and my master sleeps Capped with a conical silk bonnet, And his long yellow nose in his white beard. But I, I am still awake And outside I hear The song of the flute, which pours out Sadness or joy in turn. An air languorous, then frivolous, That my dear lover plays. And when I approach the window, It seems to me that each note flies From the flute toward my cheek, Like a mysterious kiss. Translated Timothy Le Van Une fl?te invisible Poetry by Victor Hugo Music setting one by Camille Saint-Sa?ns Music setting two by Andr? Caplet Viens! Une fl?te invisible Soupire dans les verges. La chanson la plus plaisible Est la chanson des bergers! Le vent ride sous l'yeuse, 509 Le somber miroir des eaux. La chanson la plus joyeuse Est la chanson des oiseaux. Que nul soin ne te tourmente, Aimous-nous ? aimons toujours! La chanson la plus charmante Est la chanson des amours. An Invisible Flute Come! An invisible flute Sighs among the birches. The most pleasurable song Is the song of the shepherds! Under the oak tree, the wind ripples The somber mirror of waters. The most joyous song Is the song of the birds. May no care trouble you, Let us love each other ? let us love forever! The most charming song Is the song of our love. Translated by Robert Perkins ?coute, mon coeur Poetry by Rabindranath Tagore Music By Andr? Caplet ?coute, mon coeur; Dans cette fl?te chante La musique du parfum des fleurs sauvages, Des feuilles ?tincelantes Et de l'eau qui brille; La musique d'ombres, Sonores d'un bruit d'ailes et d'abeilles. La fl?te a ravi son sourire Des l?vres de mon ami Et le r?pand sur ma vie. Listen, My Heart 510 Listen, my heart; To the flute singing The music of the perfume of wild flowers, The sparkling leaves And the brilliant water; The music of the shadows, The clamoring sounds of wings and bees. The flute brings a smile of delight To the lips of my lover That spills upon my life. Translated by Susan Hayes Deux el?gies Poetry by Fran?ois Maynard and Jean Pellerin Music by Alexis Roland-Manuel Charmant Rossignol Charmant rossignol don't la voix Entretient le profond silence De ces rochers et deces bois O? l'et? perd sa violence Si la Berg?re que je sers Revient jamais dans ces d?sers Apprens ? cette ?me cruelle Que l'eau qui coule entre ces fleurs Est un petit reste des pleurs Que j'ai vers?s pour l'amour d'elle. Chanson Il faut une chanson pour vous donner La route avec ses sapins bleus Et l'auberge et la fille Il faut une chanson mais qui la chantera? Ce ne sera pas moi Je ne l'ai jamais sue Mais ce sera peut-?tre la pie sur le buisson Ou la fl?te champ?tre la la la Il faut une chanson. Two Elegies 511 Charming Nightingale Charming nightingale, whose voice Maintains the profound silence Of these rocks and woods, Where summer loses its harshness. Even if the shepherdess whom I serve Ever returns to this deserted place She will have taught this brutalized soul That the water that flows between these flowers Is but a small remains of the tears I have shed for love of her. Song We need a song to put you on the road With its blue spruce And its country inn and the young girl. We need a song, but who will sing it? Certainly not I, I have never learned it. But perhaps it will be the magpie in the bush Or the rustic flute ? We need a song! Translated by Robert Perkins Quatre po?mes hindous Poetry by Bhartrihari, Henri Heine, and Maurice Delage Music by Maurice Delage Une Belle Une belle ? la taille svelte Se prom?ne sous les arbres de la for?t En se reposant de temps en temps. Ayant relev? de la main Les trois voiles d'or Qui lui couvrent les seins, Elle renvoie ? la lune les rayons dont elle ?tait baign?e. 512 Un Sapin isol? Un sapin isol? se dresse Sur une montagne aride du Nord. La glace et la neige L'environnent d'un manteau blanc. Il r?ve d'un palmier qui l?-bas Dans l'Orient lointain se d?sole, Solitaire et taciturne, Sur la pente de son rocher br?lant. Naissance de Bouddha En ce temps l?, fut annonc?e la venue de Bouddha sur la terre. Il se fit dans le Ciel un grand bruit de nuages. Les Dieux agitant leurs ?ventails et leurs v?tements R?pandirent d'innombrables fleurs merveilleuses. Des parfums myst?rieux et doux Se crois?rent comme des lianes dans le souffl? ti?de de cette nuit de printemps. La perle divine de la pleine lune S'arr?ta sur le palais de marbre Gard? par vingt mille ?l?phants Pareils ? des collines grises de la couleur des nuages. Si vous pensez Si vous pensez ? elle, Vous ?prouvez un douloureux tourment. Si vous la voyez, Votre esprit se trouble. Si vous la touchez, Vous perdez la raison. Comment peut-on l'appeler bien aim?e? Four Hindu Poems A Beautiful Woman A beautiful woman with a slender waist, She walks under the trees of the forest 513 And rests from time to time. Having lifted with her hand The three golden veils That cover her breasts She sends back to the moon the rays With which she was bathed. A Solitary Fir Tree A solitary fir tree stands On a barren northern mountain. Ice and snow wrap it With a white cloak. A palm tree over there In the Far East is distressed, Alone and silent On its slope of her burning rock. The Birth of Buddha In that time, in that place, was announced The coming of Buddha to earth. In the sky there was a great sound of clouds. The gods, waving their fans and their garments Scattered about countless marvelous flowers. Some mysterious and sweet perfumes Were entangled like tropical line In the mild breath of spring. The divine pearl of the full moon Stopped against the marble palace, Guarded by twenty thousand elephants Resembling some hills colored gray like clouds. If You Think If you think of her, You feel a painful anguish. If you see her, Your mind is troubled. If you touch her, You lose all reason! How can one call her beloved? 514 Translated by Robert Perkins Quatre Lieder Poetry by C?cile Sauvage and Henri Heine Music by Daniel Lesur La lettre Sur cette letter o? je penche Mon visage plein de tendresse Tu trouveras la caresse pensive de ma main blanche, Le mouvement de mes yeux aimants et silencieux, Car je laisse trainer mes yeux Sur ce papier silentement Que tu les verras caressants se lever sur toi en lisant. La chevauch?e Le vent d'automne secoue les arbres, La nuit est humide et froide, Envelopp? d'un manteau gris Je trav?rse ? cheval le bois, Et tandis que je chevauche Mes pens?es galopent devant moi; Elles me portent l?ger et joyeux ? la maison de ma bien aim?e. Les chiens aboient, Les valets paraissent avec des flambeaux. Je gravis l'escalier de marbre en faisant retentir mes ?perons sonores. Dans une chambre garnie de tapis et brillamment ?clair?e, Au mileu d'une atmosph?re ti?de et parfum?e, Ma bien-aim?e m'attend. Je me pr?cipite dans ses bras. Le vent murmure dans les feuilles, Le ch?ne chuchote dans ses rameaux: "Que veux-tu, fou cavalier, avec ton r?ve insens??" Les mains jointes Tu es comme une fleur, Si douce, si belle et si pure, Je te contemple et la m?lancolie Se glisse dans mon coeur. 515 Ce m'est comme si Je devais poser mes mains sur ta t?te, Priant Dieu qu'il te conserve Toujours aussi pure, aussi belle, et aussi douce. S?r?nade De mes larmes na?t Une multitude de fleurs brillantes Et mes soupirs deviennent un choeur de rossignols. Et si tu veux m'aimer, petite, Toutes ces fleurs sont ? toi, Et devant ta fen?tre retentira Le chant des rossignols. Four Lieder The Letter In this letter over which I bend My face, full of tenderness, You will find the thoughtful caress of my white hand, The movement of my loving and silent eyes, Since I let my eyes linger Quietly over this paper So that you will see them Caressing you as they rise up to you as you read. The Horseback Ride The autumn wind shakes the trees, The night is damp and cold. Wrapped in a gray coat I cross the woods on horseback, And as I am riding My thoughts gallop before me; They carry me, lighthearted and joyful, To the home of my beloved. The dogs bark, Valets appear with torches. I clamber up the marble stairs, Restraining my echoing spurs. In a chamber furnished with rugs and brilliantly lighted, 516 In the midst of an atmosphere perfumed and warm, My beloved waits for me. I rush into her arms. The wind murmurs amongst the leaves, The oak whispers in its branches: "What do you expect, foolish horseman, With your mad dream?" Hands Clasped You are like a flower, So sweet, so pretty, and so pure. I contemplate you and melancholy slips into my heart. For me, it is as if I was supposed to put my hands on your head, Praying to God that he might keep you Always as pure, always as pretty, always as sweet. Serenade From my tears, A multitude of brilliant flowers is born, And my sighs become a choir of nightingales. And if you want to love me, little one, All these flowers are yours. And before your window will resound The song of the nightingales. Translated by Robert Perkins Quatre po?mes de Max Jacob Poetry by Max Jacob Music by Francis Poulenc Est-il un coin plus solitaire Est-il un coin plus solitaire ? cheval J'irai le chercher Trop d'hommes sont au monast?re Trop de femmes vont au march? De livres ? mon belv?d?re Trop d'habits pendus aux crochets Trop de Papier sur l'?tag?re Trop de viande au garde manger 517 O! Narcisse O folie O ma t?te ? deux mains O Perse! O le pays de la rose jolie Si tu n'?tais l?-bas j'irais te voir demain. C'est pour aller au bal C'est pour aller au bal, au bal, Au bal au Ba?kal allah! Au bal allah ? la balala?ka Rades du tyran terres du Levant Baron du devant tirades Nomme azur ce que la dame mazurke Je t'assure que cette danse est turque nomades Est-ce bal ? bord Est-ce bu en bottes On chante un foxtrotte Les phoques se trottent Faux n?gre fausses notes Escouade pars ? des requins que fait Arlequin Pars, en rat, pas rare sequin repas rare Parade C'est pour aller au bal, au bal Au bal, au Ba?kal, allah Au bal allah ? la balalaika. Po?te et tenor Po?te et tenor l'oriflamme au Nord Je chante la mort. Po?te et tambour natif de Colliour Je chante l'amour. Po?te et marin versez-moi du vin Versez, versez je divulgue les secrets des algues. Po?te et chr?tien le Christ est mon bien Je ne dis plus rien. Dans le buisson de mimosa Dans le buisson de mimosa Qu'est-ce qui n'y a qu'est-ce qui n'y a? Y'a le l?zard qui n'osa mettre ses yeux Dans les oseilles la fleur dite Le bouton d'or et le plant nomm? sensitive Qui me dit-on s'ouvre ? l'aurore Et prend la forme d'une olive 518 L? y a aussi Hortense Y a les boules azures du c?leste hortensia Et la troupe argent?e d'herbes folles de rire Dans le buison de mimosa Qu'est-ce qui n'y a qu'est-ce qui n'y a? Le fils de la merci?re et la fille du bougnat. Four Poems of Max Jacob Is there a More Lonely Place Is there a lonelier corner of the world For one on horseback? Too many men are in the monastery, Too many women are buying Books at my gazebo. Too many clothes hung on the hooks, Too many papers on the shelves, Too much meat in the pantry. Oh! Narcissus! Oh folly! Oh, my head in my two hands. Oh, Persia! Oh, the country of the pretty rose. If you were not so far away, I would go to see you tomorrow. Going to the Ball In order to go to the ball, the ball To the ball, to the Ba?kal, Allah! To the ball, Allah, to the balalaika. Harbors of the tyrant, Lands of the Levant, Baron at the front of the tirades. Name sky blue the mazurka that the lady dances. I assure you that this is the dance of the Turkish nomads. Is the ball on board, Is it drunk in its boots? One sings a foxtrot, The seals beat it, False negro, false notes. The gang leaves to some sharks what the Harlequin makes, Go, don't miss this most rare sequin meal, this rare Parade. In order to go to the ball, to the ball, To the ball, to the Ba?kal, Allah! 519 To the ball, Allah, to the balalaika. Poet and Tenor Poet and tenor, banner from the north, I sing of death. Poet and native drummer of Colliour, I sing of love. Poet and sailor, pour me some wine. Pour, pour and I will reveal the secrets of the seaweed. Poet and Christian, Christ is my goodness. I can say no more. In the Mimosa In the mimosa What is there, what is not there? There is the lizard that doesn't dare put his eyes Into the sorrel, the flower named The golden bud, and the plant called sensitive, Which, I am told, opens up at dawn And takes the form of an olive. There is also Hortense, There are sky blue clusters of celestial hydrangea And the silvery troop of herbs, wild with laughter, In the mimosa. What is there, what is not there? The son of the haberdasher And the daughter of the coal merchant. Translated by Robert Perkins Le rossignol Unknown French text Music by Clement-Philibert-Leo D?libes ?coutez la chanson du rossignol volage; Aux bergers du village, Aux bergers du village il donne la le?on, ?coutz! Ha! Ah! Ah! ?coutez la chanson! Chantons, chantons l'amour tant que le printemps d?re. 520 Chantons, chantons l'amour tant que le printemps d?re. Sous la jeune verduere et la nuit et le jour, Chantons, chantons l'amour et la nuit et le jour. Chantons, chantons l'amour! "Il revient tous les ans," dit une pastourelle, "Car la rose nouvelle renait chaque printemps!" Il revient tous les ans, il revient tous les ans. Ah! Ah! Non, l'amour ne revient pas, pastourelle frivole. L'amour ne revient pas, O pastourelle frivole. D?s que l'amour s'envole, C'est pour toujours, h?las! L'amour ne revient pas, l'amour ne revient pas, L'amour ne revient pas! The Nightingale Listen to the song of the fickle nightingale in the woods; To the village shepherds, To the village shepherds it gives a lecture. Listen! Ah! Ah! Ah! Listen to its song! Sing, sing of love, as long as springtime lasts, Sing, sing of love, as long as springtime endures! Under the young green foliage. Night and day, Sing, sing of love, night and day! Sing, sing of love! "It returns every year," said a rustic, "And the new rose is revived each spring." It returns every year, it returns every year. Ah! Ah! No, love does not return, you frivolous country girl Love does not return, O frivolous country girl. Once love has flown It is gone forever, alas! Love does not return, love does not return, Love does not return. Translated by H. Gruber 521 SONG TRANSLATIONS PROGRAM NO. 2 Petits po?mes d'extreme-orient Poetry by L. Arnould-Gr?milly Music by Ernst Fromaigeat Le tapis du r?ve Une nu?e d'oiseaux Est venue s'?brouer dans mon verger Comme une gr?le ils ont fauch? Les fleurs don j'esp?rais des fruits Ah quell saccage Ils se sont battus piaillant criant Les petals dans l'herbe neigent en tourbillons Neige parfum?e Digne des jardins o? se pavanent les heureux fils du Ciel! Petits oiseaux merci, pour vos ?bats turbulents Certes les fruits seront bien rares Oui mais quel beau tapis pour mes r?ves! Pour mes r?ves! La d?laiss?e Triste au Ciel noir monte la lune d'hiver Je suis seule dans ma chamber, Comme elle, dans le Ciel noir. Seule, abandonee! Le feu s'est ?teint Seuls mes yeux br?lent et je pleure Je pleure ? mon ami parti loin de moi Si loin de moi Toi qui jamais n'a su comprendre Combien je t'aime. Deux saisons Te souviens tu quand tu partis? Plein de ferveur et de chansons? Quand les blancs pruniers en fleurs Attiraient les papillons de mon pays. T'en reviens-tu au temps des chrysanth?mes? L'heure o? les nuages du Nord 522 Pesant alourdis de neige Sur mon pays. La fl?te lointaine Le soir tombait dans le parfum des fleurs Dans la brune au loin Une fl?te chantait. Taillons de ces roseaux Une fr?le branche Et comme elle imite les oiseaux Dans la nuit en r?ve tous les rossignols M'entendront, gazouiller comme eux dans leur doux ramage. Short Poems From The Far East The Dream Carpet A host of birds Has come to splash about in my orchard Like a hailstorm they cut down The flowers from which I was hoping for some fruit. Ah, what havoc. They fought squealing, shouting The petals fall like snow flurries on the grass. Fragrant snow, Worthy of the gardens where the happy sons of heaven strut about! Small birds, thank you for your turbulent play. Surely the fruit will be quite rare Yes, but what a beautiful carpet for my dreams! For my dreams! The Forsaken Wife Sadly the winter moon mounts the dark sky. I am alone in my bedroom, Like the moon, in the black sky. Alone, abandoned! The fire is extinguished Only my eyes burn and I cry, I cry, oh my dear-departed friend So far from me. You who never knew how to understand 523 How much I love you. Two Seasons Do you remember when you left? Full of fervor and of songs? When the flowering white plum trees Used to attract the butterflies from the countryside. Will you return during the chrysanthemum season? The time when the Northern clouds Weigh heavily with snow Over this countryside of mine. The Distant Flute Evening fell into the perfume of the flowers. In the twilight far away A flute was singing. Let's cut from these reeds A fragile branch And since it mimics the birds Dreamily during the night all the nightingales Will hear me twittering, Like them at their own sweet song. Translated by Robert Perkins Portrait Poetry by Pierre Reyniel Music by C?cile Chaminade Son nom m'est doux comme le miel, Elle est blonde comme une f?e, Ses yeux sont faits d'un coin de Ciel; L'ai-je vue ou l'ai-je r?v?e? Elle semble un lys fr?le et doux, Elle en al la m?lancolie Et la gr?ce; connaissez-vous Celle-l? qui fait ma folie? Sa voix contient le miel des fleurs, Elle est ir?elle et profonde, Et je bois toutes les douleurs, Dans sa voix de sir?ne blonde. 524 Son regard me fr?le souvent, Mais cependant elle m'ignore, Elle pass? et mon coeur fervent Vole sur sa trace et l'adore. Portrait For me, her name is sweet as honey, She is blonde like a fairy, Her eyes are made from a corner of heaven; Did I see her or dream of her? She resembles a lily, frail and sweet, She has its melancholy And its grace; do you know The one who makes my madness? Her voice contains the honey of the flowers, She is unreal and profound, And I drink in every kind of sadness, In her blonde siren's voice. She looks at me often, But, however, she ignores me, She passes by and my fervent heart Follows her footsteps and adores her. Translated by Mary Dibbern Deux st?les orient?es Poetry by Victor S?galen Music by Jacques Ibert Mon amante a les vertus de l'eau Mon amante a les vertus de l'eau; Un sourire clair, des pestes coulants, Une voix pure et chantant goutte ? goutte. Et quand parfois malgr? moi Du feu passe dans mon regard, Elle sait comment on l'attise en fr?missant: Eau jet?e sur les charbons rouges. Mon eau vive, la voici r?pandue, Toute, sur la terre! Elle glisse, elle me fuit ? Et j'ai soif et je cours apr?s elle. 525 De mes mains je fais une coupe. De mes deux mains je l'?tanche avec ivresse, Je l'?treins, je la porte ? mes l?vres: Et j'avale une poign?e de boue. Ah. On me dit On me dit: Vous ne devez pas l'?pouser. Tous les presages sont d'accord, et n?fastes: Remarquez bien, dans son nom, L'eau, jet?e au sort, se remplace par le vent. Or, le vent renverse, C'est p?remptoire. Ne prenez donc pas cette femme. Et puis il y a le commentaire, ?coutez: Il se heurte aux rochers. Il entre dans les ronces. Il se v?t de poil ?pineux. Et autres gloses qu'il vaut mieux ne pas tirer. Ne prenez donc pas cette femme. Je r?ponds: Certes, ce sont l? presages douteux. Mais ne donnons pas trop d'importance. Et puis, elle est veuve et tout cela Regarde le premier mari. Pr?parez la chaise pour les Noces. Two Pillars Askew My Lover Has the Virtues of Water My lover has the virtues of water; A clear smile, some flowing storms, A pure voice, and singing drop by drop. And when sometimes in spite of myself Some fire crosses my sight, She knows how to poke it as it trembles: Water tossed on the red coals. My water is alive, here it is widespread Everywhere on earth! It slips away, it flees from me ? And I am thirsty and I run after it. With my hands I make a cup. With my two hands I rapturously stem its flow, I grasp it, I carry it to my lips: And I swallow a handful of mud. Ah. 526 They Tell Me They tell me: You ought not marry her. All the portents are in agreement, and inauspicious: Note well, in her name, Water, casting a spell, is replaced by the wind. Now, the wind reverses, That admits no contradiction. Do not take that woman. And then there is the commentary, listen: He bumps into the rocks. He enters into the brambles. He is covered with thorny hair. And others comment that he would do better not to pull out. Do not take therefore this woman. I answer: Certainly, there are some doubtful forebodings here. But let's not ascribe too much importance to it. And moreover, she is a widow and all those things Concern the first husband. Prepare the wedding chair. Translated by Robert Perkins Deux po?mes de Ronsard, op. 26 Poetry by Pierre de Ronsard Music by Albert Roussel Rossignol, mon mignon Rossignol, mon mignon qui dans cette saulaie Va seul de branche en branche ? ton gr? voletant, Et chante ? l'envie de moi qui vais chantant Celle qu'il faut toujours que dans la bouche j'aie Nous soupirons tous deux: Ta douce vois s'essaie De sonner l'amiti? d'une qui t'aime tant, Et moi, triste, je vais la beaut? regrettant Qui m'a fait dans le coeur une si algre plaie. Toutefois, Rossignol, nous diff?rons d'un point: C'est que tu es aim?, et je ne le suis point, Bien que tous deux ayons les musiques pareilles. Car tu fl?schis ton aim?e au doux bruit de tes sons, Mais la mienne, qui prend ? d?pit mes chansons, Pour ne les ?couter se bouche les oreilles. 527 Ciel, aer, et vens Ciel, aer, et vens, plaines et mons d?couvers, Ertres fourchus et for?ts verdoyantes, Rivages tors, et sources ondoyantes, Taillis ras?s, et vous bocages vertes; Antres mousus ? demi front ouvers, Pr?s, boutons, fleurs, et herbes rousoyantes, Coutaus vineus, et plages blondoyantes, G?tine, Loire, et vous mes tristes vers: Puis qu'au partir, rong? de soin et d'ire, A ce bel oeil, l'Adieu je n'ai sceu dire, Qui pr?s et loin me d?tient en ?moi: Je vous suppli, Ciel, aer, vens, mons, et plaines, Taillis, for?ts, rivages et fontaines, Antres, pr?s, fleurs, dites-le lui pour moi. Nightingale, my pretty Nightingale, my pretty, who in this willow grove Goes alone from branch to branch in your own flighty way, And sings as well as I who go singing That which must always come from my mouth. We sigh together: Your sweet voice trying To express the friendship of one who loves you so much, And I, sad, I go longing for that beauty That makes in my heart so bitter a wound. However, Nightingale, we differ in one respect: It is that you are loved, and I am not loved at all, Even though both of us may make similar music. For you sway your sweetheart with the sweetness of your sounds, But my sweetheart, who is annoyed by my songs, Plugs up her ears so not to hear them. Heaven, sky, and wind Heaven, sky, and wind, plains and bare mountains, Branches, knolls and verdant forests, Twisted shores, and undulating springs, Cut thickets and you green groves; Moss-lined caverns with half-opened mouths, Fields, buds, flowers, and rustic herbs, Wine-rich hills, and flaxen beaches, 528 G?tine, Loire, and you my sad verses: Since at the parting, gnawed by care and ire, To those beautiful eyes, the good-bye that I could not bring myself to say, Who far and near keeps me filled with emotion: I beg you, Heaven, air, wind, mountains, and plains, Thickets, forests, shores and fountains, Caverns, fields, flowers, tell him for me. Translated by Wendall Dobbs Chanson Poetry by Pierre de Ronsard Music by Arthur Honegger Plus tu connais que je br?le pour toi Plus tu me fuis, cruelle Plus tu connais que je vis en ?moi Et plus tu m'es rebelle Te laisserai-je? H?las! Je suis trop tien Mais je b?nirai l'heure de mon tr?pas Au moins s'il te pla?t bien Qu'en te servant je meure Song The more you know that I burn for you, The more you flee from me, cruel one. The more you know that I live in turmoil, The more you rebel against me. Will you not let me be? Alas! I am yours alone. But I will bless the hour of my death. At least if it pleases you well, And in serving you, I die. Translated by Susan Hayes Trois chansons extraites de "La petite sir?ne" d'Andersen Lyrics by Ren? Morax from Hans Christian Anderson 529 Music by Arthur Honegger Chanson des sir?nes Dans le vent et dans le flot dissous toi fragile ?cume Dissous toi dans un sanglot Pauvre coeur rempli d'amertume Prends ton vol dans le Ciel bleu Vois la mort n'est pas cruelle Tu aura la paix de Dieu viens ? nous ?me immortelle. Berceuse de la sir?nes Danse avec nous dans le bel Oc?an Le matin ou le soir sous la lune d'argent. Plonge avec nous dans le flot transparent, Chante au soleil dans l'?cume et le vent Mer berce nous dans tes bras caressant Mer berce nous sur ton coeur fr?missant, Ah. Chanson de la poire C'est l'histoire d'une poire On la cueille dans les feuilles On la tape tant et tant, Qu'elle en claque en trois temps d'une attaque Il faut boire ? la poire un bon coup un bon coup Il faut boire ? la poire Il faut boire, boire ? boire, et c'est tout. Three Song Extracts from ?The Little Sirens? by Andersen Song of the Sirens In the wind and in the waves you dissolve yourself like fragile foam You dissolve yourself in a sob Poor heart full of bitterness Take your flight in the blue sky See that death is not cruel You will send the peace of God to our immortal soul. Berceuse of the Sirens Dance with us in the beautiful ocean Morning or evening beneath the silver moon. 530 Dive with us in the transparent waves, Sing to the sun in the foam and the wind. Sea, rock us in your caressing arms. Sea, rock us on your pulsating heart. Ah. Song of the pear This is the story of a pear. Picked from among the leaves, It is hit again and again, It breaks open on the third attack, Drink to the pear, a good blow, a good blow. Drink to the pear, One must drink, drink ? drink, and that is all. Translated by Susan Hayes Catalogue de fleurs Poetry by Lucien Daudet Music by Darius Milhaud La violette La Violette cyclope se force admirablement D'un beau rouge solf?rino. Elle est tr?s parfum?e, h?tive et vigoureuse. Le b?gonia B?gonia aurora, fleur tr?s double, Abricot m?l? de corail, Coloris tr?s joli rare et curieux. Les fritillaries Les fritillaries aiment les endroits expos?s au soleil Et ? l'abri du vent et des g?l?es printani?res. Pendant l'hiver on les couvre. On les appelle aussi oeufs de Vanneau Et Couronnes imperials. Soupire dans les verges. La chanson la plus plaisible Est la chanson des bergers! 531 Le vent ride sous l'yeuse, Le somber miroir des eaux. La chanson la plus joyeuse Est la chanson des oiseaux. Que nul soin ne te tourmente, Aimous-nous ? aimons toujours! La chanson la plus charmante Est la chanson des amours. Les jacinthes Albertine blanc pur La peureuse mauve clair. Roi des Belges carmin pur, Roi des bleus, blue fonc?. Mademoiselle de Malakoff jaune vif ? bouquet. Les crocus Les crocus se forcent en pot?es Ou dans des soucoupes Sur de la mousse humide A la pleine terre seuls ou m?l?s ? d'autres plantes printani?res. Ils font un tr?s bel effet. Le brachycome Brachycome Iberidifolia ?toile bleue nouveaut?, Plante naine charmante couverte de fleurs bleues, D'un bleu vif. L'eremurus Eremurus Isabellinus, Sa floraison est garantie. La hampe de cette magnifique esp?ce Atteint parfois deux m?tres, Ses fleurs sont d'un beau coloris Entre jaune et rose et d'une longue dur?e Vous recevrez les prix par correspondance. Catalogue of Flowers 532 The Violet The one-eyed Violet command admiration With a beautiful red the color of the blood at Solf?rino, It is very scented, hasty and robust. The Begonia Begonia, the color of dawn, A flower of double character, Apricot blended with coral, A very pretty coloring, rare and curious. The Fritillaries The fritillaries like places exposed to the sun Bell-like sheltered from the wind and spring frosts. During the winter you cover them. They are also called explorer eggs And Imperial Crowns. Sighing among the cane, The most pleasurable song Is the song of the shepherds! Beneath the oaks, the wind ripples, The somber mirror of waters. The most joyous song Is the song of the birds. May no care torment you Let us love one another?let us love forever! The most charming song Is the song of our love The Hyacinths Albertine, pure white The timid one, light purple King of the Belgians, pure crimson King of the blues, dark blue The Mademoiselle de Malakoff, bright yellow in a bunch. The Crocuses 533 The crocuses push themselves out in jarfuls Or in saucers On humid moss In open land alone or mixed With other springtime plants. They make a very beautiful effect. The Colored Daisy Brachycome Iberidifolia, a novel blue star, Charming dwarf plant covered with blue flowers, A vibrant blue. The Shelford Foxtail Lily Eremurus Isabellinus, Its blossoming is guaranteed, The stem of this magnificent species Sometimes reaches to two meters, Its flowers have a beautiful coloring Between yellow and pink, and they last a long time. You will receive the prices by letter. Translated by Susan Hayes Chansons mad?casses Poetry by Evariste Parny Music by Maurice Ravel Nahandove Nahandove, ? belle Nahandove! L'oiseau nocturne a commence Ses cris, la pleine lune brille sur ma t?te, et la ros?e Naissante humecte mes cheveux. Voici l'heure; qui Peut t'arr?ter, Nahandove, ? belle Nahandove! Le lit De feuilles est prepare; je l'ai parsem? de fleurs Et d'herbes odorif?antes; il est digne de tes charmes, Nahandove, ? belle Nahandove! Elle vient. J'ai reconnu la respiration pr?cipit?e que donne Une marche rapide; j'entends le froissement De la pagne qui l'enveloppe; c'est elle, 534 C'est Nahandove, la belle Nahandove! Reprends haleine, ma jeune amie; repose-toi sur mes genoux. Que ton regard est enchanteur! Que le mouvement De ton sein est vif et d?li cieux sous la main Qui le presse! Tu souris, Nahandove, ? belle Nahandove! Tes baisers p?n?trent jusqu'a l'?me; tes caresses br?lent Tous mes sens; ar?te, ou je vais mourir, Meurt-on De volupt?, Nahandove, ? belle Nahandove! Le plaisir pass? comme un ?clair. Ta douce haleine S'affaiblit, tes yeux humides se referment, Ta t?te se penche mollement, et tes transports S'?teignent dans la langueur. Jamais tu ne fus Si belle, Nahandove, ? belle Nahandove! Tu pars, Et je vais languir dans les regrets et les desires. Je janguirai jusqu'au soir. Tu reviendras ce soir, Nahandove, ? belle Nahandove! Madagascarian Songs Nahandove Nahandove, oh beautiful Nahandove! The nocturnal bird begins its Cries, the full moon shines on my head, and the new-born dew Moistens my hair. This is the hour; who Can stop you, Nahandove, oh beautiful Nahandove! The bed Of leaves is prepared; I have strewn it with flowers And with sweet-smelling herbs; it is worthy of your charms, Nahandove, oh beautiful Nahandove! She comes. I recognized the panting caused by A brisk walk; I hear the rustle Of the cloth she wraps around her lower body, that envelops her; it is she, It is Nahandove, the beautiful Nahandove! Catch your breath, my young love; rest on my knees. How enchanting is your glance! How the movement Of your breast is alive and delicious under the hand Which presses it! You smile, Nahandove, oh beautiful Nahandove! Your kisses penetrate my soul; your caresses burn All my senses; stop, or I shall die. Can one die Of voluptuousness, Nahandove, oh beautiful Nahandove! Pleasure passes like a lightening flash. Your sweet breath Falters, your moist eyes close again, Your head bends softly, and your ecstasies Melt into languor. Never were you 535 More beautiful. Nahandove, oh beautiful Nahandove! You leave And I will languish in regrets and desires. I will languish until evening. You will return this evening, Nahandove, oh beautiful Nahandove! Aoua! M?fiez-vous des Blancs, habitants du rivage. Du temps de nos p?res, des Blancs descendirent Dans cette ?le. On leur dit: Voila des terres, Que vos femmes les cultivent; soyez justes, soyez bons, Et devenez nos fr?res. Les Blancs promirent, Et cependant ils faisaient des retranchements. Un fort mena?ant s'eleva; le tonnerre fut renferm? Dans des bouches d'airain; leurs pr?tres voulurent Nous donner un Dieu que nous ne connaissons pas, Ils parl?rent enfin d'ob?issance et d'esclavage. Pl?tot la mort. Le carnage fut long et terrible; Mais malgr? la foudre qu'ils vomissaient, et qui ?crasait Des armies enti?res, ils furent tous extermin?s. Aoua: M?fiez-vous des Blancs. Nous avons vu de nouveaux Tyrans, plus forts et plus nombreux, planter leur Pavillon sur le rivage. Le Ciel a combattu pour nous. Il a fait tomber sur eux les pluies, les temp?tes Et les vents empoisonn?s. Ils ne sont plus, et nous Vivons, et nous vivons libres. Aoua! M?fiez-vous Des Blancs, habitants du rivage. Aoua! Inhabitants of the coast, beware of the white man. During the time of our fathers, some whites descended On this island. We told them: Here are lands, That your wives may cultivate; be just, be good, And become our brothers. The whites promised, And yet they built entrenchments. A menacing fort arose; thunder was contained In mouths of brass; their priests wanted To give us a God that we knew not, They spoke, finally, of obedience and of slavery. Sooner death. The carnage was long and terrible; But despite the thunder they vomited, that destroyed Entire armies, they were all exterminated. Aoua: Beware of the white man. We have seen new 536 Tyrants, stronger and more numerous, planting their Flags on the shore. The sky has fought for us. It has made rain fall on them, tempests And poisoned winds. They are no more, and we Live, and we live free. Aoua! Inhabitants of the coast, beware of the white man. Il est doux Il est doux de se coucher, Durant la chaleur, Sous un arbre touffu, et d'attendre que le vent du soir Am?ne la fra?cheur. Femmes, approchez. Tandis que Je me repose ici sous un arbre touffu, occupez Mon oreille par vos accents prolong?s. R?p?tez la chanson De la jeune fille, lorsque ses doigts tressent la natte Ou lorsqu'assise aupr?s du riz, elle chasse les Oiseaux avides. Le chant pla?t ? mon ?me. La danse Est pour moi presqu'aussi douce qu'un baiser. Que vos Pas soient lents; qu'ils imitent les attitudes du plaisir Et l'abandon de la volupt?. Le vent du soir; Se l?ve; la lune commence ? briller au travers des arbres De la montangne. Aller, et preparez le repas. It is sweet It is sweet to rest, during the heat, Under a leafy tree, and to wait for the evening wind To bring its freshness. Women, approach. While I rest under a leafy tree, occupy My ear with your ceaseless talk. Repeat the song Of the young girl, as her fingers weave the plait, Or when sitting amid the rice, she chases away the Greedy birds. The song pleases my soul. The dance Is for me almost as sweet as a kiss. May your Steps be slow; may they imitate the attitudes of pleasure And the abandon of voluptuousness. The evening wind Rises, the moon begins to shine over the trees Of the mountain. Go and prepare the meal. Translated Timothy Le Van La fl?te de pan Poetry by Lucien Jacques 537 Music by Jean Cras Invention de la fl?te Au jailli de la source gerbaient Les longs roseaux qui sont les cheveux Verts de la nymphe chang?e. J'en ai tir? sept tubes, Sept tubes in?gaux plus l?gers Que des os d'oiseaux, Tous lisses et polis et de couleur pareille. Par jeu je les aimais dans un buis courtcreus? Et j'ai li? le tout ? la cire d'abeille Avec des joncs nouveaux. Or le plus long des sept recele le sanglot profond De l'hiver long et du vent rauque. Celui que vient apr?s est clameur De l'eau glauque qu'un gouffre sourd ?touffe. Celui qui vient apr?s est plein, Pur et paisible: c'est l'?cho prolong? des bois. Celui-l?, du milieu, est guttural, Mieux qu'un appel de la palombe ?namour?e. Celui qui vient apr?s a la voix De l'enfance: il r?ve et rit et jase et rit encore. Celui l'avant-dernier est de soleil liquide; Une cymballe de cigale y vibre. Et le dernier de tous joue la fr?n?sie: C'est la grive d'automne grise Ou cri strident d'une ?me ? la d?rive. Or voici qu'en soufflant Les voix se sont m?l?es harmonieusement Toutes les voix unies n'ont form? qu'un seul chant. Et voici qu'? mon gr? Je parle ? tous selon ma joie Et mon tourment, Selon mon ?me et selon l'?me universelle. J'ai r?veill? la nymphe belle. Vous me croyiez un homme? Non, je suis le vieux Pan. Don de la Fl?te J'ai trouv? ce matin suspendue ? ma porte La fl?te du dieu Pan, faite de roseaux joint, 538 Par?e de myrte vert et de thym odorant puis, Pos?s c?t?, du miel et des amandes. C'est mon ami Kor? avec ma soeur A?a Qui, de nuit, sont venus m'en faire la surprise. Je n'ai rien ? pr?sent pour donner en retour, Mais je vais conserver douze pommes vermeilles Et, lorsque je saurai d'un souffle habile et pur Animer la syrinx, me couronnant de lierre J'irai par un matin de la saison nouvelle, Avec une jarre du bon lait de mes ch?vres, Poser mes humbles dons et chanter ? leur seuil. Le signal de la fl?te Nous avons convenu d'un signal. Si tu ne dois venir, sur la fl?te, J'imiterai le chant plaintif du berger dans le soir. Alors, tu sauras que tu dois rester dans l'ombre. Mais si bois et champs sont deserts Et que tu puisses me rejoinder: Accours en m'entendant jouer ? perdre haleine L'air bleu alerte et fou qui fait danser les ch?vres. Le retour de la fl?te Si Nemesis m'?tend livide, Prends ma fl?te ? mon cou dans sa gaine de cuir. Puis cherche un beau platane Pour me coucher dessous en terre Et quand ce sera fait n'aie cesse ni repos Avant d'avoir remis ? qui les fa?ona Les pr?cieux pipeaux que mon souffle anima. The Panpipes Invention of the Pipes Where the source of the spring gushed forth, there were sheaves of The tall reeds which are the green Hairs from the shape-changing nymph, I pulled out seven tubes, Seven irregular tubes, lighter Than the bones of birds, All smooth and polished, all of the same color. 539 For diversion, I cared for them in the hollow of a boxwood tree And I bound them in beeswax With some new rushes. Now the longest of the seven harbors the deep sob Of the long winter and raucous wind. The one that comes next is a clamor Of blue-green water, choked by a muted whirlpool. The one that comes next is full, Pure, and peaceful: it is the prolonged echo through the woods. The one in the middle is throaty, Better than a call from the lovesick dove. The one which comes next has the voice Of childhood: it dreams and laughs and chatters and laughs again. The next to last one is liquid sun A grasshopper's cymbal vibrates there. And the last one of all plays in a frenzy: This is the gray autumn thrush Or the strident cry of a soul adrift. Now, while blowing, are The voices blended harmoniously among themselves All the unison voices form a single chant. And here by my own will I speak to all according to my joy And my torment, According to my soul and according to the universal soul. I have awakened the beautiful nymph. Did you believe me to be a man? No. I am old Pan Gift of the Pipes I have found this morning, hanging from my door, The flute of the god Pan, made with joined reeds, Adorned with green myrtle and sweet-smelling thyme, then, Placed to the side, some honey and almonds. It's my friend Kor? with my sister A?a Who, at night, have come to surprise me with it. At present, I have nothing to give them in return, But I am going to preserve twelve bright red apples, And when I know how to give life to this Pan Flute, With a pure and skillful breath, I will crown myself with ivy, And one morning during the new season, I will go With an earthenware jug of good milk from my goats, To deposit my humble gifts and sing on their doorstep. 540 The Signal of the Pipes We have agreed upon a signal. If you are not to come, on the pipes I will imitate the plaintive chant of the shepherd at night. Then you will know that you must remain in the shadows. But if the woods and fields are deserted And you are able to rejoin me: Rush forward when you hear me play until I am out of breath The blue, brisk, and foolish tune that makes the goats dance. The Return of the Pipes If Nemesis stretches me out pale, And takes my flute from its leather case at my neck. Then look for a pretty tree For me to lie underneath in the ground And when this is done, don't stop nor rest Before giving back to the one who made them The precious pipes that my breath once brought to life. Translated by Robert Perkins 541 APPENDIX IV SELECTED FRENCH COMPOSERS OF M?LODIE Song composers other than Faur?, Duparc, Debussy, and Ravel, listed in chronological order by date of birth: Charles-Marie Widor (1844-1937), a pupil of Rossini, was principally an organ composer, but wrote many songs, most of which are published in two volumes (Durand) under the title of 54 M?lodies. His style is wide-ranging. Benjamin Godard (1849-1895) generally wrote pleasant, superficial songs of no particular character. He did compose settings based on Six fables by Jean de La Fontaine, but was best in the romance type of song, volumes of which were published by Durand and Choudens. Ernest Chausson (1855-1899) shows the influence of Franck, the German songwriters Schubert and Hugo Wolf, and the later songs of Debussy. He wrote songs to the poetry of Maurice Maeterlinck, Camille Mauclair, Paul Verlaine, and Charles Cros. C?cile Chaminade (1857-1944) wrote agreeable drawing room music and her songs enjoyed a following in England. A collection of her M?lodies was published by Joseph Williams in that county. Her work Douze chants is set to the poetry of Louis Albert, and Poems to the poetry of Armand Silvestre. Georges H?e (1859-1948) wrote two charming, unpretentious sets of songs entitled Croquis d'Orient (1904-1905) to the poetry of Tristan Klingsor. Gustave Charpentier (1860-1956), composer of the successful opera Louise, wrote songs that were mainly superficial in style and without poetic insight. He set five poems from Baudelaire's Les fleurs du mal, as well as the Po?mes chant?s (1894-1895) to the poetry of Verlaine and Baudelaire. Gabriel Piern? (1863-1937) was of the same generation as Reynaldo Hahn and is mainly remembered for his orchestral works. However, his output in song is very large, extremely varied, and includes miscellaneous songs and song-cycles. Of special mention are his Trois m?lodies (1904), to poems of Tristan Klingsor, and Six ballades fran?ais de Paul Fort (1923). Erik Satie (1866-1925) had a strange and unique personality, and he exerted a considerable influence on the younger composers of his time. He wrote few songs, however, the one?s he did compose are direct and unpretentious. His Trios po?mes d'amour (1914) have ironic words by the composer and a melodic line suggestive of plainsong. His Ludions (1923), in which he collaborates with L?on-Paul Fargue in a 542 literary-musical joke that is both personal and unique, is another example of Satie's style. He also set the poems of Lamartine, Cocteau, and Raymond Radiguet in Quatre petites m?lodies (1920). Albert Roussel (1869-1958) evolved a style which is a synthesis of many different influences: impressionism, neoclassicism, d'Indy, German composers, and oriental music. The result is quite unlike the work of any other French composer. In three sets of Chinese poems ? op. 12 (1921), op. 35 (1927), and op. 47 (1934) ? he uses the pentatonic scale and a fragmentary lightness of texture with unusual melodic procedures to create an atmosphere of chinoiserie. He also wrote Odes anacr?ontiques, setting translations from the Greek by Leconte de Lisle; Deux po?mes de Ronsard (1924) for voice and flute; and Deux m?lodies (1934) from the poetry of Ren? Chalupt. Florent Schmitt's (1870-1958) music suggests Teutonic rather than French sympathies. Nonetheless, he set the poetry of Verlaine in Trois m?lodies (1911), as well as Ronsard in Quatre po?mes de Ronsard (1942). An intense individuality is found in the Monocantes (op. 115, 1949) for voice and five instruments. D?odat de S?verac (1872-1921) was known for music possessing a direct, personal quality. His Douze m?lodies is based on the poetry of Baudelaire. Reynaldo Hahn (1874-1947) began setting the poems of Verlaine at the age of eighteen, which would become the collection Chansons grises. He also set the poetry of Leconte de Lisle in ?tudes latines. A representation of songs by this many-sided composer can be found in the two volumes of his M?lodies published by Heugel. Andr? Caplet (1878-1925) is a composer of great sensitivity, fine craftsmanship, and a sure manner of expression. He wrote Trois fables de La Fontaine (1920) and Cinq ballades fran?aises de Paul Forte (1921), as well as Le pain quotidien, a series of vocal exercises intended to train interpreters of modern vocal music and to familiarize them with the perils of the new technique. Jean Cras (1879-1932), a naval officer as well as a composer, wrote L'Offrande lyrique (1920, later orchestrated), which consists of settings of Rabindranath Tagore as translated into French by Andr? Gide. (The same poetry was set by Ravel in the Chansons mad?casses.) Maurice Delage (1879-1932) wrote an interesting cycle entitled Trois chants de la jungle (1935), from a translation of Rudyard Kipling. He was much concerned with themes related to exoticism and orientalism. Gabriel Grovlex (1879-1944) is a unique composer, with a pleasant, fanciful, and childlike style to his writing. He wrote two volumes of songs entitled Chansons enfantines (1924), poems about children by Tristan Klingsor, which are set in a folk song 543 style. All the members of Les six (Georges Auric, Louis Durey, Arthur Honegger, Darius Milhaud, Francis Poulenc, and Germaine Tailleferre [who is not discussed here]) wrote vocal music. In their early days, still under the influence of Stravinsky, Satie, and the writer Jean Cocteau, their alleged aims were simplicity, conciseness, and clarity. In the case of Auric, Poulenc, and Durey, however, this spirit too easily surrendered seriousness to a casual, lighthearted style: a reaction partly to the war and partly to the earnest romanticism of the dada and surrealist groups. Georges Auric (1879-1983) wrote songs to poems by Cocteau early in his career, and a Hommage ? Erik Satie. By 1925, he had taken a more serious turn with Cinq chansons de Lise Hirtz (1930). He also wrote Quatre chants de la France malheureuse (1947) to poems of Aragon, Supervielle, and ?luard, and Six po?mes de Paul ?luard (1948). Louis Durey (1888-1979) did not remain long with Les six, but went his own way, often in contradiction to the avowed aims of the group. (Much later, after the World War II, he would become a so-called Progressist and write communist mass-appeal music.) His Images ? Cruso? (1922), for voice, string quartet, flute, clarinet, and celesta, is an outstanding song cycle. He also set poems by Guillaume Apollinaire, Le bestiaire, as did Poulenc. Darius Milhaud (1892-1974) is the most fertile and the most uneven of Les six. Traditional patterns ? polytonality, jazz, and folklore ? everything is mixed together and then poured out. He wrote Alissa (1913), from passages of Andr? Gide's La Porte ?troite, in the form of a lengthy lament for voice and piano. Quatre po?mes de L?o Latil (1920) is another notable early work. Two humorous works of Milhaud have achieved fame: Catalogue de fleurs (1923) and Machines agricoles (1926), both for voice and seven instruments. The Catalogue de fleurs consists of seven tiny fragments by Lucien Daudet, each describing a flower, and the work ends with the words, "Price-list will be sent by post." Similarly, Machines agricoles sets passages from a catalogue of agricultural machinery in a pastoral style. His tendency towards absurdity during this period came from associations with Erik Satie and Jean Cocteau. Arthur Honegger (1892-1955) was always a serious minded composer, and he wrote Six po?mes (1921) from Paul Fort's Complaintes et dits, as well as Trois po?mes de Claudel (1942). Francis Poulenc (1899-1963) wrote songs over a forty-year period, and they are as varied in style and quality as the texts he chose to set. Poulenc is essentially the musical illustrator of the surr?alisme poets and, in this sense, he is drawn musically to the poetry of Guillaume Apollinaire, Max Jacob, and Paul ?luard as Debussy before him was drawn to Verlaine and Mallarm?. As early as 1919, Poulenc set Le bestiaire ou le cort?ge to Apollinaire's delightful little animal poems, but the poetry of Paul ?luard seems to have 544 been most inspiring to him. The Cinq po?mes (1935) and La fraicheur et le feu (1951) are settings of ?luard, while Le travail de peintre (1957) sets ?luard's poems about seven modern painters (Pablo Picasso, Marc Chagall, Georges Braque, Juan Gris, Paul Klee, Joan Mir?, Jacques Villon). George Migot (1891-1976) is a composer of such individuality that he has been nicknamed "The Group of One." He has also been called "the spiritual brother of Guillaume de Machaut" because of certain affinities to the Medieval French polyphonic style. His enormous output contains "vocal chamber music" in which the composer favors unusual combinations of instruments. His Deux st?les settings to the poetry of Victor S?galen (1934), is arranged for voice, harp, celesta, double bass, and percussion. (This is the same poem set by Ibert ten years earlier.) His Po?mes du Brugnon (1934), on poetry of Tristan Klingsor, is also noteworthy. Jean Rivier (1896-1925) displays fine craftsmanship and a positive easygoing style, which varies considerably to match the poetry. His works include Huit po?mes de Guillaume Apollinaire (1929) and Quartre po?mes (1947), settings for poems by Ronsard and Cl?ment Marot. Marcel Delannoy (1898-1962) wrote ?tat de veille (1946) using the poetry of Robert Desnos. Henry Barraud (1900-1997) has a very mixed style. A good example of Barraud's work is Chansons de Gramadoch (1944), set to poems by Victor Hugo. Henri Sauguet's (1901- 1989) song cycle, Cirque (1926), is set to poems by Adrien Copperie. Settings of Baudelaire, Mallarm?, and Laforgue form the basis of Six m?lodies sur des po?mes symbolists (1944), while the poetry of Max Jacob is the source of Les p?nitants en maillots roses (1949). Claude Arrieu (1903-1990) was a woman composer who set Mallarm?, as well as Po?mes de Louise de Vilmorin (1946). Andr? Jolivet (1905-1974) found expression in a magical, incantatory style related to the practices of primitive religions. For the spell of this rich, highly personal music to achieve its full effect of the listener, orchestra color seems necessary. Two principal song cycles of Jolivet are published for voice and piano or for voice and orchestra. These are Les trios complaintes du soldat (1942), and Po?mes intimes (1949), with words by Louis Emi?. Jean Cartan (1906-1932) was a highly gifted composer who died at the age of twenty-four. His rich, imaginative settings of Klingsor and Mallarm? are lovely. Po?mes de Tristan Klingsor (1927), in particular, includes an accompaniment of flute, harp, and string quartet. 545 Jean Yves Daniel-Lesur's (1908-2002) songs are notable for the lyrical, singable quality of the vocal writing, to which the composer adds a strongly personal piano part, often showing unusual harmonic invention. He wrote Trois po?mes de C?cile Sauvage (1944) and Trois po?mes de Tristan Corbi?re (1939-40). Henri Duttileux's (b. 1916) music is eclectic. His Quatre m?lodies (1943) is a characteristically varied set. 546 APPENDIX V PRIX DE ROME WINNERS IN MUSICAL COMPOSITION 1850-1950 Year premi?re Premi?re Grand Prix deuxi?me Premi?re Grand Prix premi?re Second Grand Prix deuxi?me Second Grand Prix Mention honorable 1850 Joseph Charlot Napol?on Mohrange dit Alkan Aristide Hignard 1851 Alfred Del?helle Charles Galibert L?once Cohen 1852 L?once Cohen Ferdinand Poise 1853 Charles Galibert Emile Durand 1854 Adrien Barthe Victor Delannoy Eug?ne Vast 1855 Jean Conte Victor Ch?ri Charles Colin 1856 no prize Georges Bizet Eug?ne Lacheuri? Pierre Faubert 1857 Georges Bizet Charles Colin Pierre Faubert Edmond Cherouvri-er 1858 Samuel David Edmond Cherouvrier Jules Pillevesse 1859 Ernest Guiraud Th?odore Dubois Emile Paladilhe & Adolphe Deslandres 1860 Emile Palahilhe Adolphe Deslandres Isidore Legouix 1861 Th?odore Dubois Th?odore Salom? Eug?ne Anthiome Titus Constantin 1862 Louis Bourgault- Ducoudray Adolphe Danhauser Jules Massenet 1863 Jules Massenet Titus Constantin Gustave Ruiz 1864 Victor Sieg 1865 Charles Lenepveu 1866 Emile Pessard 1867 no competition 547 1868 Alfred Pelletier- Rabuteau Eug?ne Wintzweill-er 1869 Antoine Taudou 1870 Henri Mar?chal Charles Lef?bvre 1871 Gaston Serpette 1872 Gaston Salvayre L?on Ehrhart 1873 Paul Puget Paul Hillemacher Antonin Marmontel 1874 L?on Ehrhart Paul V?roge Andr? Wormser 1875 Andr? Wormser Am?d?e Dutacq 1876 Paul Hillemacher Paul V?roge Am?d?e Dutacq Samuel Rousseau 1877 no prize Claudius Blanc Cl?ment Broutin 1878 Cl?ment Broutin Samuel Rousseau Georges H?e & Henry Dallier 1879 Georges H?e Lucien Hillemacher Georges Marty 1880 Lucien Hillemacher Georges Marty Alfred Bruneau 1881 no prize Alfred Bruneau Paul Vidal Edmond Missa 1882 Georges Marty Gabriel Piern? Xavier Leroux 1883 Paul Vidal Claude Debussy Charles-Ren? 1884 Claude Debussy Charles-Ren? Xavier Leroux 1885 Xavier Leroux Augustin Savard Andr? Gedalge 1886 Augustin Savard Henry Kaiser Andr? Gedalge 1887 Gustave Charpentier Alfred Bachelet Camille Erlanger 1888 Camille Erlanger Paul Dukas 1889 no prize Alix Fournier 548 1890 Gaton Carraud Alfred Bachelet Henri Lutz Charles Silver 1891 Charles Silver Alix Fournier Camille Andr?s 1892 no prize Henri Busser Andr? Bloch 1893 Andr? Bloch Henri Busser Charles L?vad? Jules Bouval 1894 Henri Rabaud Omer Letorey Jules Mouquet 1895 Omer Letorey Max d?Ollone 1896 Jules Mouquet Charles d?Ivry Fernand Halphen 1897 Max d?Ollone Bernard Croc?- Spinelli Florent Schmitt 1898 no prize Edmond Malherbe 1899 Charles L?vad? Edmond Malherbe L?on Moreau Louis Brisset 1900 Florent Schmitt Aym? Kunc Albert Bertelin 1901 Andr? Caplet Gabriel Dupont Maurice Ravel 1902 Aym? Kunc Roger-Ducasse Albert Bertelin 1903 Raoul Laparra Raymond Pech Paul Piern? 1904 Raymond Pech Paul Piern? H?l?ne Fleury-Roy 1905 Victor Gallois Marcel Samuel- Rousseau Phillippe Gaubert Louis Dumas 1906 Louis Dumas Andr? Gailhard Maurice Le Boucher 1907 Maurice Le Boucher Jules Mazellier 1908 Andr? Gailhard Nadia Boulanger Edouard Flament 1909 Jules Mazellier No?l Gallon Marcel Tournier 1910 No?l Gallon Paul Paray Marc Delmas 549 1911 Paul Paray Claude Delvincourt Vladimir Dyck 1912 no prize Edouard Mignan 1913 Lil Boulanger & Claude Delvincourt Marc Delmas 1914 Marcel Dupr? Paymond de Pezzer Andr? Laporte 1915 no contest 1916 no contest 1917 no contest 1918 no contest 1919 Marc Delmas Jacques Ibert Marguerite Canal Jean D?r? 1920 Marguerite Canal Jacques de La Presle Robert Dussaut 1921 Jacques de La Presle Robert Dussaut Francis Bousquet 1922 no prize Francis Bousquet Aim? Steck Jeanne Leleu 1923 Jeanne Leleu Francis Bousquet Robert Br?ard Yves de La Casini?re 1924 Robert Dussaut Edmond Gaujac Ren? Guillou 1925 Louis Fourestier Yves de La Casini?re Maurice Franck 1926 Ren? Guillou Maurice Franck 1927 Emond Gaujac Henri Tomasi Raymond Loucheur 1928 Raymond Loucheur Elsa Barraine Marc Vaubourg-oin 1929 Elsa Barraine Tony Aubin Ren? Caffot 1930 Tony Aubin Marc Vaubourgoin Yvonne Desportes 1931 Jacques-Dupont Yvonne Desportes Henriett Puig- Roger 1932 Yvonne Desportes Emile Marcellin Jean Vuillermoz 1933 Eug?ne Bozza Jean Hubeau Ren? Challan 550 1934 Ren? Challan Pierre Maillard- Verger Marcel Stern 1936 Marcel Stern Henri Challan Henri Dutilleux 1937 Victor Serventi Pierre Lantier Andr? Lavagne 1938 Henri Dutilleux Andr? Lavagne Gaston Litaize 1939 Pierre Maillard- Verger Jean-Jacques Grunen-wald Raymond Gallois Montbrun 1940 no contest 1941 no contest 1942 Alfred D?senclos Raymond Gallois Montbrun Rolande Falcinelli 1943 Pierre Sancan Claude Pascal Marcel Bitsch 1944 Raymond Gallois Montbrun Marcel Bitsch Jeanine Rueff 1945 Marcel Bitsch Claude Pascal G?rard Calvi Charles Jay 1946 Pierre-Petit Robert Lannoy Jean-Pierre Dautel Jean-Michel Damase Odette Garten- laub Georges Delerue 1948 Odette Gartenlaub Jeanine Rueff Georges Delerue 1949 Adrienne Clostre Georges Delerue Pierre Villette 1950 Eveline Plicque- Andreani Charles Chaynes Serge Lancen 943 Dorgueille, The French Flute School 1860-1950, translated by Blakeman, Appendix A. 551 APPENDIX VI SOLOS FOR FLUTE OF THE CONCOURS DU PRIX AT THE PARIS CONSERVATOIRE 1850-1950 943 YEAR COMPOSITION COMPOSER 1850 13 th solo de concert Tulou 1851 Fantaisie, no. 99 Tulou 1852 11 th solo de concert Tulou 1853 Fantaisie sur Marco Spada Tulou 1854 13 th solo de concert Tulou 1855 12 th solo de concert Tulou 1856 Fantaisie Tulou 1857 13 th solo de concert Tulou 1858 Plaisir d?amour, op. 107 Tulou 1859 15 th solo de concert Tulou 1860 Cinq solo de concert Tulou 1861 Solo Alt?s 1862 Grand concerto path?tique Lindpaintner 1863 Troisi?me solo de concert Tulou 1864 Concertino de C.G. Reissiger Dorus 1865 Fantaisie sur des airs Ecossais Boehm 1866 4 th solo de concert Tulou 1867 Concertino Briccialdi 1868 13 th solo de concert Tulou 1869 12 th solo de concert Tulou 1870 Dieuxi?me solo de Concert Alt?s 1871 no concours 1872 Premi?re solo de concert Tulou YEAR COMPOSITION COMPOSER 552 1873 Sixi?me solo de concert Alt?s 1874 Troisi?me solo de concert (A major) Alt?s 1875 Quatre solo de concert (A major) Alt?s 1876 Dieuxi?me solo de concert (G major) Tulou 1877 Troisi?me solo de concert (D major) Tulou 1878 Premi?re solo de concert Alt?s 1879 Cinqi?me solo de concert Tulou 1880 Cinqi?me solo de concert Alt?s 1881 Huit solo de concert Tulou 1882 Septi?me solo de concert Alt?s 1883 Quatre solo de concert Tulou 1884 Huit solo de concert Alt?s 1885 Cinqi?me solo de concert Tulou 1886 9th solo de concert Alt?s 1887 Premi?re solo de concert Demersseman 1888 10 th solo de concert Alt?s 1889 11 th solo de concert Tulou 1890 Troisi?me solo de concert Tulou 1891 Dieuxi?me solo de concert Demersseman 1892 Septi?me solo de concert Tulou 1893 Huit solo de concert (A minor) Alt?s 1894 Concerto in G minor Langer 1895 Morceau de concert Andersen 1896 Sixi?me solo de concert (F major) Demersseman 1897 Dieuxi?me morceau de concert op. 61 (G minor) Andersen 1898 Fantaisie Faur? 1899 Concertino Duvernoy 1900 Sixi?me solo de concert Demersseman 1901 Andante et Scherzo Ganne YEAR COMPOSITION COMPOSER 553 1902 Concertino, op. 107 Chaminade 1903 Ballade P?rilhou 1904 Cantabile et presto Enescu 1905 Andante et scherzo Ganne 1906 Nocturne et allegro scherzando Gaubert 1907 Andante pastorale et scherzettino Taffanel 1908 Prelude et scherzo, op. 35 Busser 1909 ?glogue, op. 29 Mouquet 1910 Ballade P?rilhou 1911 A la kasbah Georges 1912 Dans la for?t enchant?e Moreau 1913 Fantaisie Hue 1914 Sicilienne et burlesque Casella 1915 Sicilienne, op. 60 Busser 1916 Fantaisie Faur? 1917 Promenade et dance nocturnes Bachelet 1918 Concerto in D major, mov?t. 1 Mozart 1919 Theme and Variations Busser 1920 Fantaisie Gaubert 1921 Cantabile et presto Enescu 1922 Introduction et allegro Aubert 1923 Nocturne et allegro scherzando Gaubert 1924 Incantation et danse Delmas 1925 Fantaisie Faur? 1926 Andante et allegro d?Ilone 1927 Romance et scherzo Grovlez 1928 Ballade Gaubert 1929 Concerto in D major, mov?t. 1 Mozart 1930 Concerto in G minor Langer YEAR COMPOSITION COMPOSER 554 1931 Divertissement pastoral Mazillier 1932 Fantaisie Gaubert 1933 Andalucia Busser 1934 Concerto, mov?t. 3 Ibert 1935 Concerto in G Major, mov?t 1 Mozart 1936 Ode ? Marsyas Le Boucher 1937 Prelude et scherzo, op. 35 Busser 1938 Concerto in D major, mov?t. 1 Mozart 1939 Andante et scherzo Ganne 1940 Cantabile et Presto Enescu 1941 Fantaisie Gaubert 1942 Agrestide, op. 44 Bozza 1943 Sonatine Dutilleux 1944 Chant de Linos Jolivet 1945 Concertino in E major Tomasi 1946 Sonatine Sancan 1947 Fantaisiest?k Martelli 1948 Andante et scherzo Brun 1949 Sonate en cinq parts Migot 1950 Impromptu Pepin 944 Compiled from historical chronologies in Cooper, French Music, Jone, The Cambridge Illustrated History of France, Littleton, History of France, and Nichols, The Harlequin Years. 555 APPENDIX VII A CHRONOLOGY OF SELECTED EVENTS IN FRENCH POLITICAL AND ARTISTIC HISTORY 1850-1950 944 1849-1850 ? Elections to the legislative assembly (May 13, 1849) confirm the swing to the right. Political and personal freedoms are curbed by a number of measures including restrictive press laws, the suspension of their right of association, a narrowing of the suffrage, and harsher penalties for political crimes. Teachers come under closer government supervision and the Church is given a dominant role in education. The political scientist Alexis de Tocqueville serves briefly as minister of Foreign Affairs, but in 1851, he retires from politics following Napol?on?s coup. 1850 ? Three paintings by Gustave Courbet exhibited at the Salon ? The Burial at Ornans, The Peasants of Flagey, and The Stonebreakers ? establish the artist as a leader of the new realist school. 1851 ? Prevented by the royalist majority from changing the constitution to allow himself a second term as president, Louis-Napol?on, mounts a coup d?etat in December, dissolving the Assembly, restoring universal male suffrage and announcing a plebiscite on a new constitution. The republican riots that follow this move result in 27,000 arrests and 10,000 deportations to Algeria. Held on December 21 and 22, the plebiscite produces a 76 percent majority in support of the coup. 1852 ? On January 14 the new Constitution is promulgated, extending the president?s term to ten years and giving him greatly increased powers. On December 2, the Second Empire is proclaimed, and Louis-Napol?on Bonaparte adopts the title of emperor Napol?on III. The launch of the Cr?dit mobilier reflects new developments in the banking industry, which sees the founding over the next twelve years of the Cr?dit industriel et commercial, the Cr?dit Lyonnais, and the Soci?t? g?n?rale. Paris gets its first department store with the opening of Au bon march?. In spite of competition from other stores, this will remain the largest department store in the world until World War I. 556 1853 ? In June Georges Eug?ne Haussmann is appointed Prefect of the Seine. He is charged by Napol?on III with creating a new capital in Paris. One that is grander, healthier, and more beautiful than the old. Paris was adapted to the social and commercial needs of the modern world, where goods and people could be carried efficiently along the main arteries to and from the city?s strategically placed railway stations. The rich no longer lived with the poor, who were increasingly dispersed to the city?s rim. 1854 ? In need of allies and prestige in Europe, Napol?on III joins England in declaring war on Russia, ostensibly in defense of the Ottoman Empire. The Crimean War gives little cause for celebration, yet France emerges with honor intact and with increased diplomatic influence, which is reflected in the treaty of Paris (1856). 1856 ? Gustave Flaubert?s first novel, Madame Bovary, is published. Flaubert?s tale of a bored, provincial doctor?s wife who seeks romantic fulfilment in adultery shocks many readers by the author?s detached tone and apparent lack of moral judgement. 1857? Charles Baudelaire publishes Les fleurs du mal, a collection of poems that explores with unprecedented directness the complexities and perversities of love. Within a few months of each other, both Les fleurs du mal and Madame Bovary are prosecuted for offending religion and public morals. 1858 ? On January 14 an assassination attempt is made on the emperor and empress by the Italian patriot Felice Orsini in the hope of starting a revolution that will spread to Italy. Orsini is guillotined on March 13. 1859 ? The occupation of Saigon marks a further stage of France?s colonial expansion. Over the next eight years a substantial part of Indochina will be brought under French control. On May 3 a declaration of war against Austria is followed by costly Franco- Piedmontese victories at Magenta (June 4) and Solferino (June 24), but fears of Prussian intervention, as well as Catholic opposition from within Italy, bring the conflict to an early end. Peace negotiations begin with a meeting between Napol?on III and the Austrian emperor Franz-Joseph at Villafranca in July. Lombardy is transferred from Austria to France which passes it to Piedmont, and the way is opened for the emergence of the Kingdom of Italy in March, 1861. Offenbach?s satirical operetta Orpheus in the Underworld ridicules the ruling class. It also confirms the popularity of the can-can, which will become a symbol of the risqu? attraction of nineteenth-century Paris. The first performance of Charles Gounod?s opera Faust. 557 1860 ? Under the treaty of Turin, France regains possession of Nice and Savoy after a referendum. It is the price agreed between Cavour and Napol?on III for French support in the war against Austria. A Franco-British expedition to China (August-November) results in the capture of Beijing. 1861 ? Pierre Michaux and his son Ernest invent the first usable bicycle. 1861-1862 ? While France continues its conquest of Indochina, it also mounts an expedition, in conjunction with the English and Spanish, to protect its economic interests in Mexico. France is soon left on its own, and Napol?on?s subsequent attempts to establish an empire under the Austrian emperor?s brother Maximilian, ends in embarrassing failure five years later when French troops are driven out of Mexico and Maximilian himself is executed on June 19, 1867. The execution is later depicted in a series of paintings and prints by Edouard Manet. 1863 ? On April 11 Cambodia becomes a French protectorate. Manet shows his D?jeuner sur l?herbe at the first Salon des refus?s, which has been set up to exhibit those artists rejected by the official Salon. Manet?s painting scandalizes the artistic establishment by its irreverent use of classical models as well as by its depiction of nudity in an unconventional setting, but it provides a beacon for the group of young painters who will later launch the Impressionist movement. 1865 ? St?phane Mallarm? writes L?apr?s-midi d?un faune, an evocative, elusive poem in free verse that later inspires an orchestral piece by Claude Debussy. 1866-1867 ? Napol?on III tries unsuccessfully to claim territory from the Prussians in return for the friendly neutrality he has shown over their war with Austria. His diplomatic mishandling of the situation leaves a legacy of ill-feeling that is fuel for the Franco-Prussian War of 1870. 1867 ? Claude Monet completes his Women in the Garden, a large canvas painted out of doors over several months to replicate specific light conditions. 1869 ? On November 16 the empress Eug?nie opens the Suez canal, which, under the direction of Ferdinand de Lesseps, has taken ten years to build. Publications of Victor Hugo?s epic novel of injustice Les mis?rables and of Gustave Flaubert?s L?Education sentimentale. The Folies-Berg?re variety theater is founded in Paris, and the caf? de Flore, 558 which in the 1940s will become a center of French intellectual life, opens its doors for the first time. 1870 ? On July 19, France declares war on Prussia. Relations between France and Prussia have been strained since the Prussian defeat of Austria in 1866. France sees the balance of power in Europe shifting too much in Prussia?s favor, while Prussia sees France as the main obstacle to a unified Germany. Within a month, a series of defeats at the hands of the Prussian general von Moltke leaves half the French army cornered in Metz, the other half in Sedan. On September 2 Napol?on III, encircled with his army at Sedan, surrenders. Without allies and faced by a superior army, the French have been fighting against the odds, but this ignominious collapse results in the immediate fall of the empire. The Third Republic is proclaimed in September 4 and a provisional government formed. Two weeks later, Paris is besieged by the Prussians. 1871 ? One by one the armies raised in different parts of France with phenomenal energy by L?on Gambetta are defeated. On January 28, Paris surrenders and an armistice is agreed with the Prussian forces. The National Assembly, elected on February 8 and meeting in Bordeaux, appoints Adolphe Thiers to head a predominantly conservative administration. Towards the end of the month, the terms of a peace, the treaty of Frankfurt, are signed on May 10. Its provisions, including the loss of Alsace and most of Lorraine, an indemnity of five billion francs, and the cost of maintaining an army of occupation in the east until this is paid, will be a source of resentment that festers on until World War I. Early in March, the Assembly takes the decision to move from Bordeaux to Versailles. On March 18 a government attempt to disarm the Paris National Guard provokes bloodshed and rebellion, signaling the state of the Commune. Thiers withdraws from Paris, and the city is again besieged, this time by the forces of the French government. From May 21 to May 28 the semain sanglante (week of blood) ensues, seeing the murderous suppression of the Paris Commune by government troops. With the prospect of revolution dead, voters are more willing to support republican candidates, who make gains in the by-elections in July. The following month, Thiers is confirmed as president of a conservative republic. Emile Zola publishes La fortune des Rougon, the first in his long series of Rougon-Macquart novels, portraying the society of the Second Empire in a supposedly scientific fashion. 1873 ? In May the monarchist majority in the Assembly overthrow Thiers, replacing 559 him with the royalist general Mac-Mahon. The desire for a restoration of the monarchy, however, flounders on the unsuitability of the main candidate, the comte de Chambord, grandson of Charles X, who rejects any form of constitutional monarchy. In September the Prussian occupation ends after early payment of the indemnity. 1874 ? Between January and July laws are passed to establish a new constitution for the Republic. 1875 ? Completion of Charles Garnier?s Paris Op?ra, a building that exemplifies the exuberant and eclectic Beaux-Arts style. Georges Bizet?s opera Carmen receives its premiere on March 3. Based on a novella by Prosper Merim?e, it brings a new degree of realism to the opera house, merging spoken dialogue with the Parisian vogue for all things exotic. The publication of the definitive edition of the Dictionnaire raisonn? de l?architecture fran?ais du XI au XVI si?cle (1854-1868) by Viollet-le-Duc, consolidates the Gothic revival in French architecture. 1876 ? Elections to the Chamber of Deputies produce a republican majority that immediately comes into conflict with the monarchist president Mac-Mahon. Gustave Moreau?s jewel-like painting Salome Dancing before Herod is exhibited at the Salon where it is greatly admired by the writer J.K. Huysmans. 1877 ? Mac-Mahon dissolves the Chamber of Deputies in June, but the electorate returns another republican majority. August Rodin?s life-size sculpture of a nude man, The Age of Bronze, causes consternation at the Salon because of its extreme naturalism, which gives rise to accusations that he has cast it from a live model. 1879 ? When January elections give the republicans a majority in the Senate, Mac- Mahon?s position becomes untenable and he resigns. From this point on, the republicans, whether opportunists or radicals, hold the reins of power, and the balance swings significantly in favor of the Chamber as opposed to the president. 1881 ?Under the premiership of Jules Ferry further liberal reforms include laws on freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, and free primary schooling. An increasingly prominent feature of the emerging society, the bicycle gives more social freedom to women and provides a means of escape into the country 560 for workers. 1882 ? The death of comte de Chambord brings to an end any lingering hope among royalists of a restoration of the monarchy. 1883 ? A miner?s strike in Anzin, which will form the basis of Zola?s novel Germinal (1885), is one of a number of violent labor disputes in the 1880s and 1890s that demonstrate a growing resistance among workers to exploitative pay and conditions. Claude Monet settles at Giverny (about fifty miles from Paris), where he creates an ornamental lily pond that will be the subject of a remarkable series of his late paintings. Joris-Karl Huysmans publishes A rebours, whose hero Des Esseintes perfectly expresses the mood fin-de-si?cle decadence that influences much of the literature, art, and music of the period. 1884 ? The Soci?t? des artistes ind?pendente is formed by, among others, Seurat and his follower Paul Signac, as a forum for avant-garde artists. The Salon des artistes ind?pendente becomes the main showcase for post-impressionism. 1885 ? Following his death on May 22, Victor Hugo (b.1802) receives a state funeral that excites a massive public display of respect and affection on June 1. His coffin is placed under the Arc de Triomphe before being transported to the Panth?on. 1886 ? In January gains by the left-wing Radicals in the previous autumn?s elections to the Chamber enable them to insist on the appointment of General Georges Boulanger (whom they wrongly take for a republican) as Minister of War. He earns immediate popularity among the workers by refusing to use the army against striking miners in the Aveyron coalfield. His vigorous calls for revenge against Prussia add to his popularity but alarm his political colleagues. Publication of Les illuminations by Arthur Rimbaud. This collection of vivid and often obscure prose poems, written in the early 1870s, will have an important influence on modern poetry. First performance of Symphony No. 3 (Organ Symphony) by Camille Saint- Sa?ns. In the same year he writes Le carnaval des animaux as an amusement for his friends. Georges Seurat completes his Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grand Jatte, a large painting in which color is applied in small dots to secure greater luminosity. This technique, later known as pointillism, is called by Seurat 561 divisionism. 1887 ? Dismissed from the government, Boulanger becomes a focus for various elements disenchanted with the republican administration. 1888 ? First performance of the Symphony in D minor by the Belgian composer C?sar Franck. Franck, who has lived in France since 1848, is an inspirational teacher of several important French composers. First performance of Gabriel Faur??s Requiem, at the church of the Madeleine where he is organist. Faur? later adds two further movements and re-orchestrates the work. The Dutch painter Vincent van Gogh moves to Arles where he hopes to found an artists? colony. Over the next year he produces an extraordinary number of canvases, marked by a use of brilliant color and swirling lines that reflect his increasing distance from the visual realism of impressionism. 1889 ? Boulanger?s success in the Paris elections in January brings him to the edge of staging a coup d??tat, but he pulls back, giving the administration time to charge him with plotting against the state. To avoid arrest, he flees to Brussels. Henri Bergson publishes his Essai sur les donn?es imm?diates de la conscience (Time and Free Will), in which he suggests a crucial difference between time as experience by human consciousness, and time as measured chronologically. His ideas were to have a notable influence on the writings of Marcel Proust. For the Universal Exhibition, Gustave Eiffel constructs the Eiffel Tower. Over 300 meters high, it stands as a symbol of the new age of technology and is vilified and revered accordingly. The traffic problems created by some thirty million visitors to the exhibition give rise to the project for building an underground rail network, the Paris m?tro. The Moulin rouge, a dance hall and cabaret that becomes the focal point of The belle ?poque Paris, opens in Montmartre, Paris. Its dancers, among them La Goulue and Jane Avril, are immortalized by the artist Henri de Toulouse- Lautrec in a number of prints and paintings. 1891 ? In August, following the collapse of the Russo-German alliance, Russia entered a loose alliance with France, less important in itself than as a symptom of future changes in the European balance of power. Paul Gauguin leaves France for Tahiti, where he develops an increasingly simplified and anti-naturalistic style of painting. His life in the South Seas will 562 quickly become central to a western mythology of escape into the primitive and the exotic. 1892 ? On March 30, the anarchist Ravachol is arrested for a bombing campaign against those involved in the trial of a worker arrested for his part in the Fourmies demonstration of May 1, 1891. Condemned to life imprisonment, Ravachol will be executed in July for murders committed previously. After his death he become a symbol of protest against society, the patron saint of anarchists responsible for a wave of bombings that take place over the next few years. 1894 ? The president of the Republic, Sadi Carnot, is assassinated by the anarchist Caserio on June 24. Against the opposition of socialists and radicals, laws are passed in July to restrict the freedom of the press and to facilitate the pursuit of anarchists. On December 22, Alfred Dreyfus is found guilty of treason and condemned to the penal colony of Devil?s Island. Baron Pierre de Coubertin proposes the revival of the Olympic Games which are relaunched two years later in Athens. 1895 ? On December 28, the Lumi?re brothers put on the first public film show. The cin?matographe, their combined camera and projector, will give rise to the word cinema. Entrepreneur Siegfried Bing opens La maison de l?art nouveau, a shop selling furniture and jewelry by designers such as Eug?ne Gaillard, Emile Gall?, and Ren? Lalique, who favor a decorative style in which curving lines and sinuous forms predominate. This style, strikingly exhibited in Hector Guimard?s entrances for the Paris m?tro, becomes known as art nouveau. Following his first one-man show in Paris, Paul C?zanne receives greater recognition and becomes an inspirational figure to younger artists. 1897 ? Emile Durkheim publishes Le suicide (Suicide). Along with his doctoral thesis, this establishes him as the father of the French school of sociology. 1898 ? On January 13, Zola?s ?J?Accuse? is published on the front page of L?Aurore, the newspaper founded by Georges Clemenceau the previous year. In September the Fachoda incident, in which French and British dispute the occupation of territory in the Upper Nile, brings relations between the two countries to a point of crisis. The French withdraw. 563 In Paris, Pierre and Marie Curie discover radium. 1899 ? The Action fran?ais movement is founded. It is a reactionary force of Catholic, anti-Semitic groups, hostile to Freemasonry and Protestantism. It will exercise considerable influence in French social and political life. 1900 ? Paris hosts the second Olympic Games and mounts another universal exhibition. 1902 ? Elections to the Chamber of Deputies are won by a coalition of radical groups known a the Bloc des gauches. Over the next three years, the new administration, which has a strongly anti-clerical agenda, brings in a number of reforms affection education, working conditions, social security, military service, and the separation of Church and state. First performance of Claude Debussy?s Pell?as et M?lisande, seven years after its completion. Georges M?l?s, who founded the first European film studio in 1897, produces his most famous film, Le voyage dans la lune. 1903 ? The first Tour de France bicycle race is held. The Salon d?automne is founded as an alternative to the official Salon and the Salon des ind?pendente. Couturier Paul Poiret opens his own fashion house. Poiret revolutionizes fashion by liberating women from corsets, and introducing an element of exoticism influenced by the Ballets Russes. 1904 ? Following a visit to Paris the previous year by King Edward VII, France and Britain sign the Entente cordiale on April 8. A strike by agricultural workers in the south is just one instance of the industrial unrest that becomes widespread over the next few years, as strikers fight to improve pay and conditions. 1905 ? Socialist groups from a united political party known as the SFIO (Section fran?ais de l?internationale ouvri?re). On December 9 the Law of Separation of Church and State puts an end to Napol?on?s Concordat of 1801 and establishes a secular state which guarantees freedom of worship but gives no special recognition to any religious group. The law is condemned by the pope the following year. 564 At the Salon d?automne the term fauvism is coined for a new group of artist, headed by Henri Matisse, whose work is characterized by an extremely vivid and non-naturalistic color palette. Claude Debussy?s symphonic composition La mer receives it first performance. Debussy?s concern with atmosphere leads some critics to describe his compositions as a form of musical impressionism. 1906 ? On October 25 a new administration is formed under Georges Clemenceau. Long known as a Radical, Clemenceau will be faced with a period of industrial agitation, which seems to him to threaten the authority of the State. On several occasions over the next three years, he will respond by calling in troops or arresting strikers and union leaders. A major retrospective of Gauguin?s work in held at the Salon d?automne. 1907 ? On August 31 France, Britain, and Russia sign the Triple Entente. The Spanish artist Pablo Picasso, now living in Paris, completes Les demoiselles d?Avignon, a revolutionary painting, influenced both by African sculpture and the late work of C?zanne. This marks a crucial stage in the history of cubism, a new way of painting, developed by Picasso and Georges Braque, in which objects are fragmented into facets, as if viewed from different perspectives simultaneously. 1909 ? Clemenceau is succeeded as Prime Minister by Aristide Briand, who continues the policy of repressive opposition to striking workers. Sergei Diaghilev causes a sensation in Paris with his Russian ballet company, the Ballets Russes. Diaghilev?s inspired use of painters, composers, and dancers perfectly expresses the artistic vitality that makes the French capital the cultural center of Europe. 1911 ? Marie Curie is award the Nobel prize for chemistry. 1912 ? Morocco becomes a French protectorate. The subsequent uprising of Moroccans is crushed by the French army under the command of General Lyautey. The Ballet Russes gives the first performance of Daphnis et Chlo? to a specially commissioned score by Maurice Ravel. 1913 ? On January 17 Raymond Poincar? is elected President of the Republic. On May 29 the premiere of Igor Stravinsky?s uncompromisingly modern and dissonant Le sacre du printemps, performed by the Ballets Russes at the Th??tre 565 des Champs-Elys?es, causes uproar. The artist Marcel Duchamp invents the idea of a ?ready-made,? a mass-produced object, presented as a work of art. These include a bicycle wheel, a bottle rack, and a urinal. 1914 ? On March 17 the wife of the former Prime Minister Joseph Caillaux murders Gaston Calmette, editor of the Figaro newspaper, to prevent him publishing her husband?s love letters as part of a smear campaign. Her trial, which leads to an acquittal, is one of the great causes c?l?bres of prewar years, enthralling the nation and provoking much commentary on the nature and status of women. On June 28 Archduke Franz-Ferdinand of Austria is murdered at Sarajevo by a Serb nationalist hoping to strike a blow against Austro-Hungarian rule in the Balkans. A month later, on July 31, Juar?s, who has been a leading campaigner against the slide towards war, is murdered in Paris. On August 1 the government decrees general mobilization. On August 3, two days after its declaration of war on Russia, Germany declares war on France and immediately invades Belgium. The next day, the government of national unity is formed under the presidency of Raymond Poincar?, with Ren? Viviani as prime minister. On August 20, having swept through Belgium, the Germans enter France and by the end of the month are threatening Paris. The French government retreats to Bordeaux on September 2, leaving General Gallieni in charge of the capital. The German troops are driven back at the battle of the Marne and Paris is saved. From September to November the Germans make for the coast in an outflanking manoeuver. To prevent them, allied forces do the same. This ?dash for the sea? ends with the German occupation of Ostend on October 15, swiftly followed by the allied arrival at Calais. The result is stalemate as the two sides dig in for what becomes four years of trench warfare. 1915 ? The torpedoing of the liner Lusitania by a German submarine on May 7 results in the death of 1198 passengers and crew, including 128 Americans. It causes outrage in America and shifts public opinion towards intervention in the war. American protests have the effect of severely restricting German use of submarine warfare. Towards the end of October, Aristide Briand forms a new administration, replacing that of Ren? Viviani. The writer Romain Rolland, author of the long, romantic Jean-Christophe, is 566 awarded the Nobel prize for literature. A pacifist whose internationalist sympathies are out of tune with the times, he excites patriotic outrage during the war by advocating peace with Germany. 1916 ? The year is dominated by the battle of Verdun, which lasts from February to December. For the French this is the defining episode of the war. 1917 ? In January strikes and pacifist demonstrations bear witness to a growing disillusionment with the war. On April 2, the United States enters the war on the side of the allies. P?tain is brought in to replace Nivelle as commander-in-chief after the failure of the ?Chemin des dames? offensive between Laon and Soissons. P?tain suppresses mutinies but also improves living conditions and leave arrangements for troops. On June 28 United States divisions arrive in France. By the end of the year there will be 365,000 US troops in France. The Union sacr?e is formed when socialists and Catholics break ranks with the government. The Russian Revolution brings the Bolsheviks to power between November 6-7. Henri Matisse moves to the Riviera. The boldly colored and sensuous canvases he paints over the next two decades confirm his international reputation. Guillaume Apollinaire?s proto-surrealistic drama Les mamelles de Tir?sias (The Breasts of Tiresias) is performed for the first time. In the same year the Ballets Russes have another success with the absurdist ballet Parade, devised by Jean Cocteau, with music by Erik Satie, and cubist costumes by artist Pablo Picasso. The anarchic movement known as dada, founded by Tristan Tzara in Zurich, establishes itself in Paris with the support of the poet Louis Aragon and the writer Andr? Breton. 1918 ? On January 8 US president Woodrow Wilson lays out the ?Fourteen Points? that should be the basis of a post-war peace settlement. On July 18 Foch launches a successful counter-offensive in Champagne, forcing a German retreat. Pressing home the allied advantage, the British 4 th Army mount another offensive north and south of the Somme on August 8. The collapse of German divisions in the face of this advance convinces Luddendorf that the war is lost. 567 During October and November an epidemic of Spanish flu, probably brought over by the American troops earlier in the year, gathers intensity as its sweeps through Europe. On October 29 discussions on the terms of an armistice open in Paris. On the following day the Ottoman Empire capitulates. On November 9 Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicates. Two days later, the armistice is signed in a railway carriage at Rethondes, ending World War I. 1919 ? France begins the long process of reconstruction. On January 18 the peace conference opens in Paris with disagreement among the Allies over the question of reparations. At the end of April it is agreed at the Paris peace talks that the League of Nations should be formed to provide mechanisms for resolving international disputes without recourse to war. On June 28 the treaty of Versailles is signed with Germany. On November 16, partly as a consequence of the year?s industrial troubles, the center-right coalition, the Bloc nationale, wins a clear majority in elections to the Chamber of Deputies. 1920 ? Defeated by Paul Deschanel in the January elections for president of the Republic, Clemenceau resigns his premiership and retires from politics. He is replaced as prime minister by Alexandre Millerand. The tomb of the Unknown Soldier is inaugurated at the Arc de Triomphe in Paris on November 11. The French Communist Party is established as the majority party in December, under L?on Blum. Igor Stravinsky?s ballet Pulcinella, created for the Ballets Russes, with designs by Piccaso, initiates his neo-classical style, which is to have a marked influence on French music. The publication of Ch?ri marks the emergence of Colette as a major novelist. Fashion designer Gabrielle ?Coco? Chanel opens a Maison de couture in rue Cambon, Paris. Her designs, inspired by men?s tailoring, provide women with clothes that are both simple, practical, and chic. 1921 ? Les mari?s de la Tour Eiffel is written for the Swedish ballet to a scenario by 568 Jean Cocteau. The music is composed by five members of Les six, a group of young composers including Darius Milhaud, Francis Poulenc, Arthur Honegger, Louis Druey, Georges Auric, and Germaine Taillaiferre, united in their admiration of Erik Satie and their antipathy to romanticism. 1922 ? Briand is forced to resign and is succeeded as Prime Minister by Raymond Poincar?, whose hardline policy toward Germany leads to the rejection later in the year of German demands for a moratorium on reparations. Death of Marcel Proust. His novel A la recherche du temps perdu, whose final volume is not published until 1927, becomes one of the most influential works of European fiction in the twentieth century. 1923 ? On January 11 French troops occupy the Ruhr in retaliation for Germany?s failure to keep up the payment of reparations. Darius Milhaud composes the ballet La cr?ation du monde, the first major jazz- inspired score by a classical composer. 1924 ? Elections to the Chamber of Deputies in May result in a victory for the Cartel des gauches, a left-wing coalition of Socialists and Radicals led by Edouard Herriot and L?on Blum. Between 1924 and 1926 the intractable nature of France?s economic problems results in seven changes of Cabinet on the part of the Cartel. In July the 8 th Olympic Games are held in Paris. The first Winter Olympics are held in Chamonix. On October 29 France recognizes the USSR. Release of Ren? Clair?s humorous, surrealist film, Entr?acte, with music by Erik Satie. Andr? Breton publishes the Surrealist Manifesto. 1925 ? In April Abd el-Krim, the Moroccan leader who has declared an independent Republic in the mineral-rich Rif district of Spanish-held Morocco, mounts an offensive against French Morocco. Marshal P?tain is sent to oppose it and assembles a vast Franco-Spanish force that devastates the area in pursuit of the rebel leader. The episode is a taste of colonial wars to come. Le Corbusier publishes Urbanisme, his highly contentious but influential vision of a modern city. 569 Maurice Ravel writes his opera L?enfant et les sortil?ges to a libretto by Colette. At the Th??tre des Champs-Elys?es Josephine Baker enjoys a huge and controversial success with La revue n?gre, riding a wave of enthusiasm for black art and artists of which Paris is the center. 1926 ? In May Abd el-Krim is captured, though sporadic fighting continues for another two years. 1927 ? France undertakes the construction of the Maginot line as a defense against German attack. 1928 ? Between April 22 and 29, Poincar? and his center-right supporters win victory in elections to the Chamber of Deputies. The restored confidence of the financial markets enables him to return the franc to the gold standard at about one-fifth of its prewar value. 1929 ? In June the Young Plan, resulting from a second renegotiation of war reparations, recommends reduced German payments, but these new arrangements are soon overtaken by the economic consequences of the Wall Street crash. From October 24 to 29, prices collapse on the US stock market. The poet and dramatist Paul Claudel publishes his play Le soulier de satin, written some years earlier though not performed until 1943. Set in Renaissance Spain, it exemplifies both Claudel?s religious preoccupations and his technical mastery. 1930 ? On June 30 the French end their occupation of the German Rhineland. 1931 ? In January Pierre Laval forms a new administration. On May 13 Paul Doumer is elected president of the republic. On July 13, under the moratorium announced by the American President Herbert Hoover, Germany suspends payment of reparations, damaging the French economy at a time when it is already under pressure from a worsening global situation. Numerous banks fail and industrial production recedes. The tidal wave from the Wall Street crash has finally reached France, initialing a slump that will last for much of the decade. 1932 ? On May 7 President Paul Doumer is assassinated by a White Russian, Pavel Gorgulav, who holds him responsible for France?s rapprochement with the Soviet Union. Francis Poulenc writes his Concerto for Two Pianos, a work that typifies his 570 witty and eclectic style. 1933 ? Hitler becomes Chancellor of Germany. 1934 ? On March 5, partly in response to the right wing actions at the time of the Stavisky scandal, the Comit? de vigilance des intellectuels antifascistes is formed. This becomes the basis of the left-wing coalition, the Popular Front. 1935 ? In spite of huge left-wing demonstrations, the conservative government of Pierre Laval pushes through a series of deflationary measures in the second half of the year which have the effect of cutting wages in the public sector by ten percent. The unpopularity paves the way for the left?s electoral victory the following year. 1936 ? The victory of the Popular Front in elections to the Chamber enables L?on Blum to form a new administration, which for the first time includes women. Following the start of the Spanish Civil War on July 18, Blum is instrumental in establishing a non-intervention pact among the European powers, which is largely disregarded by Italy and Germany. 1937 ? At the end of August the railway companies are nationalized. Pablo Piccaso?s Guernica, painted as an indictment of the Luftwaffe?s bombing of a Basque village, is exhibited in the Spanish pavilion at Paris?s International Exhibition. 1938 ? Between March 11 and 13, Germany forces Austria to agree to annexation, the Anschluss (Union). On April 10 Edouard Daladier forms a new government when a second Blum administration collapses. Between August and September, Hitler turns his attention to Czechoslovakia and presses for the annexation of the Sudetenland. Jean-Paul Sartre publishes his philosophical novel La naus?e, which expresses many of the central concerns of existentialism. 1939 ? Following the German invasion of Czechoslovakia on March 15, France and Britain promise to support Belgium, the Netherlands, and Switzerland. On September 3, two days after the invasion of Poland, France and Britain declare war on Germany. 571 Jean Renoir?s cinematic masterpiece La r?gle du jeu, satirizes the frivolity of a society on the edge of disintegration. 1940 ? On March 20 the Daladier government falls and is replaced by that of Pierre Reynaud. On May 10 German forces bypass the Maginot line and invade France. On June 10, in the face of the German advance, the government retreats to Bordeaux. On the same day, Italy declares war on France and Britain. Four days later, the Germans enter Paris. Unable to persuade the Cabinet to fight on from outside France as a government in exile, Reynaud resigns on June 16. Marshal P?tain becomes prime minister and on the following day declares an end to hostilities. On June 18 General de Gaulle broadcasts an appeal from London for France to continue the struggle. On June 22 an armistice between France and Germany is signed at Rethondes in the same railway carriage that had been used for the signature of the armistice at the end of World War I. France is divided into an occupied sector (the north and along the Atlantic coast) and an unoccupied sector under French administration; its army and fleet are demobilized; it is obliged to pay the costs of the German occupation. On June 28 the British government recognizes de Gaulle as leader of Free France. On July 2 the government of France establishes itself at Vichy and recalls Parliament. The Assembly votes full powers to P?tain, bringing to an end the Third Republic. This is followed by the promulgation of twelve constitutional acts which define ?tat fran?ais, a new France based on right-wing values in direct opposition to those of the Republic. On July 24 Hitler announces the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine. From September to December the growing resistance to the German occupation is reflected in the birth of the underground newspapers R?sistance, Combat, and Lib?ration. 1941 ? Rationing of all essential goods gives rise to a black market. On September 24 de Gaulle establishes the National Committee of Free France in London. On December 7 the US enters the war after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. 572 1942 ? On January 1 Jean Moulin is parachuted into France to coordinate the various Resistance movements that have come into existence. On November 11 the Germans move into the unoccupied zone. Albert Camus publishes his first novel, L?Etranger. The story of its alienated, enigmatic hero reflects Camus? concern with the challenge of an existence that is perceived as essentially ?absurd.? 1943 ? On February 16 Laval presides over the introduction of forced labor in Germa ny. Some 875,00 0 French men will be export ed to help the Germa n war effort. This hated policy drives many young men into the maquis (resista nce groups operati ng in mounta inous or isolate d 573 terrain) . On May 7, German resistance to allied forces crumbles in Tunisia. With the tide of the war beginning to turn against Germany, de Gaulle and Giraud set up the Comit? fran?ais de la lib?ration nationale in Algiers, of which de Gaulle becomes sole president in October. Antoine de Saint-Exup?ry publishes his classic children?s book Le petit prince. Jean-Paul Sartre publishes L?Etre et le n?ant, his major philosophical work and the principal text of postwar existentialism. 1944 ? In January advocates of a policy of total collaboration, notably D?at, Darnand, and Doriot, become part of the Vichy government. On June 6 allied forces land in Normandy and begin the advance on Paris. Paris rises against the Germans on August 19. Six days later, by agreement with the Americans, General Philippe Leclerc, at the head of the Second Armored Division, liberates the city. On the following day, August 26, De Gaulle leads a triumphal parade down the Champs-Elys?es. On September 9 de Gaulle forms a government of national unity. Having maintained a French government in exile, he can now claim a legitimacy that safeguards France from the American organization set up to administer liberated countries. On October 5 women are given the right to vote. Jean Genet publishes his first novel, Notre-Dame des fleurs, written while he was in prison. A thief and prostitute, Genet shocks the literary establishment with his poetic vision of the prewar criminal underworld, but his writing is acclaimed by Cocteau and Sartre. The painter Jean Dubuffet has his first solo exhibition. His deliberately crude works, art brut, reflect his interest in the spontaneous art created by children and the insane. 1945 ? De Gaulle is not invited to the Yalta conference where Churchill, Stalin and Roosevelt plan the closing stages of the war and its aftermath, but France gets a designated zone in the proposed occupation of Germany. France is one of fifty nations that agree to the Charter of the United Nations at 574 the San Francisco Conference on April 25 to June 26. Marshal P?tain surrenders and is condemned to death, but his sentence is commuted by de Gaulle to life imprisonment. On May 8 Germany surrenders, bringing the war in Europe to an end. De Gaulle is not invited to the Postdam conference, where Britain, Russia, and America decide the future of Germany. On September 2, Japan surrenders, which marks the end of World War II. With British help, the French reoccupy Saigon and take control of the south. The first issues of Les Temps Modernes appears. Founded by, among others, Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, Raymond Aron, Jean Paulhan, and Maurice Merleau-Ponty, it becomes one of the most influential literary and political journals of postwar years. 1946 ? At odds with the prevailing mood of the Assembly, and mistrustful of their ideas for a new constitution, de Gaulle resigns on January 20. The constitution of the Fourth Republic ends up looking much like that of the Third Republic. Elections to the Chamber of Deputies, held the following month, produce another majority for the left. In November Jean Monnet introduces a five-year modernization plan, designed to revitalize the French economy. Together with the American aid provided by the Marshall Plan, this lays the groundwork for a period of economic growth that, in spite of frequent industrial unrest, will last until the mid-1970s. The Swiss sculptor Alberto Giacometti returns to Paris and begins the attenuated figurative work for which he is famous. 1947 ? On January 16 the election of Vincent Auriol as President marks the start of the Fourth Republic. It begins amid economic gloom. Bread shortages are worse than during the war, and from June through November there are numerous strikes, sometimes violent. Towards the end of his career, Andr? Gide is awarded the Nobel prize for literature. Albert Camus publishes La peste. Its account of the struggle against the epidemic in Oran draws a clear analogy with France?s recent experience of the German Occupation. 575 Le Corbusier designs the Unit? d?habitation at Marseille, a block of apartments with an internal shopping street halfway up. It becomes an influential prototype for postwar housing throughout the world. The founding of the Magnum Photographic Agency by Robert Capa, Henri Cartier-Bresson, George Rodger, and David Seymour initiates a new era of photo-journalism. 1948 ? In January the franc is devalued by eighty percent. In December the United Nations Organization adopts the Universal Declaration of the Rights of Man. Olivier Messiaen composes his Turangal?la-symphonie, a massive, eastern- inspired orchestral work. 1949 ? In the first half of the year, rationing of bread, chocolate, and milk ends but the franc suffers two further devaluations in April and September. In July France joins NATO (the North Atlantic Treaty Organization), a military alliance created three months earlier to counter the threat from the Soviet Union. Simone de Beauvoir publishes Le deuxi?me sexe, which will later become a primary text for the feminist movement. 1950 ? In May, in a significant move toward European integration, Robert Schuman, now foreign minister, proposes a common market in coal and steel, an idea rejected by Great Britain. 945 Powell, The Flute, 221. 946 Dorus? full name was Vincent Joseph Louis Van Steenkiste Dorus. Most sources refer to him as either Vincent-Joseph or Louis. 576 APPENDIX VIII FLUTE PROFESSORS OF THE PARIS CONSERVATOIRE 1795-PRESENT 945 Name Years teaching Fran?ois Devienne 1795-1803 Jacques Scheitzhoefer 1795-? Antoine Hugot 1795-1803 Nicholas Duverger 1795-? Johann Georg Wunderlich 1803-1819 Joseph Guillou 1819-1829 Jean-Louis Tulou 1829-1859 Vincent-Joseph Louis Dorus 946 1860-1868 Joseph Henri Alt?s 1869-1893 Claude-Paul Taffanel 1894-1908 Adolphe Hennebains 1909-1914 L?opold Lafleurance 1915-1919 Philippe Gaubert 1920-1931 Marcel Moyse 1932-1940 Gaston Crunelle 1941-1969 Gaston Crunelle & Marcel Moyse 1946-1948 Gaston Crunelle & Alfred Cortet 1949-1950 Jean-Pierre Rampal 1969-1981 Michel Debost 1981-1990 Pierre-Yves Artaud 1990-present Alain Marion (Rampal?s assistant) 1977-1998 Sophia Cherrier 1998-present 577 BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Ahern, Edward J. Rimbaud: Visions and Habitations. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1983. Austin, William M. Music in the 20th Century. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1966. Baines, Anthony. Woodwind Instruments and Their History. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1962. Barnac, Pierre. The Interpretation of French Song. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1978. Barzun, Jacques. 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MM thesis, Bowling Green State University, 1990. Waln, Ronald Lee. ?A comprehensive performance project in flute literature with an essay on chamber music for solo voice, flute and keyboard or continuo and including an annotated bibliography of selected literature.? PhD diss., University of Iowa, 1971. Discography French Music for Voice and Flute. With Bethany Beardslee, soprano, Eleanore Lawrence, flute, Morey Ritt, piano, Andre Emelianoff, cello, and Jesse Levine, viola. Musical Heritage Society MHS 512389. Milhaud, Darius. Quatuors ? cordes nos. 12, 4, 9, 3. With Quatour Parisii. Na?ve V4930. Ninon Vallin and Therese Deniset. Rococo Records. Roussel, Albert. Albert Roussel: Chamber Music with Flute. With Jayn Rosenfeld, flute, Marcia Butler, oboe, JoAnn Sternberg, clarinet, Atsuko Sato, bassoon, Nancy Billman, horn, Christine Schadeberg, soprano, Susan Jolles, harp, Bernard Rose, piano, Curtis Macomber, violin, Lois Martin, viola, and Robert Martin, cello. Centaur Records CRC2458. Solisti New York. Oiseau bleu. With Garyann Zimmer and Ga?t Siguey. New Albion NA078. Song Recital: Bach, Handel, Rameau, Scarlatti, Martin, Ravel and Roussel. With Kathrin Graf, soprano, Peter-Lukas Graf, flute, Raffaele Altwegg, cello, and Michio 590 Kobayashi, piano. Claves Records CD604-9. Songs of the Nightingale. With Karen Smith Emerson, soprano, Martin Katz, piano, and William Wittig, flute. Centaur Records CRC2232. Scores Debussy, Claude. Prelude to "The Afternoon of a faun": An authoritative score. Edited by William W. Austin. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1970. Romantic French Song 1830-1870, Volume 2. Edited with Translations and Commentaries by David Tunley. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1995.