ABSTRACT Title of Thesis: PREPOSITION-POSITION: DESIGN STRATEGIES IN A MASTER PLAN FOR REDEVELOPMENT, MCMILLAN SAND FILTRATION SITE, WASHINGTON, DC Degree Candidate: Joseph Russell Harris Degree and year: Master of Architecture, 2003 Committee Chair: Visiting Associate Professor Ronit Z. Eisenbach School of Architecture Preposition: ?a function word (or) phrase that?usually expresses a modification? 1 ??locating something in time and space.? 2 Position: ?an act of placing or arranging: as?the laying down of a proposition or thesis? 3 This is an adaptive reuse of a former public works facility. Its modification is based on a series of positions taken relative to the site?s evolving grammar and context, subdivided into abstract structural interventions (?pre-positions?), and encapsulated into a master plan (?position,? or ?thesis?). The core concepts of that master plan relate to notions of social, ecological, and cultural sustainability: through urban redevelopment and inhabitation, through the physical integration of manmade and natural systems, and through didactic consideration of the site?s history and position in both the larger 1 Merriam-Webster www.m-w.com 2 http://webster.commnet.edu/grammar/prepositions.htm 3 www.m-w.com framework of the symbolic realm of the nation?s capitol and the everyday life of its citizenry. Specifically the thesis proposes the conversion of the property for residential, civic, and recreational uses. It argues that the site can be regarded as a valuable piece of the public realm and should be redeveloped with the same civic commitment that brought about its creation. PREPOSITION-POSITION: DESIGN STRATEGIES IN A MASTER PLAN FOR REDEVELOPMENT, MCMILLAN SAND FILTRATION SITE, WASHINGTON, DC by Joseph Russell Harris Thesis submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland, College Park in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Architecture 2003 Advisory Committee: Visiting Associate Professor Ronit Z. Eisenbach, Chair Associate Professor Amy E. Gardner, Advisor Associate Professor Isabelle Gournay, Advisor Associate Professor Jack Sullivan, Advisor ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to gratefully acknowledge the help of several people for their time, effort, and support during this past year. It has been a long and twisting adventure that I will not soon forget, and it would have been impossible without them. First, eternal thanks to Ronit Eisenbach for her passion, dedication, humor, and patience as I worked through a thesis that seemed to be always behind schedule and impossibly complex. Without her encouragement and mentorship, I might have completed the project, but not with the same richness or more importantly, with the same spirit. Thank you for encouraging me to keep asking questions. This is the lesson of all lessons and something that I hope to always remember to apply. Thanks also to a great thesis committee: (Ronit), Amy Gardner, Isabelle Gournay, and Jack Sullivan. It would be difficult to handpick a better committee. A general thank you to the faculty of the School of Architecture: I am a better person for knowing you all. That is the best compliment I can give and the honest truth. Thanks to the slide room curators: Cindy Frank, Christine Hinojosa, and Chris Kirwan (my first studio critic!). You will always be dear friends. To everyone who lent me a hand on my presentation model, sincere thanks, and special thanks to Gifty John, Dave Fenchel, and Brian Martin. I couldn?t have made it without you guys. Finally I would like to acknowledge the support of my family and friends, but most especially to Anita Ballantyne for her unending encouragement and love. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES??????????????????????????....iv INTRODUCTION???????????????????????????...1 Background???????????????????????????..3 Why Washington, DC? Why McMillan? On the urban-suburban polarity Critical Influences?????????????????????????6 SITE????????????????????????????????.....9 General Site Description??????????????????????10 Site & Physical Description????????????????????...25 Local Site Description???????????????????????29 Neighborhood Description???..??..???????????????.45 PRECEDENT ANALYSIS????????????????????????50 DESIGN ISSUES & APPROACH?????????????????????74 PROGRAM??????????????????????????????82 Comparative Analysis???????????????????????83 Considerations & Description????????????????????86 Tabulation???????????????????????????..87 PRELIMINARY DESIGN????????????????????????.88 APPENDICES????????????????????????????.105 BIBLIOGRAPHY???????????????????????????112 iv LIST OF FIGURES Figs. 1-2: Site sketches Fig. 3: Aerial photo Fig. 4: Aerial photo Fig. 5: Local land uses Fig. 6: Major streets Fig. 7: Figure ground Fig. 8: Local amenities Fig. 9: Urban pattern Fig. 10: Parks/open space Fig. 11: Urban pattern Fig. 12: Local metro Fig. 13: Local bus Fig. 14: Topo edges Fig. 15: Hard edges Fig. 16: Grid landscape Figs. 17-18: Site photos Figs. 19-20: Site sketches Fig. 21: Aerial photo Fig. 22: C?rdoba Fig. 23: UVa Lawn Fig. 24: Reston Figs. 25-28: Historic maps/views Fig. 29: Street hierarchy Fig. 30: Topography Fig. 31a-c: Site axon Fig. 32: Manhole plan Fig. 33: Site explanation Fig. 34: Structural conditions Figs. 35-38: View corridors Figs. 39-42: Grassy filter plane Figs. 43-46: Concrete sand bins Figs. 47-50: Underground cells Figs. 51-53: Regulator houses Figs. 54-60: Rowhouses Figs. 61-66: Condominiums Figs. 67-74: Glenwood cemetery Figs. 75-80: Howard University Figs. 81-88: Hospitals Figs. 89-92: Jerusalem Cardo Figs. 93-97: M?rida Figs. 98-102: Alvaro Siza Figs. 103-107: Ceremonial Axis Figs. 108-112: Lucca Figs. 113-116: Villette Figs. 117-120: Citroen Figs. 121-124: Viaduct des Artes Figs. 125-128: Burnett Park Figs. 129-131: Deutscher werkbund Figs. 132-135: Wind screen Figs. 136-138: Istanbul cistern Figs. 139-140: Market Figs. 141-145: Kimbell Art Museum Figs. 146-150: Northside Park Figs. 151-153: Ellen Wilson Twnhomes Figs. 154-156: Sunrise Place Figs. 157-161: Infill housing Figs. 162-167: Daybreak Grove Figs. 168-171: Rustem Pasa Figs. 172-175: St. Vincent de Paul Figs. 176-179: 202 Island Inn Figs. 180-184: La Tourette Fig. 185: Ellen Wilson program Fig. 186: Daybreak program Fig. 187: St Vincent program Figs. 188-192: General concept Figs. 193-194: Site scheme 1 Figs. 195-196: Site scheme 2 Figs. 197-198: Site scheme 3 Figs. 199-200: Site scheme 4 Fig. 201: Final Presentation Fig. 202: Intervention plan Fig. 203: Intervention axon Fig. 204: Site strategy Fig. 205: Site intervention Fig. 206: around Fig. 207: through Fig. 208: upon Fig. 209: within Figs. 210-215: Slow sand filtration Figs. 216-220: Concrete columns Figs. 221-223: Figure grounds 1 INTRODUCTION Background Critical Influences 2 ?Looking back on the garden, seeing it as it is now, it seems to be almost inevitable that it should be there.? Geoffrey Bawa, on Lunuganga Garden ?To dwell then meant to inhabit one?s own traces, to let daily life write the webs and knots of one?s own biography into the landscape?Man?s habitable traces were as ephemeral as their inhabitants. Dwellings were never completed before occupancy?a tent had to be mended daily?a homestead waxes and wanes with the state of its members?? Ivan Illich: ?Dwelling? ?You need a mix of people to support an economy. That?s how it works.? Eric Nelson, local planner, as quoted in ?The Washington Post,? 3/9/03 ?One must raise the question, then, of how much one?s defense of traditional forms of building houses and cities is, perhaps unintentionally, also a defense of associated patterns of social interaction, including those that reinforce ?traditional? patterns of domination and control? Janet Abu-Lughod: Disappearing Dichotomies ?I discovered quite early in my professional life that it is not the architect who builds meaning into the design of a building; only its users can imbue it with meaning by repetitive, sensual behaviors.? Labelle Prussin: African Nomadic Architecture: Space, Place, & Gender ?We need a way to create possibilities, not outcomes, and a way to learn while we act, not act on what we already presume we know.? Edward Robbins: Culture, Policy, and Production: Making Low-Cost Housing in Sri Lanka ?We might think instead of dynamic models that are inviting of transformations and tolerate spontaneity, that are responsive to change, that are synthetic and made up of systems rather than artifacts, structured by the values, prejudices, and actions of those who live in and near them.? Nabeel Hamdi: Housing Without Houses: Participation, Flexibility, and Enablement ?The overflow is overflowing.? Stephen Cleghorn, of the Washington Metropolitan Council of Governments, on the state of homeless shelters, ?The Washington Post,? 1/23/03 3 Background The quotations on the preceding page are integral to this thesis. Together they form the basis of a critical and theoretical framework for the reinvigoration of a historic site. In the following pages this framework will be further defined within the context of the thesis in order to set up a scenario for their synthesis in the course of design. Why Washington, DC? Washington DC is currently undergoing a remarkable period of redevelopment. Since the suburban flight of the 1960?s, punctuated by the race riots of 1968, the nation?s capitol city has seen little growth outside of ongoing federal institutional commissions. Within this recent historical context, current development is as staggering as it would seem improbable. However, this most recent progress often appears to be unbalanced and inequitable. The assertion that the well-conceived and sustainable growth of a city cannot occur without serious and committed regard for all segments that make up its collective spirit is a sub-theme of this thesis. Furthermore, this thesis asserts that the most pragmatic approach to sustainable development begins with the rebuilding of cities. Washington, DC is both a laboratory of urban problems and a history book of solutions. If sustainable growth is to catch on, Washington may be among the most symbolically important places for it to be approached. Why McMillan? The thesis site was chosen for its obvious dramatic architectural appeal, its location in a varied urban context, its historic meaning to the city it served, and for its 4 curious and potentially central position in the debate over the nature of Washington?s current redevelopment. Based on the most recent and comprehensive site survey and analysis, current predictors point to development of the site that is medium- to high- density office, commercial, and luxury residential; the cost of the site stabilization, the report argues, is prohibitively high for most other uses. More to the point, such costs are what have kept McMillan from being redeveloped thus far. It is this paradox of development that has held the property in trust to a potentially better future and that has made it an interesting choice for an architectural thesis exploration. Furthermore, McMillan?s proximity to some of the neighborhoods hardest hit by unchecked gentrification make it a practical consideration for mixed-use, mixed-income urban intervention. On the urban-suburban polarity Urbanization has always been a curious thing for Americans, something many of us simultaneously cherish and loathe. Jefferson was among the first to identify this unusual moralism of the New World: "I think our governments will remain virtuous for many centuries as long as they are chiefly agricultural; and this will be as long as there shall be vacant lands in any part of America. When they get piled upon one another in large cities as in Europe, they will become corrupt as in Europe." 1 "I view great cities as pestilential to the morals, the health and the liberties of man. True, they nourish some of the elegant arts; but the useful ones can thrive elsewhere; and less perfection in the others, with more health, virtue and freedom, would be my choice." 2 Affection for the natural landscape has been built into our cultural heritage by pioneers and writers alike, helping to propagate the 20 th century myth of 1 http://www.geocities.com/Athens/7842/archives/cities.htm (Thomas Jefferson to James Madison, 1787. Papers 12:442) 2 Ibid. (Thomas Jefferson to Benjamin Rush, 1800. ME 10:173) 5 suburbanization. 3 Such a longing for life removed from the collective body (as represented by the city) would become so commonplace among Americans by the 1950?s that the automobile would make travel to and from the bucolic (and cheap) stretches a certain culturally accepted imperative. The problem with this luxury is that it is rooted in willing self-deception, if not pure fiction. A commuter who takes a Jeep Pioneer or Ford Explorer between her job and home is of course no more pioneer than she is explorer. As with all great stories, many have trouble distinguishing this new concept of ?roughing it? with what is in fact true. So deep has the split between such (mostly fictional) polarities become that it predicts our political leanings: ?large cities?voted for Mr. Gore by a 71% to 26% margin, while small towns and rural areas voted for Mr. Bush by 59% to 38%. 4 What does this mean to architects? Most importantly, architects might look at their craft as an opportunity to build bridges?social, cultural, economic, political, or architectural?wherever possible. This rift between two psyches of the collective spirit of our culture can be healed. By striving to understand this simultaneous desire for the city and the country inside each of us, we can begin to outline what is important in the consideration our built environment. More concretely, we can begin to approach its design as both an exercise of collectivity and independence. We are not as static as pollsters would assume, after all. Creative individualism can be achieved even within the framework of density and the cultural amenities that it brings. This thesis will help set up an exploration of this psychological dichotomy. 3 This affection unsurprisingly influenced the thought of our architects, notably Frank Lloyd Wright, whose Broadacre City sought social equity through radical land redistribution, and in many ways predicted our current settlement patterns. 4 ?Lexington: Steamroller Ashcroft,? The Economist, 3 May 2003, p36. 6 Critical Influences Cradle to Cradle W. McDonough & M. Braungart, 2002 Chapter 3: Eco-effectiveness ?Consider the cherry tree: thousands of blossoms create fruit for birds, humans, and other animals, in order that one pit might eventually fall onto the ground, take root, and grow. Who would look at the ground littered with cherry blossoms and complain, ?How inefficient and wasteful!? The tree makes copious blossoms and fruit without depleting its environment. Once they fall on the ground, their materials decompose and break down into nutrients that nourish microorganisms, insects, plants, animals, and soil?In fact, the tree?s fecundity nourishes just about everything around it. ?What might the human-built world look like if a cherry tree had produced it?? 5 Statement of relevance: Slow sand water filtration is a tree-like operation. Natural input?sand, water, time, and place?yield a natural output. First, the source of water must be close by. The water is stored underground, where it is protected from the varying climate above. The sand that is injected into the cells of water is a clean and naturally-occurring material. The waste from the system of filtration is itself organic, so it may be cleaned and reused without harmful impact. The output, clean water, produces a healthy growing community. It is inherently sustainable and therefore ?eco-effective?. The adaptive reuse of such an organism should be likewise tree-like. Whether they are homes, markets, industry, or institutions, the buildings that grow out of the ?decomposing? McMillan sand filtration site must continue this legacy of sustainable eco-effectiveness, extending the metaphor from physical input to even perhaps socio- cultural output. By populating the site with mixed income housing and other mixed uses, the legacy of life generation can continue. 5 McDonough, W. and Braungart, M. Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things, North Point Press, 2002, p72-3. 7 Dwelling Ivan Illich, 1986 ?To dwell then meant to inhabit one?s own traces, to let daily life write the webs and knots of one?s own biography into the landscape?Man?s habitable traces were as ephemeral as their inhabitants. Dwellings were never completed before occupancy?a tent had to be mended daily?a homestead waxes and wanes with the state of its members?? 6 Statement of relevance: Illich identifies the difference between what it means to be a resident of contemporary rental space and to be a ?dweller,? that is, one who gives physical shape to his or her own environment. He suggests that the limitation of people?s basic rights to dwell may be to blame for the social and psychological malfunctioning of society. More concretely, disparities resulting from the industrial model of politico-economic structure plague our collective sense of well-being, cultural progress, and security. Built environment in this case can be regarded as both victim and accomplice of the status quo and as such must be questioned. We should look instead to examples of models of human settlement and organization that work. This article has continued to guide me ever toward what I love about the built environment, meanwhile cautioning me from the trappings of the status quo, be they political, economic, social, or architectural. The concept of ?dwelling?, which is defined in opposition to the currently accepted notion of housing as the simple provision of units, has been at the root of my interest in housing as a vehicle for the study of architecture?s social mandate. Illich?s ideas are therefore at the root of my thesis explorations as well. His article is a call to resistance. It is an acknowledgement of a problem and an affirmation of the human will that will be necessary to propose its solution. 6 Illich, Ivan. ?Dwelling,? Development: Seeds of Change 1986: 4. p82-4. 8 Housing without Houses Nabeel Hamdi, 1991 Chapter 10: Changing Professional Responsibilities & Training ?We will need to shift our attitudes out of the confines of the master plans, with their singular prescriptive solutions, their reliance on consistency rather than diversity, with all the futures they envision and the guesswork they entail. We might think instead of dynamic models that are inviting of transformations and tolerate spontaneity, that are responsive to change, that are synthetic and made up of systems rather than artifacts, structured by the values, prejudices, and actions of those who live in and near them.? 7 Statement of relevance: The most relevant idea in this article is stated succinctly in the quotation above. I would like this thesis project to be a design problem in dynamic planning. Through a manner of appropriation that may yet be unresolved, the McMillan property could become a laboratory in the teasing out of this sort of problem. Hamdi asserts that architectural education will need to adjust itself from atelier models?which celebrated the isolated genius?to ones that provide students with the real-world tools of facilitation and enablement. The way building might occur in this thesis and the degree to which that process is controlled will be considered in light of this concept of the architect as facilitator. Hamdi also underscores the importance of everyday models in architectural design rather than ?the cult of the new.? This has particular meaning in the context of historic preservation and adaptive reuse. I would like this thesis to rely on precedents which are rooted in a basic vocabulary of elemental building systems, typologies, and techniques. 7 Hamdi, Nabeel. Housing without Houses: Participation, Flexibility, and Enablement, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1991, p180. 9 SITE General Site Description Site & Physical History Local Site Description Neighborhood Description 10 General Site Description The thesis site is located in the upper central portion of the District of Columbia. Positioned on top of the site of a natural spring that at one time provided water to the city, the land was cheaply purchased at a time when it was considered remote farmland. The adjacent McMillan Reservoir is supplied from the Dalecarlia Reservoir in Georgetown (to the west of the site) where water from the Potomac?s Great Falls is directly stored. The site is surrounded by major arterials, institutions, and historic neighborhoods. Washington Hospital Center, Children?s Hospital, and Veterans? Administration Hospital along Michigan Avenue create its northern boundary. To the east, North Capitol Street and Glenwood Cemetery and to the south, the historic Bloomingdale neighborhood form a more residential context. The city?s current water filtration plant and Howard University are its western neighbors. The following diagrams help describe the general site and its context. Figs. 1-2: Site sketches General neighborhood context (by author) 11 General Site Description: Greater Washington, DC context Fig. 3: Aerial photo (Washington GIS Consortium, 1995) Aerial photography: Not-to-scale SITE General Site Description: Aerial photo of site Fig. 4: Aerial photo (DCOP, 2003) 12 Glenwood Cemetery Park View Neighborhood Cloisters/ Park Place Washington Hospital Center/VA Hospital McMillan Reservoir/ New Filtration Plant Bloomingdale Neighborhood Howard University U.S. Army Soldiers Home SITE General Site Description: Local land uses Fig. 5: Local land uses (DCOP, 2003) 13 Sketch Diagram: Not-to-scale General Site Description: Major streets Fig. 6: Major streets (by author) 14 General Site Description: Figure ground Fig. 7: Figure ground (by author) 15 SITE General Site Description: Local amenities Fig. 8: Local amenities (Greenhorne & O?Mara, p2-18) 16 General Site Description: Urban pattern: Density vs. scarcity Fig. 9: Urban pattern (DCOP and author) 17 SITE General Site Description: Parks and Open space Fig. 10: Parks/open space (DCOP, 2003 and author) 18 SITE General Site Description: Urban pattern: Institutional vs. residential Fig. 11: Urban pattern (DCOP, 2003 and author) 19 SITE Sketch Diagram: Not-to-scale General Site Description: Local metro stations Showing 5-minute walking radii from site and stations Fig. 12: Local metro (by author) 20 Sketch Diagram: Not-to-scale General Site Description: Local bus routes Fig. 13: Local bus (by author) 21 Not-to-scale unless noted otherwise General Site Description: Topographical edges Fig. 14: Topo edges (by author) 22 Not-to-scale unless noted otherwise General Site Description: Hard edges Fig. 15: Hard edges (by author) 23 Not-to-scale unless noted otherwise General Site Description: Intersection of grid & landscape Fig. 16: Grid landscape (by author) 24 25 Site history Once farmland in the upper reaches of the District of Columbia, the property that would become the McMillan Reservoir and Sand Filtration site was owned by Howard University until the end of the 19 th century. 1 The Tiber Creek, or Goose Creek, on which Pierre L?Enfant envisioned his waterfront capitol scheme for Washington, DC, 2 ran through the southeast corner of the future site, making it a source of high quality water. This spring supplied water to the U.S. Capitol until the new water purification facilities were opened in 1905 3 . In the now famous Senate Park Commission Plan of 1901-1902, the site was taken into the ?Emerald Necklace? of parks and civic sites. Chaired by Senator James McMillan, the commission took as its mandate the beautification of the lackluster federal city through a series of initiatives that were inspired by the forces of the City Beautiful movement. As part of this plan, the property was converted into a state-of-the-art water purification facility. Costing (in today?s dollar value) around $226 million, 4 the elaborate strategy employed by the McMillan Commission answered Washington?s growing demand for clean water supplies to help combat typhoid fever and other infectious outbreaks. The site was subsequently developed into a public park by the landscape architect Frederick Law Olmstead, Jr. in 1911 as part of the same civic effort. The property served this double function until the outbreak of World War II, when fear of contamination of the city?s water by would-be conspirators led the government to fence the facility from the public. Deemed ?federal surplus? when the 1 Information from interview with Mr. Derrick Woody, D.C. Office of Planning, 3/11/03. 2 Miller, Iris. Washington in Maps, 1606-2000, Rizzoli International Publications ?2002, p56-7. 3 Greenhorne & O?Mara. Final report and recommendations: McMillan Reservoir Sand Filtration Site, January, 2001. Submitted to the DC Office of Planning, p2-7. 4 Ibid, p2-10. 26 slow sand filtration system was replaced with more modern means, 5 the facility was sold to the District government in 1987 for $9.3 million. Still undeveloped and unused, the property has been the focus of no fewer than 12 government-sponsored studies, workshops or public forums regarding its use since the mid-1980?s. In 1991, the property was listed on Washington, DC?s Inventory of Historic Sites. Figs. 17-18: Site photos Above and below ground (by author) 5 ?The (new) plant has a capacity of 164 million gallons per day (mgd) based on filtration rates of two gallons per minute per square foot, and a maximum capacity of 264 mgd. Its treatment scheme consists of screening, chemical additions for flocculation and sedimentation, rapid sand filtration, and chemical additions for chlorination, fluoridation and pH control.? (http://www.dcwasa.com/about/facilities.cfm) 27 Physical history When the U.S. government purchased the 25 acres that would become the McMillan Reservoir?s Sand Filtration site from Howard University, the land was still largely agricultural. After capital expenditures totaling $2.2 million in 1905, the site was dramatically and permanently transformed. 6 In a feat of hydraulic engineering that can appropriately be compared to that of the ancient Romans, the landscape of northwest Washington, DC was changed forever. Through a network of aqueducts stretching from the Great Falls of the Potomac River to the heart of the District of Columbia, fresh water was carried to and stored in the McMillan Reservoir before being pumped into the on-site sand filtration cells. New York engineer Alan Hazen designed the complex, the first of its size, which consisted of twenty unreinforced concrete cells, each approximately one acre in area. 7 The cells were built on a 14-foot vaulted bay, which were formed in situ. Above the vaults, a concrete platform was poured and two feet of top soil added, thus creating the flat surface that would characterize the site to the present day. Two parallel service alleys lined the site and contained the most memorable architectural elements, notably twenty cylindrical sand storage towers. Olmstead?s plan for the public amenities on the site made use of the upper fields for park land, including a dense network of deciduous trees lining the streets and service alleys. The site is today perhaps more characterized by the later intervention of wartime security measures and the shabby vegetation of urban neglect. A barbed-wire fence encircles the site protecting pedestrians from the deteriorating concrete cells and 2,100 6 Greenhorne & O?Mara, p2-7. 7 For more information on the history and design of slow sand filtration, see Appendix A. 28 uncovered manholes on the property; and a form of Boston ivy has overtaken the sand towers, resulting in some structural vulnerability. 8 According to the latest structural analysis, the cells to the south and east have been the most damaged due to the backfill over the Tiber Spring that occurred during original construction 100 years ago. Additionally, the northernmost cells have suffered from ?moderate? deterioration. Only a fifth of the cells are considered ?stable?. 9 The site is bounded on all sides by streets consistent in size and spirit with the L?Enfant plan of Washington, DC. However, it denotes a boundary of that particular pattern of urban settlement and use; the suburbs begin on its northern edge. Figs. 19-20: Site sketches ( by author) 8 Parsons, McMillan Water Treatment Plant, Landscape Survey and Treatment Plan, Prepared for the DC Office of Planning, Historic Preservation Division, 2002. 9 http://www.planning.dc.gov/project/mcmillan_reservoir/index_recommend.shtm (Site Conditions diagram),CCMJ Structural Analysis, June 2001, p13. Local Site Description: Aerial photo Fig: 21: Aerial photo (DCOP, 2003) Not-to-scale unless noted otherwise Approx. 1400 feet Approx. 820 feet 29 Local Site Description: Scale comparison: Great Mosque, Cordoba superimposed (Mosque at Cordoba dimensions: 597? x 427?) Fig. 22: Cordoba (by author) 30 Approx. 1400 feet Approx. 820 feet Local Site Description: Scale comparison: UVa?s Lawn superimposed (UVa Lawn dimensions: 740? x 192?) Fig. 23: UVa Lawn (by author) 31 Approx. 1400 feet Approx. 820 feet Local Site Description: Scale comparison: Reston Town Center at Lake Anne superimposed Fig. 24: Reston (by author) 32 SITE Peters Co. map, 1896 Aerial view of site, 1921 (Cameron, p60) Olmstead plan, 1911 Aerial photo, 1997 Local Site Description: Historic maps and views Figs. 25-28: Historic maps/views (In clockwise order, from top right: Miller, p 103; Greenhorne & O?Mara, p ix; DCOP, 2003) 33 Local Site Description: Street hierarchy Fig. 29: Street hierarchy (DCOP, 2003 and author) N. Capitol S t r e et First S t r e et, NW M i c h i g a n A v e n u e Channing Street Bryant Street 34 Local Site Description: Topography (1 meter contours) Fig. 30: Topography (DCOP, 2003) 35 Local Site Description: Site axonometric Figs. 31a-c: Site axon (top: DCOP, 2003 and author; bottom right: Greenhorne & O?Mara p2-9; bottom left: by author) 36 Plan not to scale Not-to-scale unless noted otherwise Local Site Description: Manhole plan Twenty ?cells? outlined and numbered (Approx. dim.?s: 146? x 307? each) Fig. 32: Manhole plan (Greenhorne & O?Mara, p2-2) 37 Local Site Description: Explanation of sand filtration system Fig. 33: Site explanation (Greenhorne & O?Mara, p2-9 and author) Sand injector Sand ejector 38 Not-to-scale unless noted otherwise Local Site Description: Current structural conditions Topography shown is preexisting Fig. 34: Structural conditions (http://www.planning.dc.gov/project/ mcmillan_reservoir/index.shtm) 39 View of Capitol dome over site Sketch view from the north service alley View of Washington Monument from site Howard University as seen from Channing St. Local Site Description: View corridors Figs. 35-38: View corridors (by author) 40 Aerial view of site (photo: Anice Hoachlander, copyright 1990) General view of filter planes View of typical man- hole Site section at Channing Street (Greenhorne & O?Mara p2-3) 41 Local Site Description: Grassy filter planes Figs. 39-42: Grassy filter planes (by author unless noted otherwise) Sand bins Fig. 1: View into service alley (photo: Anice Hoachlander, copyright 1990) Section Plan 42 Local Site Description: Concrete sand bins Figs. 43-46: Concrete sand bins (top left to right: by author, Greenhorne & O?Mara p2-9, Engineering-Science, Inc. Survey, June 1990) Interior of typical under- ground water filter cell (photo: Anice Hoach- lander, copyright 1990) Site section at N. Capitol Street Section of filter cell Entry to typical filter cell (by author) 43 Local Site Description: Underground filter cells Figs. 47-50: Underground cells (Greenhorne & O?Mara, below: p2-3, and center right: 2-8, unless noted otherwise) Regulator house exterior Site section at typical service alley (Greenhorne & O?Mara, p2-4) Fig. 1: Section of filter cell (credit??) Fig. 1: Entry to typical filter cell (by author) Regulator house exterior 44 Local Site Description: Regulator houses Figs. 51-53: Regulator houses (Greenhorne & O?Mara, below: p2-3, and center right: 2-8, unless noted otherwise) Neighborhood Description: Rowhouses Bloomingdale & Park View neighborhoods Figs. 54-60: Rowhouses (by author) 45 Aerial view by Cameron, p Neighborhood Description: Condominiums Park Place, The Cloisters, & Franklin Commons Figs. 61-66: Condominiums (by author) 46 Neighborhood Description: Glenwood Cemetery Figs. 67-74: Glenwood cemetery (by author) 47 Neighborhood Description: Howard University Figs. 75-80: Howard University (by author, unless noted otherwise) 48 Aerial view by Cameron, p98 Neighborhood Description: Hospitals Washington Hospital Center, Veterans Admin. Hospital, National Rehabilitation Hospital, Children?s Hospital Figs. 81-88: Hospitals (by author) 49 50 PRECEDENT ANALYSIS Section perspective of adaptive reuse Relevance: - Byzantine Cardo two meters below existing grade unearthed to inform new urban connections and amenities. - Superstructure allowed housing con- struction to occur above archaeologi- cal dig; history and present coexist. - ?from the top down? approach lib- erates need to develop total site in one moment; flexibility to grow? - Reuse builds on the heritage of place: Byzantine market and Arab bazaars are united in Jewish quarter Site Precedent: The Cardo: Jerusalem, Israel Bugod, Niv-Krendel, Aronson, 1985 Figs. 89-92: Jerusalem Cardo (Architectural Record, May 1985, p118-123) The numbers: Total area: 22 acres 25 layers of civilization unearthed Byzantine Cardo: 72? wide, 18? col- onnade per side; net: 36? center blvd. Housing: 37 apartments above 2 streets section residential uses from shopping uses Plan of ground level 51 Mixed-use facility reuses existing vaults Plans Relevance: - A respect for history is framed within a participatory, rather than mere observa- tory, experience of it. - Building vocabulary supports the argu- ment: the heritage of place is added upon by a layering that complements the original spirit, suggesting a relationship of the old and new. - Rhythmic composition of the new enclo- sure acts as a background to the ruins. Site Precedent: Museum of Roman Art: Merida, Spain Raphael Moneo, 1980-85 Figs. 93-97: Merida (Progressive Architecture, 6/86) The numbers: Total area: 124,000 s.f. Program: museum, archaeological precinct, cafeteria, workshop, lecture room, library, and offices Construction: brick bearing/concrete core wall Grand gallery: 50? high Longitudinal section 52 Relevance: -Swimming facility was built from 1961- 1966 along the coast of Portugal. The view of the sea is unobstructed because pools are below street level. -Built amid the rocks, the complex inter- weaves the manmade and the natural and uses the existing rock formations to deter- mine its boundaries. Site Precedent: Swimming Pool: Leca da Palmeira, Portugal Figs. 98-102: Alvaro Siza (Sources: Alvaro Siza: Complete Works p) The Numbers: 1 adults? pool 1 children?s pool 1 changing facilities 1 bar. Site plan , floor plan, and elevation View of swimming pool and beach Access to swimming pool and beach 53 Design Sketch View of children?s pool and rock wall General view of Serial gardens Relevance: - The traditions that have shaped the design of Washington, DC are varied but share some essential ideas: - Pedestrian relationship to loci of power by ceremonial axis (enclosed by repetitive vertical elements) - Astronomy, sacred objects, land- scape and/or open space inform axis termination. - Vista is key to urban connections; gateways introduce and orient. Site Precedent: Ceremonial Axis: Teotihuacan, Timgad (Algeria), and Sixtus V Rome Figs. 103-107: Ceremonial Axis (sources: www.archaeology.org/online/features/mexico; Morris, AEJ: His- tory of Urban Form p181; Bacon, Edmund: Design of Cities p143; Kostof, Spiro: The City Shaped p263, and by author) Diagram of Rome before Sixtus V (Bacon) 54 Post-Sixtus V Rome (Bacon) Roman cardo, Timgad (Algeria) Teotihuacan, ceremonial axis View of Teotihuacan?s Avenue of the Dead http://www.archaeology.org/online/features/mexico/ Relevance: - Roman amphitheater converted into mixed-use commercial and residential. - Central piazza takes oval shape from original form of amphitheater. - The heritage of place is added upon by a layering that does not replicate the first use, but converts its form into a new use. - Structural system of original building is reused by a vernacular process of pattern adaptation. Site Precedent: Piazza del Mercato: Lucca, Italy (converted Roman amphitheater) Figs. 108-112: Lucca (Sources: Favole: Piazze d?Italia, p80) Section through typical amphitheater Aerial view of Lucca amphitheater View of market/residences from ground 55 Plan of typical amphitheater Aerial view Relevance: - An overlapped, superimposed grid established by the red follies acts as a datum against which the more am- biguous program contrasts. - Participation with existing urban fabric and natural landscape gives continuity to concept, even through discontinuous building. - Juxtaposition of seemingly natural and manmade systems is a theme. Site Precedent: Parc de la Villette: Paris, France Bernard Tschumi, 1982-83 Figs. 113-116: Villette (Cinegramme Folie: Le Parc de la Vil- lette, B. Tschumi; & www.la-villette.com) The numbers: Total area: 125 acres Follies: 10? x 10?, 120? spacing O.C. Location: 35 minutes NW of Paris Major program: Geode, Cite des Sci- ences (technology museum), Cite de la Musique (music school), Zenith concert hall View of a folly and geode 56 Axon diagram General view of Serial gardens Relevance: - An urban park sited in the former location of the Citroen automobile factory. - Adaptive reuse: the streamlined lay- out of an industrial factory informs the garden?s theme; legacy of hori- zontal movement continues - Regularization of natural amenities into a rational grid sets up dramatic contrast of manmade and natural. Site Precedent: Parc Citroen: Paris, France Patrick Berger, 1992-93 Figs. 117-120: Citroen (A+U) The numbers: Total area: 35 acres 4 themes: artifice, architecture, movement, nature 1985: city purchased land & invited 10 teams to compete for commission Elements: Fountains, canals, framed and oblique vistas, varied landscape Aerial sketch of the Serial gardens 57 Water directs the overall scheme Aerial perspective of greenway & vaults Relevance: - Abandoned railroad viaduct re- claimed by city government and con- verted into elevated greenway, with shops and studios tucked underneath. (Industrial infrastructure converted into mixed-use facility) - Structural expression of the vaulting is celebrated and exposed to the eve- ryday reuse - Urban landscape merges with an imposed natural landscape - Critique: rehabilitation effectively drove existing (poorer) neighbors out Site Precedent: Viaduct des Artes: Paris, France Mathieux, Vergely, Berger, 1992-93 Figs. 121-124: Viaduct des Artes (Architecture, April 1997, p138-42; Detail, June 1996, p. 829-33) The numbers: 1.4 miles of elevated railway 12th arrondissement of Paris 1859: Viaduct erected 1986: city purchased obsolete facility Cost: $16 million Interior view of crafts studio 58 Caf? built into vaulting Relevance: -Rehabilitated urban park combines a plaza with a public park and subtly blends the two while also contrasting them. -The lawn, walkways, and pools layer upon over each other as each is on different ele- vation. -Park?s gradual incline allows for its use as an amphitheater. Site Precedent: Burnett Park: Fort Worth, Texas (rehabilitated urban park) Figs. 125-128: Burnett Park(Sources: GA Document, ) The numbers: (250? by 80?) pools below walkway Seating for 2,000 people if seated on walls, planters, and lawn. The design processes Aerial view of Burnett Park View of granite walkways across lawn 59 Plan of Burnett Park Relevance: - Economically-driven efficiency: engineer- ing aesthetic emerges in early Modernism. - Putting McMillan in its historical context: European architects looked up to American engineers as masters of the new ideology. - McMillan?s original reason-for-being may inform its second use and design: lay- ering of uses, coexistence of park and engi- neering facility, rational ordering, and du- rable materiality. Poelzig: Chemical Factory, Luban Behrens: Gasworks, Frankfurt Photograph of McMillan?s sand towers by Robert Lautman Site Precedent: Deutscher Werkbund: Germany Peter Behrens, Hans Poelzig 1911-12 Figs. 129-131: Deutscher werkbund (Curtis, W.J.R., p102-3 unless noted otherwise) 60 Relevance: - Freestanding reinforced concrete semicir- cular forms that act as wind screens, as well as symbolic gateway, for the ships coming into harbor. - The forms mimic the industrial aesthetic of the port context, but are artistically self referential. - The landscape is rationalized for practi- cality, but without losing a sense of sculp- tural Platonism. Site Precedent: Wind Screen: Rotterdam, Netherlands Maarten Struijs, 1983-5 Figs. 132-135: Wind screen (Berrizbeitia & Pollak, p160-5) The numbers: Total site length: 1 mile Semicircular shells: 80? high 29? diameter 39? spacing Detail of a windscreen Aerial view of Rotterdam?s Caland Canal Windscreens as seen from the water Site plan 61 Relevance: - Underground water storage facility dating from the Byzantine era converted into a dining and music hall. - Underground microenvironment en- hanced by water gives relief from scorching Istanbul summers. - Mixed-use appeal: the mystery and ro- mance of such a facility represent its sus- taining asset. Dining and music facilities built in 1987 View of the pedestrian deck View of columns and water Site Precedent: Underground Cistern Istanbul, Turkey Byzatine, 4th c. AD, renovated 1987 Figs. 136-138: Istanbul cistern (yerbatensarnici.com) The numbers: Total site area: 2.42 acres 336 columns under city grade 80,000 cubic meters of water storage 62 Relevance: - Washington, DC once boasted a network of 5 public markets that, like the McMillan water filtration facility and its gardens, gave the city places of civic use and value: Eastern Market is the last surviving. - Farmers markets, flea markets, and ba- zaars represent places of democracy, like the agora of ancient Athens or Forum of ancient Rome, where ideas are traded as much as goods. - Architecturally, it is essentially a free plan for vendors to display and an environ- ment that is attractive to would be shop- pers Vendor outside of the Eastern Market View of the Grand Bazaar in Istanbul Site Precedents: Eastern Market Washington, DC 1873 Grand Bazaar Istanbul, Turkey 1461 Figs. 139-140: Market (easternmarket.net and cruisesrfun.com) The numbers: Eastern Market: Total site area: approx. 2 acres Vendor area: 50-200 s.f. Grand Bazaar: Total site area: approx. 30 acres Vendor area: 150-200 s.f. (4400 shops in total) 63 Relevance: - Post-tensioned reinforced concrete on a repetitive bay system informs the open space of the gallery. - The tectonic quality of the museum is on display as much as the art, though it does not detract from it. - Natural light is diffused in the vaults by a deflection mechanism. - The timelessness of the form is unmistak- able. Site Precedent: Kimbell Art Museum: Fort Worth, TX Louis Kahn, 1966-72 Figs. 141-145: Kimbell Art Museum (Curtis, W.J.R. p524-5, unless noted otherwise) The numbers: Total site area: 1.3 acres 120,000 s.f. (18% is gallery space) Sixteen 100? x 20? structural bays Four 24? concrete columns per bay View of waterwall and typical structural bay Axon section detail www.arch.columbia.edu Plan, www.arch.columbia.edu Exterior view of arches www.greatbuildings.com Interior at entry, www.greatbuildings.com 64 Relevance: - Much of the sewage plant?s infrastructure was left as part of the park. Some was dug up to expose what was once below ground while other parts were filled in. - Storage tanks were excavated and now scatter the park casting shadows across the open green spaces creating a connection between the river and the wetlands of the park. Site Precedent: Northside Park: Denver, Colorado (converted sewage treatment plant) Wenk Associates Figs. 146-150: Northside Park The numbers: 14 acre park on site of 1930?s sew- age treatment plant. 30,000 yards of concrete demolished 70,000 cubic yards of earth moved View of park?s open spaces Aerial view of original treatment plant 65 View of old foundations View of sculptural elements of park Original site plan Not-to-scale, unless noted otherwise Relevance: - local vernacular of brick row houses is extended to new affordable housing. - variation on a theme: multiple facades dress up uniform plans in an attempt to blend affordable with market-rate units. - Truly mixed-income development: market- rate, submarket rate, and subsidized units - interiors are spare, a reflection of the constrained construction costs, but flexible, leaving room for individual expression. Elevations Site Plan Floor plans The numbers: 1BR: 52 units (560-605 s.f./ea) 2BR: 95 units (783-1250 s.f./ea.) 3BR: 6 units (1250 s.f./ea.) Total site area: 5.3 acres (25du/ac) Project sponsored by HOPE VI grant Rowhouse Precedent: Ellen Wilson Townhomes: Wash. DC Amy Weinstein Associates, 1994 Figs. 151-153: Ellen Wilson Townhomes (CHCHA brochure 2000, and www.dchousing.org) 66 Not-to-scale, unless noted otherwise Shared public alley: blends exterior & interior space with spatial articulation Floor plans Section axon: diverse plans inside of regular townhouse form Relevance: - abstraction of the local vernacular in both plan (bungalow court) and form (Spanish mission style) - clearly articulated thresholds give each unit dignity and presence - porches in front and back: integration of building with landscape - free plan interiors allow for personal ex- pression to counter the uniformity of fa- cades Rowhouse Precedent: Sunrise Place: Escondido, CA Davids Killory Architects, 1991-92 Figs. 154-156: Sunrise Place (Davis, p184-8) The numbers: 2BR: 8 units (760 s.f./ea.) Private patios: 140 s.f. (each house) Total site area: 0.44 acres (18du/ac) Parking: 12 on-site spaces Homeless family interim housing 67 Not-to-scale, unless noted otherwise Relevance: - Top right: units share party wall and yet, are clearly distinguished by independent entries and landscaping. - Bottom left & right: 2 freestanding units share amenities such as parking and court- yard - All three: free plan interiors allow for personal expression to counter the uniform- ity of facades - Character is rooted in local tradition. Floor plans Floor plans Floor plans Common courtyard, see below right Rowhouse Precedent: Infill Housing: Santa Monica, CA Koning Eizenberg Architects, 1987 Figs. 157-161: Infill housing (Davis p169-178, and Jones, Pettus, Pyatok p148-9) The numbers: (St. John?s Hospital Housing, top) 1BR: 1 unit (550-650 s.f.) 2BR: 4 units (750-1050 s.f./ea.) 3BR: 19 units (890-1050 s.f./ea.) Total site area: 0.53 acres (45du/ac) 68 Not-to-scale, unless noted otherwise Rowhouse Precedent: Daybreak Grove: Escondido, CA Davids Killory Architects, 1991-92 Figs. 162-167: Daybreak Grove Source: Davis p184-8, and Jones, Pet tus, Pyatok p132-5. Relevance: - abstraction of the local vernacular in both plan (bungalow court) and form (Spanish mission style) - clearly articulated thresholds give each unit dignity and presence - porches in front and back: integration of building with landscape - free plan interiors allow for personal ex- pression to counter the uniformity of fa- cades Site axon Human scale massing Unit plans: open, diverse, layered thresholds Floor plans The numbers: 2BR: 7 units (730 s.f./ea.) 3BR: 6 units (860 s.f./ea.) Public courtyard: 11,200 s.f. Total site area: 0.84 acres (18du/ac) Avg. income $9,000-$28,000/year 69 Not-to-scale, unless noted otherwise Covered gallery on second floor Inner courtyard facade Second floor plan Plan of block (by author) Relevance: - Exemplifies how private functions can co- exist with and enhance the urban fabric. - Microenvironments are distinguished by landscaping, elevation, and view. - The self-contained block can sponsor mul- tiple uses inside of a single form. - Interior (private realm) functions differ from exterior (public realm) functions, as in a Roman palazzo or Parisian hotel. The numbers: Single room: 75 units (?200 s.f./ea.) Public courtyards: approx. 34300 s.f. Total site area 2.5 acres (30 du/ac) Single-loaded corridors Public W/C facilities S.R.O. Precedent: Rustem Pasha Karavanserai Edirne, Turkey Sinan, Architect, 16th century Figs. 168-171: Rustem Pasa (archnet.org unless noted otherwise) 70 Not-to-scale, unless noted otherwise Relevance: - Urbanistically-contained. - Mixed use building provides a dining hall, drop-in medical clinic, chapel, library, laundromat, barber shop, underground ga- rage, and job counseling offices. - Courtyard scheme provides passive cool- ing and access to direct natural light on both sides of double-loaded corridor. - Energy saving devices: cogeneration and waste heat recovery, thermal storage. Floor plans View at main entry: local vernacular expression makes building familiar. Bell tower is also a wind scoop and exhaust tower. Shelter courtyard: refuge from the world outside. The numbers: Single room: 105 units (225 s.f./ea.) Public courtyard: 9000 s.f. Total site area 0.75 acres (140 du/ac) Double-loaded corridors Basins in each unit + public W/C?s S.R.O. Precedent: St. Vincent de Paul/Joan Kroc Center San Diego, CA Fred de Santo Architect, 1988 Figs. 172-175: St. Vincent de Paul (Arch?l. Record, Nov 1988, p94-97) 71 Not-to-scale, unless noted otherwise Relevance: - Large recesses, which also serve to bring light from multiple directions, diminish the massing of this large building. - Internal courtyard is source of natural light to units on the ?wrong? side of double loaded corridor. Waterfalls and bamboo create sound and sight privacy. - Economical: 197 units on 2/3-acre. - Mixed-use amenities are shared: caf?, recreation, underground parking garage Floor plans Isometric Elevation: massing broken up for scale with deep recesses S.R.O. Precedent: 202 Island Inn: San Diego, CA Rob W. Quigley Architect, 1993 Figs. 176-179: 202 Island Inn (Davis p145-151) The numbers: Single room: 197 units (300 s.f./ea.) Public courtyard: 10?-wide light well Total site area 0.65 acres (300 du/ac) Double-loaded corridors Individual W/C?s built into each unit 72 Not-to-scale, unless noted otherwise Relevance: - Two cellular housing units are basis for ordering module & structure, though grid is departed from in hierarchical spaces. - Light, shadow, silence, and promenade: elements in the architecture?s ?music?. - Mystery/metaphysics: underworld vs. light - Concrete construction with engineering aesthetic. - Self-contained multi-use facility built on a courtyard parti. Relationship of building to ground is dramatized by concrete vaulting . Monk?s cell: Interior of SRO Floor plan Section General view S.R.O. Precedent: Monastery at La Tourette Eveux-sur-l?Abresle, France Le Corbusier, 1957 Figs. 180-184: La Tourette (H. de Soeten: La Tourette & www.arcspace.com) The numbers: Single room: 100 units (114 s.f./ea.) Interior courtyard: 11,250 s.f. Total site area 0.75 acres (133 du/ac) Single-loaded corridors Basins in each unit + 8 public W/C?s 73 74 DESIGN ISSUES & APPROACH 75 Design Issues & Approach This thesis begins with certain issues ? social, physical, and economic ? that do not concern projects of a smaller scope. Some are self-imposed and some are imposed upon the project by the special site conditions and restrictions inherent to McMillan. Some are simple to answer but most are not, and will need to be teased out over the thesis design semester and throughout a professional career. The principal goal of this thesis is to find a re-use and design for the McMillan facility that simultaneously addresses the interrelationship of manmade and natural systems while considering the symbolic value of such a historic property to its constituency and to its neighbors. The way in which this goal is approached says as much about the thesis as the program or the final design conclusion. By delineating some core conceptual issues and attempting to propose approaches that may see to their resolution, a certain first step will have been taken. Issues: What should happen to government-owned property after it has been deemed surplus? How should McMillan be reused or revived? What responsibility does a city have in preserving its built environment and how can its fulfillment be achieved in such a way that enhances its value? How might the first use of a historic property help to define its reuse? Approach: The McMillan sand filtration site is nothing if not mysterious. The unusual relationship the towers have kept with the basso continuum of row housing that line the site?s edges and the unseen but legendarily-discussed underworld below its green fields are two striking examples of what makes this site so interesting. Perhaps as enigmatic are the chain-link fences that encircle it. What must be hiding behind warnings of ?No 76 Trespassing? even as we see that it is clearly benign? The first great design move will be to take the fences down, to let people take what is rightly theirs, and to finally make McMillan public again. The early founders of the site recognized its appeal. Frederick Law Olmstead, Jr. was hired to augment it with landscape amenities that could see to its proper enjoyment. With its original use now obsolete, there are new layers of understanding that can finally be revealed as well. The job of the site design of this thesis is to simultaneously consider the public?s relationship to its rightfully-owned property as it attempts to define what practical role the site will have in the future. Similar properties in older civilizations have been either successfully adapted to new uses or flatly ruined. In a country with few such relics, this opportunity cannot be squandered. For this reason, we might look to the original role of the property itself. The site was indeed not created for public admiration alone, even though it was created, in part, by a movement (?City Beautiful?) that sought to express the beauty of public functionality: courthouses were civic set pieces; dams were assertions of daring, and train stations, symbols of newfound mobility. The site was intentionally beautiful, but it was created foremost in a unified effort to stop the public menace of typhoid fever. Water standards, as with most utilities at the time, were mortally low. The onset of progressivism, through a dedicated public spirit, brought calculated efforts of self- preservation to a city that was regarded to be the center of the nation?s greater civic body. In the reuse of the McMillan property therefore, it is paramount that we consider both sides of the site?s original raison-d?etre; even as we consider the site?s current condition and aesthetic value, we must ask, what can it do for practical public benefit? 77 A potential answer to that question involves an analysis of what we, as a collective body of citizens, regard a city to be. This is a daunting task, much larger itself than the scope of any master?s thesis. But for the sake of direction and perspective, perhaps a quick survey is in order. Following is a brief list of definitions of the term ?city?: ?a center of population, commerce, and culture; a town of significant size and importance,? www.dictionary.com ?a community of substantial size and population density that shelters a variety of non-agricultural specialists, including a literate elite,? Gideon Sjoberg ?a relatively large, dense, and permanent settlement of socially heterogeneous individuals,? Louis Wirth 1 a ?point of maximum concentration for the power and culture of a community,? Lewis Mumford 2 ?a relatively permanent and highly organized centre of population, of greater size or importance than a town or village.? www.britannica.com In this small sample, we see a reoccurrence of the ideas of population density, concentration, culture, and commerce. It is a goal of this thesis to invigorate the historic site with each of these ideas, populating it with a certain critical mass of people (residents and visitors) and selectively concentrating their diverse energies (cultural, commercial, etc.). This form of reuse would involve sweeping redevelopment, but would raise the argument that urban reinvestment is better than current, wasteful suburban development practices. This form of reuse asserts the belief that urban reinvestment is perhaps the 1 Kostof, Spiro. The City Shaped: Urban Patterns and Meanings Through History, Bulfinch Press, 1991, p37. 2 Ibid. 78 most fundamental and essential commitment to sustainable development in both an environmental and socio-cultural sense. Issues: What role might the natural landscape play in an urban intervention? What does Washington?s early history suggest about the importance of natural landscape in urban planning? What role might water play in the reuse of this facility? How might an urban adaptive reuse set up a didactic on the relationship of man to his environment? In what ways might the diverse landscapes of man and nature coexist on a historic site? What responsibility do architects have to protect, nurture, and enhance the natural environment? Approach: There are many important diagrams that must be included in a rigorous analysis of such a site before design can be tackled with the necessary care. Foremost in these involves the interesting role that water has played on the site from its natural diastrophism to its later, manmade condition. Likewise, a study of the circulation systems that informed and maintained the working order of both organisms, human and natural, would reveal much about what a new use of the site may be. As long as these questions remain unanswered, any approach to this special site would be haphazard. The site has been used to channel water for the growth and development of the city since its inception in 1791. The waters of the Tiber Spring that trickled through the site before the McMillan intervention began in 1901 were first used as a natural source for fresh drinking water. When this spring was culverted and subsequently filled over for the new construction, its legacy was continued, inadvertently perhaps, with the water filtration facility. As years passed, the back fill under the unreinforced concrete facility gradually led to a slow deterioration of its structure. One might imagine that the power of nature reasserted its will on the built landscape. 79 Many parallels to archaeology would naturally seem to follow as the site has now essentially arrived at a state of ruin. This thesis is particularly interested, however, in those examples of archaeology that merge with new development. In the Precedent Analysis chapter of this document, close attention should be paid to Rafael Moneo?s Museum of Roman Antiquity in M?rida, Spain; the coliseum at Lucca, Italy which has been vernacularly adapted into an informal mixed-use piazza; and the Roman Cardo in Jerusalem?s Jewish Quarter, which has been redeveloped into an urban collage of multi- use structures. The underlying datum in each of these examples is a natural landscape that first brought about the demise of early built structure, and then contributed to the projects? exceptional reconstitution. The compositions are notable for their timelessness, for interweaving layers of time and space and for the seemingly coexistent natural and built landscapes. This project differs from those examples in that it introduces a third essential site characteristic: water. A site strategy for redevelopment may include a certain reconstitution of the Tiber Spring, with a goal of involving visitors in a didactic presentation of the role of water in the city?s development, and perhaps in instructing the value of nature?s relationship to our built environment. Issues: How might this site help to bridge the larger, symbolic order of Washington, DC with the everyday realm of its citizenry? How might the disparate and seemingly unrelated uses around the McMillan site be connected into symbiosis? How are edges, gateways, and parks defined in other parts of the city and how might those bear upon design decisions at McMillan? Approach: 80 Washington, DC was conceived of, planned, and finally realized at the confluence of the Potomac and Anacostia Rivers to be a great city to serve the great humanistic notion that we can live in a world free of tyranny and oppression and pursue our certain God-given rights. That one of the great stories of the Enlightenment should be sown in the valley of these two rivers has as much to do with chance as with political endeavor. And yet, in the years that followed its birth, the city of Washington has become. In broad strokes of urban design occurring near the turn of both of the previous two centuries the symbolic order of Washington was set. First in 1791, Pierre L?Enfant, a French designer with experience planning Baroque palaces and gardens, laid down a systematic yet whimsical gardenesque city for the new Republic. Later the Senate Park Commission of 1901 would attempt a certain reconstitution of the early spirit of those plans, resulting in a new dedication to the symbolic city center as well as the infrastructures (transportation, waterworks, etc.) that supported it. But the city of Washington is alas much more than a symbolic center. It is a fully functioning, thriving metropolitan city. It has become home to many diverse groups of people. It has become the lifeblood of organizations and institutions, schools and commercial enterprises. The city that was planned to be the great capital city of democracy has been washed in more than two centuries of human experience and has grown to be perhaps more and less than L?Enfant or McMillan might have imagined. As one approaches large scale urban intervention into a city such as Washington, both layers of experience must be evenly assessed. On the one hand, Washington is a symbolic place. It is the figural capital of the modern notion of democracy. But equally important, as home to over a half-million people it is a city with its own history and its 81 own sense of identity. It is this dual character that makes it such a strikingly unique experience and that makes its architectural development complex. Many of Washington?s complexities are shared by the McMillan site. It is bordered on the east by North Capitol Street, the great thoroughfare that connects due North to the center of the U.S. Capitol building, the center of the nation?s caucus. Its former uses, both as a natural source of the Capitol?s drinking water and later as a public mechanism for the city?s water supply, were critical to the well-being and growth of the city. Furthermore, its position on a crest above downtown gives it a clear vantage point of some of the most ceremonial monuments of the symbolic city. In many ways, however, the site is as ?everyday? and profane as any other. The McMillan property sits at the center of a drift of institutional, residential, and industrial uses. 3 Using architectural elements that relate to both the symbolic and profane realms of this diverse city should be a first consideration of any intervention. Ideally, one should strive to make the two realms merge. 3 See Appendix F for a diagram of design scenarios which take this complexity into consideration. 82 PROGRAM Comparative Analysis Considerations & Description Tabulation Ellen Wilson Townhomes Washington, DC (1994) Amy Weinstein Associates Comparative Program Analysis Affordable rowhouse precedent (fig. 185) Program # units sq. ft./each total sq. ft. floor area Site program: Shared playground 1 2000 2000 1.4% Parking 91 100 9100 6.3% 1 Bedroom units 52 580 30160 20.8% 2 Bedroom units 95 1015 96425 66.4% 3 Bedroom units 6 1250 7500 5.2% TOTALS 145185 100% Typical 2BR-unit program: Semi-private front yard 1 200 200 21.3% Living/Dining room 1 130 130 13.9% Kitchen/B'fast Nook 1 144 144 15.4% Bathroom 1 130 130 13.9% Bedroom 2 130 260 27.7% Storage 6 8 46 4.9% Stairs 1 27 27 2.9% TOTALS 937 100% Note: Total site area: 5.3 acres, 25 dwelling units/acre Note: Estimated figures. 83 Daybreak Grove Escondido, CA (1991-92) Davids Killory Architects Comparative Program Analysis Affordable rowhouse precedent (fig. 186) Program # units sq. ft./each total sq. ft. floor area Site program: Public garden 1 360 360 1.5% Shared playground 1 360 360 1.5% Public courtyard 1 11200 11200 46.8% Public laundromat 1 126 126 0.5% Parking 20 80 1600 6.7% 2 Bedroom units 7 730 5110 21.4% 3 Bedroom units 6 860 5160 21.6% TOTALS 23916 100.0% Typical 2BR-unit program: Semi-private front yard 1 105 105 12.3% Living room 1 150 150 17.5% Kitchen/Dining 1 130 130 15.2% Bathroom 1 55 55 6.4% Private patio 1 80 80 9.3% Bedroom 2 91 182 21.3% Storage 2 5 10 1.2% Stairs 1 22 22 2.6% Front porch 1 72 72 8.4% Back porch 1 50 50 5.8% TOTALS 856 100.0% Note: Total site area: 0.84 acres, 18 dwelling units/acre Note: Estimated figures. 84 St. Vincent De Paul/Joan Kroc Center San Diego, CA (completed 1988) Fred A. De Santos, Architect Comparative Program Analysis Single-room-occupancy precedent (fig. 187) Program # units sq. ft./each total sq. ft. floor area Lobby 1 813 813 0.7% Waiting/Interview 1 832 832 0.8% Staff offices 12 158 1900 1.7% Employment counseling o 4 300 1200 1.1% Large multiuse 2 1580 3160 2.9% Chapel 1 660 660 0.6% Clinic 1 1519 1519 1.4% Schoolroom 1 2000 2000 1.8% Laundry (residents') 1 360 360 0.3% Laundry (commercial) 1 272 272 0.2% Kitchen 1 1825 1825 1.7% Dining/Gymnasium 1 3360 3360 3.1% Day-use shelter 1 590 590 0.5% Barbershop 1 100 100 0.1% Family units_temporary 32 200 6400 5.8% Family units_transitional 37 200 7400 6.7% Single men_temporary 18 250 4500 4.1% Single men_transitional 18 250 4500 4.1% TV room/lounge 4 750 3000 2.7% Library 4 220 880 0.8% Computer center 1 560 560 0.5% Courtyard 1 9000 9000 8.2% Restrooms 19 192 3648 3.3% Showers 27 30 800 0.7% Circulation_corridors 9700 8.8% Circulation_stairs 2915 2.7% Circulation_elevators 208 0.2% Storage 1400 1.3% HVAC/Mechanical 15000 13.6% Parking garage 15000 13.6% Garage security office 425 0.4% TOTALS 103927 0.9448 Note: Building footprint is approximately 180' x 185' (0.76 acres), 140 du/ac Note: Estimated figures (+/- 10,000 square feet, or +/-10% accuracy) 85 86 Program Considerations McMillan?s buildable area is limited according to the current underground cell conditions. Where the cells are in good shape, they will be reused accordingly. Where they are deteriorating, they will either be stabilized or demolished. These decisions will be made as site planning progresses. As has been repeatedly asserted, master planning for such a project cannot occur in one independent, singular phase, but will necessarily occur, dynamically, throughout the design process. Based on the size of the proposed site, many uses may fit into the master plan. According to DCOP figures, 131,000 square feet of retail and 70,000 square feet of office space can be included in the new design. The retail will be designed in the form of a bazaar, taking full advantage of the site?s unique underground cells. Entry into this facility might occur at one of the deteriorated points, so that the cells, re-inhabited by vendors? tables, might practically and seamlessly open up to the public realm. The office space might fall to the north, where natural adjacencies such as the institutional buildings belonging to the hospitals are located. Allocations for a public park, an interpretive museum, a public bazaar, and other mixed-uses will ensure that resulting site development accommodates detailed public realm design. Program Description Because of the large site (26 acres, total), the master planning will occur in both of these two stages, once as general zoning and again, as the detailed intervention progresses. The main elements of the general site design are housing, office and retail, and ?public use?, which refers to the recreation center, farmer?s market, gallery/library and park space. The numbers for the office and retail components have been taken 87 directly from the latest DCOP-commissioned study of the McMillan site by Greenhorne & O?Mara. They suggest ?a total of approximately 131,000 SF of gross leasable convenience and personal service retail floor space?including approximately 10,000 SF for drugstore goods?and 9,990 SF of personal service floor space.? Additionally they recommend ?60,000 SF of office development on the subject property?(including) 10,000 SF of neighborhood office space (banks, insurance, medical, legal, etc.). 1 Program Tabulation Site tabulation: Housing??????????????????????????...6 acres Rowhouses 3 acres Single-room-occupancy 1 acre Residential open space 2 acres (including public open space, front yards,& parking) Retail???????????????????????????...2.9 acres Market/Bazaar 1 acre Convenience stores 1.7 acres Drugstore goods 0.2 acres Office????????????????????..?(70,000 SF).....0 - 1 acres High-density office (60,000 SF) Neighborhood office (10,000 SF) Public Use?????????????????????????...16 acres Interpretive museum 2 acres Existing service courts 2.4 acres Park/open space 11.8 acres (including new streets, plazas, & general parking) TOTAL:????????????????????????..?....26 acres 1 Greenhorne & O?Mara, p xvi. 88 PRELIMINARY DESIGN General site concepts Local site strategies Schematic plans: Not-to-scale General Site Concepts: DCOP Site Scenarios (2002) Figs. 188-192: General Concept (http://www.planning.dc.gov/project/ mcmillan_reservoir/index.shtm) - DC Office of Planning has issued these five sce- narios for the possible development and revi- talization of McMillan. - Front-end stabilization for these schemes ranges from $12?$15 million (see Appendix D for cost table). - The District govern- ment favors increased tax base that would come with both residential and office land uses. 89 Local site strategy Scheme 1 Figs. 193-194: Site scheme 1 Scheme 1 site plan Residential - 6 acres Park/Recreation - 4 acres Museum/Preserve - 4 acres Office/ Institu. 1 acre Retail/ Hotel 2 acres N E W S T R E E T N E W P L A Z A Strategic Ideas: - Site is zoned according to local adjacencies. - Strict separation of residen- tial land use from institutional/ offices with creation of a mu- seum/historic preserve and public park. - Museum access occurs with a new thru-street and for pedes- trians, by a new plaza on the north. - Park is utilized by both the residents of the neighborhood as well as by guests to the site. Conjectural axonometric 90 Local site strategy Scheme 2 Figs. 195-196: Site scheme 2 Scheme 2 site plan Res. 2 acres Park/ Recreation 3 acres Museum/ Preserve 2 acres Retail/Hotel Office/Institutional 4 acres N E W S T R E E T Public Park/ Res. Market 4 acres Residential 4.5 acres Strategic Ideas: - This scheme is predicated on the current structural condi- tions of the water filtration cells, making use of deterio- rated cells for park space. - A public park and residential open-air market serve the neighborhoods to the south, while higher density public uses engage the busy intersec- tion of Michigan Avenue and N. Capitol Street. - A museum/preserve is located along the deteriorated pre- cinct. Conjectural axonometric 91 Local site strategy Scheme 3 Figs. 197-198: Site scheme 3 Scheme 3 site plan Museum/ Preserve/ Bazaar 4 acres Res. 1.5 acres Retail/ Office/ Hotel 4 acres N E W S T R E E T Res. 1.5 acres Res. 3 acres new alley Strategic Ideas: - East-west land use zoning with creation of new street and/or greenway between pub- lic buildings to the east and private residences to the west. - Public facilities run along the main arterial of N. Capitol, while private uses front on the secondary (First Street) - Sand towers engage the inte- rior spaces of the hotel, office complex, retail, as well as the museum and bazaar for preser- vation and architectural in- trigue. Conjectural axonometric 92 Local site strategy Scheme 4 Figs. 199-200: Site scheme 4 Conjectural axonometric Scheme 4 site plan Historic Preserve/ Public Park 5 acres Office/ Institu. 1 acre Recreation/ Open space 2.5 acres N E W S T R E E T Res. 3 acres Res. 2 acres Recreation/ Open space 2.5 acres Strategic Ideas: - Respectful of the historic ex- perience of the site, this scheme proposes open space along N. Capitol, reserving development for the quieter First Street corridor. - Any re-use of the east side would be primarily recrea- tional or interpretive, low den- sity, and heavily landscaped. - The museum and bazaar functions would be temporary in nature, designed to capital- ize on the archeological spirit of the site. 93 94 DESIGN CONCLUSIONS 95 In the course of the design semester, a list of ?prepositions? was developed to organize the various conceptual approaches to the site?s structure. The site schemes developed before the realization of the organized structural strategies were deemed to be insufficiently abstract. Without some sort of design logic to begin to move toward a clearer understanding of the architectural scale, no urban intervention at McMillan is really feasible. This is a critique of the DC Office of Planning schemes, which do not account for the architectural experience of the underground vaulted spaces in anyway, or the urban experience in general. This site cannot simply be approached in terms of a traditional bird?s-eye-view master plan. The structural feasibility and architectural space- making must occur in tandem with wider decisions about the site?s reuse. The prepositions developed in abstract structural exercises are ?around,? ?through,? ?upon,? and ?within.? These refer to the specific relationship between the new structure and the existing columns and vaults. For example, ?around? describes new structure that is placed around the existing structure. The final presentation concept is arranged to explain the thesis concisely and with visual impact. The sections which run from the title bar to the right edge are keyed to the site plan at left. The four interventions (around, through, upon, within) are highlighted on the site plan with corresponding colors. The left side gives brief diagrammatic description, while the right side is dedicated to a more in-depth illustration of the spatial/experiential dimension afforded by the intervention strategies. These vignettes illustrate the dramatic opportunities inherent in the McMillan property, and are supported by the abstract axonometric diagrams of structural feasibility, located inside the vertical strips at middle. Not-to-scale Design Conclusions: Intervention: Final Presentation Fig. 201: Final presentation (by author) 96 Final Presentation Board, actual dimension 18ft. x 8ft. (by author) The final presentation concept is arranged to explain the thesis con- cisely and with visual impact. The sections which run from the title bar to the right edge are keyed to the site plan at left. The four in- terventions (around, through, upon, within) are highlighted on the site plan with corresponding colors. The left side gives brief diagrammatic description, while the right side is dedicated to a more in-depth illustration of the spatial/experiential dimension af- forded by the intervention strate- gies. These vignettes illustrate the dramatic opportunities inherent in the McMillan property, and are supported by the abstract axono- metric diagrams of structural fea- sibility, located inside the vertical strips at middle. Design Conclusions: Intervention master plan Fig. 202: Intervention plan (by author) 97 Not-to-scale Design Conclusions: Intervention axonometric Fig. 203: Intervention axon (by author) 98 Not-to-scale Design Conclusions: Site strategy Exploded axon depicting the layers of topographic history at McMillan, culminating in an abstract strategy that weaves them into interrelationship. Fig. 204: Site strategy (by author) 99 Not-to-scale Design Conclusions: Site intervention Exploded axon depicting the intervention strategy in more detail. Columns and vaults are selectively subtracted to make room for new development. Fig. 205: Site intervention (by author) 100 Not-to-scale Design Conclusions: Intervention: around (program: swimming/recreation building) New structure is placed around the existing, thus preserving vaults intact. Fig. 206: around (by author) 101 Not-to-scale Design Conclusions: Intervention: through (program: civic use, gallery/library) New structure is placed through the existing manholes, thus preserving the vaults intact, & only interrupting the underground experience at 19? intervals. Fig. 207: through (by author) 102 Not-to-scale Design Conclusions: Intervention: upon (program: live-work housing) New structure is placed upon the existing (stabilized & reinforced) columns, thus preserving the vaults intact. Fig. 208: upon (by author) 103 Not-to-scale Design Conclusions: Intervention: within (program: landscape, open-air market) Earth and/or water are placed within the existing infrastructure, preserving the vaults intact, and setting up an interrelationship of material and use. Fig. 209: within (by author) 104 Not-to-scale 105 APPENDICES Facilities in US (1991) Sims & Slezak, p4 SSF diagram: Visscher, p69 View of London?s Honor Oak underground reservoir, below (National Geographic 10/03) History: - First slow sand filtration facility de- signed by James Simpson in 1829 (Chelsea Water Works Company, London), Lingireddy, p116 - Gained popular use in US for com- bating typhoid fever. Lingireddy, p116 - By 1940, around 100 slow sand in the US; compared to 2,275 rapid rate (lower labor & land req?s.), Graham, p29-45 - ?Most existing facilities serve com- munities of fewer than 10,000 per- sons? (1991) Sims & Slezak, p1-18 Appendix A: Slow sand filtration history Figs. 210-215: Slow sand filtration (various? see captions) The numbers: First used in the US in 1872. Typhoid fever deaths in Wash, DC over four year periods: before SSF use: 57 per 100,000 after SSF use: 31 per 100,000 Below ground facilities in Connecti- cut prevent freezing, Collins, p81 106 Removal of schmutzdecke, Collins, p87 (a) rectangular layout of vertical bars with lateral ties (a) circular layout of vertical bars with continuous helix (spiral) wrap For Compression: add steel bars in direc- tion of force (stronger than concrete itself) For Tension: ?contain? the concrete from moving laterally (jacket, plate or fiber) For Shear: add vertical bars and lateral ties or spiral; more bars = more reinforcing Notes: - Stabilizing concrete columns is sim- ple: add rebar by drilling, filling, grout, and epoxy (metaphor: dentist?s approach to a tooth cavity) - Epoxy is very strong in compression and has some tensile strength - Tie-rods are a very common manner of keeping an arch from thrusting out- ward once the lateral support or vaulting is removed. (Example: Turk- ish monumental architecture) Appendix B: Structural Reference?Conc. columns Figs. 216-220: Concrete columns (Simplified Design of Concrete; Ambrose, pgs.) The numbers: Min area of steel rebar: 1% of gross column area Max area of steel rebar: 8% of gross column area Vertical spacing of ties? not more than 16X the bar diameter, 48X the tie diameter, or column?s least dim. 107 3 major stress responses in concrete columns Compression Tension Shear Appendix C: Structural Requirements Table Source: Greenhorne & O?Mara, p2-44 108 Appendix D: Site Development Cost Tables Source: Greenhorne & O?Mara, p xxviii and xxi. 109 Appendix E: Community Workshop Goals & Objectives Source: Greenhorne & O?Mara, p xxii-xxiii. 110 Figure-ground plan: Not-to-scale Appendix F: Two models of settlement Figs. 221-223: Figure grounds (Source: by author and DCOP, 2003) - The figure-ground to the right represents current development. - Below are two schemes of hypo- thetical site development: the right side depicts an extension of the ur- ban grid from the south; the left shows an extension of the more sub- urban pattern, as established by the hospitals and campuses to the north. - This exercise reiterates the poten- tial flexibility of the site?s develop- ment as a result of its proximity to a wide range of land uses and pat- terns. 111 112 BIBLIOGRAPHY Abu-Lughod, Janet. ?Disappearing Dichotomies: First-World: Third-World; Traditional- Modern,? 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